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MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF AIR GAP INSULATING PISTON

CHAPTER-01
1.1 INTRODUTION
It is well known fact that about 30% of the energy supplied is lost through the
coolant and the 30% is wasted through friction and other losses, thus leaving only about
30% of energy utilization for useful purposes. In view of the above, the major thrust in
engine research during the last two decades has been on the development of low heat
rejection engines. The Low Heat Rejection (LHR) engine has been given considerable
attention recently as engine builders struggle to find remaining avenues to improve
economy and lower emissions. The concept of air gap insulated piston has been explored
by providing 2mm air gap within the piston by using bolted type piston. The bolted air
gap insulated piston provides complete sealing of air gap necessary for continued
insulation. The design evolved provides high insulation combining adequate durability.
In order to provide high insulation and reliability, proper designing of the air gap piston
has to be ensured. The pistons with 2 mm thickness of air gap are designed with two
different materials. The invar alloy 36 insulation provides betterment in fuel
consumption at normal operating condition than a conventional piston engine and also
the delay period tends to reduce the emissions levels of Hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide. The combustion rate is increased because of insulation and hence there is
reduced vibration and noise level.

1.2 INTRODUCTION ABOUT PISTON


In an IC engines piston is one of the main component. The heat
energy developed by the expanding of gases is transmitted by piston inside
the cylinder.

During this process, some amount of heat is loosed by

absorbing the piston and some other purpose. Approximately one third of the
total fuel energy was converted into useful work and two third has been
lost. By providing insulation on the piston surface the heat loss through the
piston can be reduced. Since the piston is made up of aluminum pistons,
with high thermal conductivity the heat from the piston can be reduced
by applying

thermal barrier

conductivity

is

less

coatings like

ceramics

whose

thermal

and can withstand high pressures and high

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temperatures

in the cylinder.

temperatures

which

These maintain high piston overhead

is favorable for reducing knocking tendency, and to

improve combustion efficiency. The ceramics are zirconium and alumina is


having desirable properties such as good thermal insulation. These coatings
control and manage heat for optimum performance ,by converting energy .

1.3TYPES OF PISTON :
1.3.1Internal combustion engine Pistons

Fig 1 : Internal combustion engine piston


An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the expanding combustion
gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts
downwards through the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is
attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin (US: wrist pin). This pin is mounted
within the piston: unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead (except big two
stroke engines).
The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move in the
connecting rod. A few designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose in both components.
All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the
cylinder wall, usually by circlips.
Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of narrow iron rings,
fitted loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the crown. The rings are split at a point in
the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of
ring are used: the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower rings have
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narrow edges and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many proprietary and
detail design features associated with piston rings.
Pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing
pistons may be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious
benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could
survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y
alloy and Hiduminium, specifically for use as pistons.
A few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal
combustion

engine

pistons

are single-acting.

During World

War

II,

the

US

submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H.O.R. doubleacting two-stroke diesel engine. Although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this
design of engine was not repeated.

1.3.1.1Trunk pistons
Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter. They act both as a piston and
cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, there is also a
side force that reacts along the side of the piston against the cylinder wall. A longer piston
helps to support this.
Trunk pistons have been a common design of piston since the early days of the reciprocating
internal combustion engine. They were used for both petrol and diesel engines, although high
speed engines have now adopted the lighter weight slipper piston.
A characteristic of most trunk pistons, particularly for diesel engines, is that they have a
groove for an oil ring below the gudgeon pin, in addition to the rings between the gudgeon
pin and crown.
The name 'trunk piston' derives from the 'trunk engine', an early design of marine steam
engine. To make these more compact, they avoided the steam engine's usual piston rod with
separate crosshead and were instead the first engine design to place the gudgeon pin directly
within the piston. Otherwise these trunk engine pistons bore little resemblance to the trunk
piston; they were extremely large diameter and double-acting. Their 'trunk' was a narrow
cylinder mounted in the centre of the piston.

1.3.1.2 Crosshead pistons


Large slow-speed Diesel engines may require additional support for the side forces on
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the piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The main piston has a large piston
rod extending downwards from the piston to what is effectively a second smaller-diameter
piston. The main piston is responsible for gas sealing and carries the piston rings. The smaller
piston is purely a mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide and also
carries the gudgeon pin.

Fig 2 : Cross head Piston


Because of the additional weight of these pistons, they are not used for high-speed engines.

1.3.1.3Slipper pistons

Fig 3 :Slipper piston


A slipper piston is a piston for a petrol engine that has been reduced in size and weight as
much as possible. In the extreme case, they are reduced to the piston crown, support for the
piston rings, and just enough of the piston skirt remaining to leave two lands so as to stop the
piston rocking in the bore. The sides of the piston skirt around the gudgeon pin are reduced
away from the cylinder wall. The purpose is mostly to reduce the reciprocating mass, thus
making it easier to balance the engine and so permit high speeds. A secondary benefit may be
some reduction in friction with the cylinder wall, since the area of the skirt, which slides up
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and down in the cylinder is reduced by half. However most friction is due to the piston rings,
which are the parts which actually fit the tightest in the bore and the bearing surfaces of the
wrist pin, the benefit is reduced.

1.3.1.4Deflector pistons

Fig 4 :Two-stroke deflector piston


Deflector pistons are used in two-stroke engines with crankcase compression, where the gas
flow within the cylinder must be carefully directed in order to provide efficient scavenging.
With cross scavenging, the transfer (inlet to the cylinder) and exhaust ports are on directly
facing sides of the cylinder wall. To prevent the incoming mixture passing straight across
from one port to the other, the piston has a raised rib on its crown. This is intended to deflect
the incoming mixture upwards, around the combustion chamber.[1] Much effort, and many
different designs of piston crown, went into developing improved scavenging. The crowns
developed from a simple rib to a large asymmetric bulge, usually with a steep face on the
inlet side and a gentle curve on the exhaust. Despite this, cross scavenging was never as
effective as hoped. Most engines today useSchnuerle porting instead. This places a pair of
transfer ports in the sides of the cylinder and encourages gas flow to rotate around a vertical
axis, rather than a horizontal axis.

1.3.1.5 Steam engines


Cast-iron steam engine piston, with a metal piston ring spring-loaded against the cylinder
wall. Steam engines are usually double-acting (i.e. steam pressure acts alternately on each
side of the piston) and the admission and release of steam is controlled by slide valves, piston
valves or poppet valves. Consequently, steam engine pistons are nearly always comparatively

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Fig 5 : Steam Engine Piston


thin discs: their diameter is several times their thickness. (One exception is the trunk
enginepiston, shaped more like those in a modern internal-combustion engine.) Another
factor is that since almost all steam engines use crossheads to translate the force to the drive
rod, there are few lateral forces acting to try and "rock" the piston, so a cylinder-shaped
piston skirt isn't necessary.

Fig 6 : Early (c. 1830) piston for a beam engine. The piston seal is made by turns of wrapped
rope.

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1.4 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS:

Bore

80mm

Stroke

110mm

BHP

Compression Ratio

16.5: 1

Radius of Dynamometer

215mm

Efficiency of dynamometer

0.8

Type of Loading

DC generator loading

Orifice Diameter

2cm

Co-efficient of Discharge

0.6

Speed of the Engine

1500rpm

Fuel Used

Diesel

Calorific Value

10500 kcal/kg

Specific Gravity

0.836

Piston Material

Aluminum

Table 1 : ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

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1.5 ENGINE PARTS :


1.5.1 CYLINDER HEAD :

Fig 7 :Cylinder Head

In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head (often informally abbreviated to


just head) sits above the cylinders on top of thecylinder block. It closes in the top of the
cylinder, forming the combustion chamber. This joint is sealed by a head gasket. In most
engines, the head also provides space for the passages that feed air and fuel to the cylinder,
and that allow the exhaust to escape. The head can also be a place to mount the valves, spark
plugs, and fuel injectors.
For a four-stroke engine, key parts of the engine include the crankshaft (purple), connecting
rod (orange), one or more camshafts (red and blue), and valves. For a two-stroke engine,
there may simply be an exhaust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve system. In both types
of engines there are one or more cylinders (grey and green), and for each cylinder there is
aspark plug (darker-grey, gasoline engines only), a piston (yellow), and a crankpin (purple).
A single sweep of the cylinder by the piston in an upward or downward motion is known as a
stroke. The downward stroke that occurs directly after the air-fuel mix passes from
thecarburetor or fuel injector to the cylinder (where it is ignited) is also known as a power
stroke.

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A Wankel engine has a triangular rotor that orbits in an epitrochoidal (figure 8 shape)
chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation (intake, compression, power,
and exhaust) take place in what is effectively a moving, variable-volume chamber.

1.5.2Valves
All four-stroke internal combustion engines employ valves to control the admittance of fuel
and air into the combustion chamber. Two-stroke engines use ports in the cylinder bore,
covered and uncovered by the piston, though there have been variations such as exhaust
valves.
1.5.2.1 Piston engine valves
In piston engines, the valves are grouped into 'inlet valves' which admit the entrance of fuel
and air and 'outlet valves' which allow the exhaust gases to escape. Each valve opens once per
cycle and the ones that are subject to extreme accelerations are held closed by springs that are
typically opened by rods running on a camshaft rotating with the engines' crankshaft.
1.5.2.2 Control valves
Continuous combustion enginesas well as piston enginesusually have valves that open
and close to admit the fuel and/or air at the startup and shutdown. Some valves feather to
adjust the flow to control power or engine speed as well.

1.5.3 Exhaust systems


Internal combustion engines have to effectively manage the exhaust of the cooled combustion
gas from the engine. The exhaust system frequently contains devices to control pollution,
both chemical and noise pollution. In addition, for cyclic combustion engines the exhaust
system is frequently tuned to improve emptying of the combustion chamber. The majority of
exhausts also have systems to prevent heat from reaching places which would encounter
damage from it such as heat-sensitive components, often referred to as Exhaust Heat
Management.
For jet propulsion internal combustion engines, the 'exhaust system' takes the form of a high
velocity nozzle, which generates thrust for the engine and forms a colimated jet of gas that
gives the engine its name.

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1.5.4 Cooling systems


Combustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this transfers to the walls of the
engine. Failure will occur if the body of the engine is allowed to reach too high a
temperature; either the engine will physically fail, or any lubricants used will degrade to the
point that they no longer protect the engine. The lubricants must be clean as dirty lubricants
may lead to over formation of sludge in the engines.
Cooling systems usually employ air (air-cooled) or liquid (usually water) cooling, while some
very hot engines using radiative cooling (especially some rocket engines). Some high-altitude
rocket engines use ablative cooling, where the walls gradually erode in a controlled fashion.
Rockets in particular can use regenerative cooling, which uses the fuel to cool the solid parts
of the engine.

1.5.5 Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines. It is located in a cylinder and is made gastight by piston rings. Its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to
the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In two-stroke engines the piston also
acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.

1.5.6 Propelling nozzle


For jet engine forms of internal combustion engines, a propelling nozzle is present. This takes
the high temperature, high pressure exhaust and expands and cools it. The exhaust leaves the
nozzle going at much higher speed and provides thrust, as well as constricting the flow from
the engine and raising the pressure in the rest of the engine, giving greater thrust for the
exhaust mass that exits.

1.5.7 Crankshaft
Most reciprocating internal combustion engines end up turning a shaft. This means that the
linear motion of a piston must be converted into rotation. This is typically achieved by a
crankshaft.

1.5.8 Flywheels
The flywheel is a disk or wheel attached to the crank, forming an inertial mass that stores
rotational energy. In engines with only a single cylinder the flywheel is essential to carry
energy over from the power stroke into a subsequent compression stroke. Flywheels are
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present in most reciprocating engines to smooth out the power delivery over each rotation of
the crank and in most automotive engines also mount a gear ring for a starter. The rotational
inertia of the flywheel also allows a much slower minimum unloaded speed and also
improves the smoothness at idle. The flywheel may also perform a part of the balancing of
the system and so by itself be out of balance, although most engines will use a neutral balance
for the flywheel, enabling it to be balanced in a separate operation. The flywheel is also used
as a mounting for the clutch or a torque converter in most automotive applications.

1.5.9 Starter systems


All internal combustion engines require some form of system to get them into operation.
Most piston engines use a starter motor powered by the same battery as runs the rest of the
electric systems. Large jet engines and gas turbines are started with a compressed air
motor that is geared to one of the engine's driveshafts. Compressed air can be supplied from
another engine, a unit on the ground or by the aircraft's APU. Small internal combustion
engines are often started by pull cords. Motorcycles of all sizes were traditionally kickstarted, though all but the smallest are now electric-start. Large stationary and marine engines
may be started by the timed injection of compressed air into the cylinders or occasionally
with cartridges. Jump starting refers to assistance from another battery (typically when the
fitted battery is discharged), while bump starting refers to an alternative method of starting by
the application of some external force, e.g. rolling down a hill.

1.5.10 Heat shielding systems


These systems often work in combination with engine cooling and exhaust systems. Heat
shielding is necessary to prevent engine heat from damaging heat-sensitive components. The
majority

of

older

cars

use

simple

steel

heat

shielding

to

reduce thermal

radiation and convection. It is now most common for modern cars are to use aluminium heat
shielding which has a lower density, can be easily formed and does not corrode in the same
way as steel. Higher performance vehicles are beginning to use ceramic heat shielding as this
can withstand far higher temperatures as well as further reductions in heat transfer.

1.5.11 Lubrication systems


Internal combustions engines require lubrication in operation that moving parts slide
smoothly over each other. Insufficient lubrication subjects the parts of the engine to metal-tometal contact, friction, heat build-up, rapid wear often culminating in parts becoming friction
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welded together e.g. pistons in their cylinders. Big end bearings seizing up will sometimes
lead to a connecting rod breaking and poking out through the crankcase.
Several different types of lubrication systems are used. Simple two-stroke engines are
lubricated by oil mixed into the fuel or injected into the induction stream as a spray. Early
slow-speed stationary and marine engines were lubricated by gravity from small chambers
similar to those used on steam engines at the time with an engine tender refilling these as
needed. As engines were adapted for automotive and aircraft use, the need for a high powerto-weight ratio led to increased speeds, higher temperatures, and greater pressure on bearings
which in turn required pressure-lubrication for crank bearings and connecting-rod journals.
This was provided either by a direct lubrication from a pump, or indirectly by a jet of oil
directed at pickup cups on the connecting rod ends which had the advantage of providing
higher pressures as the engine speed increased.

1.5.12 Control systems


Most engines require one or more systems to start and shut down the engine and to control
parameters such as the power, speed, torque, pollution, combustion temperature, and
efficiency and to stabilise the engine from modes of operation that may induce self-damage
such as pre-ignition. Such systems may be referred to as engine control units.
Many control systems today are digital, and are frequently termed FADEC (Full Authority
Digital Electronic Control) systems.

1.5.13 Diagnostic systems


Engine On Board Diagnostics (also known as OBD) is a computerized system that allows for
electronic diagnosis of a vehicles' powerplant. The first generation, known as OBD1, was
introduced 10 years after the U.S. Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1970 as a way to
monitor a vehicles' fuel injection system. OBD2, the second generation of computerized onboard diagnostics, was codified and recommended by the California Air Resource Board in
1994 and became mandatory equipment aboard all vehicles sold in the United States as of
1996.

1.6 LOW HEAT REJECTION ENGINE :


The thermal barrier coated engines are otherwise known as low heat rejection (LHR)
engines. Due to the insulation of the cylinder wall the heat transfer through the cylinder walls
to the cooling system is reduced which change the combustion characteristics of the diesel
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engine. To know the changes during combustion the steady-state LHR engines operation
have been studied by applying either the first or second law of thermodynamics. The state of
the art of the thermal barrier coating is the plasma spray zirconia. In addition, other material
systems have been investigated for the next generation of TBC(Thermal Barrier Coating)
In a normal diesel engine, about thirty percent of the total energy is rejected to the
coolant. The low heat rejection concept is based on suppressing this heat rejection to the
coolant and recovering the energy in the form of useful work. The purpose of this project is to
increase the performance of the engine and improved the fuel economy resulting from
thermal barrier Invar plate for the performance in the diesel engine application. Invar over the
piston increases the temperature over the inside the combustion chamber and reduces the heat
rejection to the atmosphere. Also the emissions of HC and CO are reduced to a great extent
while the emissions of NOX are increased due to higher combustion temperature. Various
method of reducing NOX emissions will be adopted. Such as retarding the fuel injection
timing, lowering the intake temperature, lower compression ratio. Thus, the LHR engine was
tested for two different injection timings at Crank angle before top dead centre (BTDC), with
the same engine Speeds and load conditions. The results showed that the BSFC and NOx
emissions were reduced respectively by retarding the Injection timing.
A special class of experimental prototype internal combustion piston engines has been
developed over several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing heat loss.
These engines are variously called adiabatic engines; due to better approximation of adiabatic
expansion; low heat rejection engines, or high temperature engines. They are generally piston
engines with combustion chamber parts lined with ceramic thermal barrier coatings. Some
make used of pistons and other parts made of titanium which has a low thermal
conductivity and density. Some designs are able to eliminate the use of a cooling system and
associated parasitic losses altogether. Developing lubricants able to withstand the higher
temperatures involved has been a major barrier to commercialization.

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CHAPTER 2
2.1 LITERATURE SUMMARY AND WORK :
To Understand the scope of the project , the literature survey is a must . Here in this
project we had used the piston of KIRLOSKAR DIESEL ENGINEThe literature survey for
this project is as follows .

2.1.1 INTRODUCTION

Fig 8 :Nicholas August Otto, (German) Inventor of Piston (1866)


A piston is

component

of reciprocating

engines,

reciprocating pumps, gas

compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving
component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine,
its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via
a piston rod and/orconnecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred
from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the
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cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in
the cylinder wall.

2.2 PROBLEMS OF PISTON FAILURE:


The main challenge for the free-piston engine is engine control, which can only be
said to be fully solved for single piston hydraulic free-piston engines. Issues such as the
influence of cycle-to-cycle variations in the combustion process and engine performance
during transient operation in dual piston engines are topics that need further investigation.
Crankshaft engines can connect traditional accessories such as alternator, oil pump, fuel
pump, cooling system, starter etc.
Rotational movement to spin conventional automobile engine accessories such as alternators,
air conditioner compressors, power steering pumps, and anti-pollution devices could be
captured from a turbine situated in the exhaust stream.
Cracks in the top of a piston (crown) in petrol engines are usually the result of excessive
combustion pressure caused by excessive compression or over advanced ignition timing.
These conditions cause excessive combustion pressure, which in turn causes the piston crown
to crack as the piston is operating outside the pressure it was designed to work under. In
diesel engines this damage can be caused by a condition called thermal fatigue.

Thermal fatigue occurs when an engine is consistently operated under full heavy load
followed by light load. The constant drastic changes in combustion temperature eventually
results in thermal cracks of the piston crown.
Piston skirt cracking is usually a result of constant excessive loading of the engine and high
mileage fatigue or in some cases faulty piston design. The manufacturer usually corrects the
later by supplying a superseded part.
Incorrect fitting of pistons to rods can cause stress fractures, which develop into serious skirt
cracking early in the life of a repaired engine. Piston skirt cracking is not a common engine
fault and is almost totally eliminated out of modern piston design
Cracked ringlands are usually caused in detonation or pre-ignition. Detonation causes
excessive combustion temperature and pressure. By design the ring lands are one of the
weaker positions on a piston and can crack under this type of stress. The land can completely
crack away in sections. Rings will also crack under these conditions.
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2.3 PREVIOUSLY PUBLISHED JOURNALS ON AIR GAP


PISTON :
1. Structural and Thermal Analysis of Conventional and Air Gap Insulated Piston for
Low Heat-Rejection Engines by authors PAVANI KUMARI, DR.SUNEEL
DONTHAMSETTY. Published on February-2015
2. Thermal Analysis of Piston for the Influence on Secondary motion by authors Vinay
V. Kuppast, Dr.S.N.Kurbet, H.D.Umeshkumar, Adarsh B.C published on May - June
2013
3. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF
LOW HEAT REJECTION ENGINE USING AIR GAP INSULATION by authors M.
IRSHAD AHMED, C. THAMODHARAN, P. RAMAN published on June-July 2013.

4. COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT VERSIONS OF LOW HEAT


REJECTION DIESEL ENGINES WITH MOHR OIL BASED BIO-DIESEL by
authors T. Ratna Reddy, M.V.S. Murali Krishna, Ch. Kesava Reddy & P.V.K.Murthy
published on October-2012.
5. The Performance Study of Alcohol in an Air Gap Ceramic Insulated Diesel Engine
with Brass Piston by authors S Sunil Kumar Reddy, V.Pandurangadu, M.Venkat Rao
published on June-2014.
6. Design Analysis and Optimization of Piston using CATIA and ANSYS by authors
Ch.Venkata Rajam, P.V.K.Murthy, M.V.S.Murali Krishna, G.M.Prasada Rao
published on January-2013.

7. Design Analysis and Optimization of Internal Combustion Engine Piston using CAE
tool ANSYS by authors Aditya Kumar Gupta, Vinay Kumar Tripathi published on
November 2014 .

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CHAPTER-03
3.1 INTRODUCTION ABOUT INVAR MATERIAL :
Invar, also known generically as FeNi36 (64FeNi in the US), is a nickel
iron alloy notable for its uniquely low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE or ). The
name Invar comes from the word invariable, referring to its relative lack of expansion or
contraction with temperature change. It was invented in 1896 by Swiss physicist Charles
douard Guillaume. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920 for this discovery, which
enabled improvements in scientific instruments.
Like other nickel/iron compositions, Invar is a solid solution; that is, it is a single-phase alloy,
consisting of around 36% nickel and 64% iron.
Common grades of Invar have a coefficient of thermal expansion (denoted , and measured
between 20 C and 100 C) of about 1.2 106 K1 (1.2 ppm/C), while ordinary steels have
values of around 1115 ppm. Extra-pure grades (<0.1% Co) can readily produce values as
low as 0.620.65 ppm/C. Some formulations display negative thermal expansion (NTE)
characteristics. Though it displays high dimensional stability over a range of temperatures, it
does have a propensity tocreep.

Fig 9 : The coefficient of thermal expansion of nickel/iron alloys is plotted here against the
nickel percentage (on a mass basis) in the alloy. The sharp minimum occurs at the Invar ratio
of 36% Ni.

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3.1.1 APPLICATIONS :
Invar is used where high dimensional stability is required, such as precision instruments,
clocks,

seismic

creep

gauges,

television shadow-mask frames,[3] valves

in

motors,

and antimagnetic watches. In land surveying, when first-order (high-precision) elevation


leveling is to be performed, the Level staff (leveling rod) used is made of Invar, instead of
wood, fiberglass, or other metals. Invar struts were used in some pistons to limit their thermal
expansion inside their cylinders.

3.1.2 VARIATIONS :
There are variations of the original Invar material that have slightly different coefficient of
thermal expansion such as:

Inovco, which is Fe33Ni4.5Co and has an of 0.55 ppm/C (from 20100 C).

FeNi42 (for example NILO alloy 42), which has a nickel content of 42% and
5.3 ppm/C, is widely used as lead frame material for electronic components, integrated
circuits, etc.

FeNiCo alloysnamed Kovar or Dilver Pthat have the same expansion behaviour
as borosilicate glass, and because of that are used for optical parts in a wide range of
temperatures and applications, such as satellites.

3.1.3 EXPLANATION OF ANAMALOUS PROPERTIES :


All the iron-rich face-centered cubic FeNi alloys show Invar anomalies in their measured
thermal and magnetic properties that evolve continuously in intensity with varying alloy
composition. Scientists had once proposed that Invar's behavior was a direct consequence of
a high-magnetic-moment to low-magnetic-moment transition occurring in the face centered
cubic FeNi series (and that gives rise to the mineral antitaenite); however, this theory was
proven incorrect.[5] Instead, it appears that the low-moment/high-moment transition is
preceded by a high-magnetic-moment frustrated ferromagnetic state in which the FeFe
magnetic exchange bonds have a large magneto-volume effect of the right sign and
magnitude to create the observed thermal expansion anomaly.
Few people realize that the nickel-iron alloy, Invar, plays a crucial part in so many of
their household controls and office appliances. This role was established soon after its
discovery 100 years ago in 1896. Invar is the forerunner of a family of controlled expansion
nickel-iron alloys which form the essential part of bimetals and thermostats. Invar itself is
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still used today in vast numbers of household appliances, from electric irons and toasters to
gas cookers and fire safety cutoffs. In the office, computer terminals and TV screens make
extensive use of Invar and other Ni-Fe alloys for shadow masks, frames, and cathode ray tube
gun parts.
Other applications for these special alloys are continuing to be found in industry for advanced
electronic components, filters in mobile phone networks and even as tank membranes for
massive liquefied natural gas transport ships.

3.1.4 DISCOVERY AND NOBEL PRIZE :


When Invar was discovered in 1896, its unique property of low and linear expansion over a
wide temperature range allowed the production of effective bimetals which could be used in
safety cut-off devices for gas cookers and heaters. For his work on the nickel-iron system and
the discovery of Invar, Charles Edouard Guillaume of Imphy was awarded a Nobel prize for
Physics early in the 20th century.
One of the traditional uses for Invar has been for the thermostat of electric immersion heaters,
used for a variety of domestic and commercial water heating systems. Operation of the
thermostat is based upon differential expansion between a brass tube and an inner Invar rod,
the resulting movement being used to actuate a microswitch. The set temperature is
commonly adjustable in the range between 48-83C.

3.1.5 PHYSISCAL PROPERTIES :


Invar is a 36% nickel iron alloy which has the lowest thermal expansion among all metals and
alloys in the range from room temperature up to approximately 230C. The Invar alloy is
ductile and easily weldable, and machinability is similar to austenitic stainless steel. It does
not suffer from stress corrosion cracking.
The mean coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of Invar from 20-100C is less than 1.3 x
10-6C-1. The Curie point is 230C, and density is 8.1 kg.m-3.

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3.2 Invar Alloy Properties


(Also know as Invar 36, NILO 36, Pernifer 36, and Invar Steel)

TABLE 2 :Invar Alloy Physical Properties


Density

lb/cu in

0.291
8.05

Specific Gravity
Curie Temp

Melting Point

Electrical Resistivity

Thermal Conductivity

Specific Heat

Thermal Expansion

535

279

2600

1427

Micro-ohm-cm

84

Micro-ohm-cm

495

W/cm C

0.10

BTU-in/sq. ft-hr-

72.6

Cal/g- C

0.123

BTU/lbm- F

0.123

ppm/F (75F to 842F)

4.9

ppm/C (25C to 450F)

8.9

TABLE 3 :Invar Alloy Mechanical Properties


Ksi

75

MPa

518

Ksi

40

MPa

276

Elongation

% in 2 in.

34

Typical Hardness Ann.

Rockwell

HRB 80

Modulus of Elasticity

Mpsi

20.5

kMPa

141

Tensile Strength

Yield Strength

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TABLE 4 :Invar Alloy Chemistry maximum % unless noted


Iron

Bal

Nominal Nickel

36

Nominal Cobalt

0.5

Carbon

0.05

Silicon

0.40

Sulfur

0.015

Chromium

0.25

TABLE 5 :Invar Alloy Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion


Degree C

Degree C

30-100

0.8 - 1.6

30-450

8.5 - 9.2

30-150

--

30-475

--

30-200

1.3 - 2.1

30-500

9.7

30-250

--

30-525

--

30-300

4.92

30-550

--

30-325

--

30-600

11.4

30-350

6.2 - 7.0

30-700

12.7

30-375

--

30-800

13.5

30-400

7.8

30-900

13.9

30-425

--

30-1000

--

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CHAPTER-04
4.1 AIR GAP PISTON :
Air gap insulated pistons are generally used in diesel engines to keep the combustion
chamber at optimum high temperature. The air gap in between piston crown and piston body
has low thermal conductivity. Due to this, the temperature in the piston crown is high, when
compared to conventional piston. Due to this surface temperature of the combustion chamber
is very high, the air inducted into the combustion chamber is rapidly exposed to high
temperature and it is more than the conventional piston. When the air is inducted to the
combustion chamber its temperature is raised because of the average temperature of the
combustion chamber is raised. Due to this the fuel which is injected in to the combustion
chamber attains the self ignition temperature quickly and so the combustion occurs smoothly.
The pressure rise in the uncontrolled combustion is very less and the maximum temperature
of the cycle is comparatively less. The complete burning of fuel occurs smoothly in the
controlled phase. K. Kumarasekaran et al 1 made a novel design of an air gap insulated piston
has been proposed which is expected to give a larger life compared to the existing designs.
The new composite piston is made of a crown piece which is fitted to the base of a piston
through a gasket by an interference fitting and locked by oral shaped riveted radially

Fig 10: Air Gap Piston


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The air gap piston has a conventional skirt and ring pack together with a crown piece
whose contact with the piston body is arranged to provide adequate mechanical strength with
the minimum of conductive heat transfer. At relatively low temperatures, heat transmission
across the air gap is controlled by conduction and convection at a very low level. However, as
the temperature of the crown rises, radiative heat transfer becomes predominant, and in the
most advanced designs special precautions have to be taken to minimize this. From the
operational viewpoint the location of the principal insulating region in the piston is very
important. According to the principles set out. If the insulation can be situated above the ring
pack later can operate at normal, or even reduced, temperature relative to an insulated piston.

4.2 Some of the merits by using air gap insulated piston are:
4.2.1 Reduction of Delay Period: Due to the average temperature in combustion chamber
increases, the air temperature which is inducted into the chamber also increases which helps
the fuel to attain self ignition temperature quickly and mixes with air readily and atomized
easily.
4.2.2 Reducing the Emission: As we know that if the delay period is lowered, the complete
combustion occurs smoothly which results in reduction of emission.. The overall combustion
is dominated by the controlled phase for combustion. The premixed combustion resulting
from the shorter delay period, lower the CO, HC and SMOKE emission and even reduces the
particulate emissions.
4.2.3 Reduction in Noise level: It is clear that the overall combustion is dominated by the
controlled phase of combustion. So the abnormal pressure rise due to uncontrolled
combustion is minimized and the knocking is reduced. This helps engine to run smoothly
without noise.
4.2.4 Fuels with higher viscosity can be used: The air inducted during the suction stroke is
exposed to the walls of the combustion chamber. This raises the air temperature that helps the
atomization and mixing fuels. So, the fuels with high viscosity can also be used.
4.2.5 Increase in thermal efficiency: The conduction through the piston is desirably
reduced. This increases the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

4.3 MANUFACTURING OF PISTON


The manufacturing process of pistons has changed considerably since the inception of the
internal combustion motor. Modern piston manufacturing is fully automated with little or no
human intervention. This is not the case with JP Pistons. JP Pistons strength lies in our
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ability to manufacture very low numbers of pistons at a time (for example, 10-20). This
ability means that we do not, and cannot, compete with the massive automated facilities of
the manufacturers of mass produced pistons for modern vehicles. It also means that they
cannot do what we do either. What is laid out below is the way that we make pistons. We use
many modern manufacturing processes, but also older methodologies which ensures our
position as a niche manufacturer.

4.3.1 Foundry
The foundry is the beginning of the piston. At the foundry the die is prepared by heating it to
operating temperature for approximately one hour. This process allows the die to readily
accept the molten material when it is poured.

Fig 11 : METAL POURING INTO CAST

The material used is a 10% silicon content aluminium.

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Fig 12 : DIE USED IN CASTING


The dies used are 5 piece and three piece. These dies are made from cast iron with steel
inserts for the gudgeon pin holes and the cores. The cores dictate the placement of the
gudgeon pin and can be located to give offset pins or square pins

Fig 13 : PROCESS OF REMOVAL


The process starts by heating the material to 700 degrees Celsius. This is well above the
melting point of the aluminium, but below its boiling point. The material is then scooped up
with a ladle from the crucible (the pot that holds the molten material). This is then poured
into the die through the sprue. The material is then allowed to cool before it is removed from
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the die and placed into a bin of hot water. This water is used to facilitate a more even settling
of the hot metal. After the castings have had time to cool they are placed into a heat treatment
plant overnight. This process tempers the casting and ensures the piston will have improved
qualities.
After it is removed from the heat treatment the casting has its runner removed.
This process takes little time and is fully automated.

Fig 14 : RUNNER

4.3.2 PIN BORING


At this stage of the piston manufacturing process the casting has the gudgeon pin hole rough
machined and the locating bung machined. The bung . This process is where the casting is
machined on the base to allow placement of the casting in other machines. This is carried out
on a simple lathe.

Fig 15 : PIN BORING


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Pin boring is done in conjunction with the bung turning, as one casting is removed from
having the bung face machined it is placed on the pin borer. The pin borer is only a rough
machining process which allows the reamer to enter the gudgeon hole later.

4.3.3 CNC Turning


Turning of the casting is carried out on CNC (Computer Numeric Control) machinery.
This equipment is the most accurate and fastest available for this application with very tight
tolerances and extremely fast spindle speeds. The castings are placed in the lathe on a bung
and held in place by a solid rod through the gudgeon pin hole. A draw bolt is activated in the
chuck which draws the rod toward the chuck and holds the piston in place.
The lathe is then started and the machining cycle begun. This cycle is programmed
into the lath in a basic language called G-Code (this code is not the only one available). GCode has basic commands to tell the lathe to move to certain positions (X,Y,Z co-ordinates),

Fig 16 : CNC MACHINING


at particular spindle speeds (eg S2500 means spindle speed 2500rpm), at particular feed rates
(eg G01; rapid traverse) and other commands such as M01 (repeat programme) and
others. As you can see this is a simple system to learn and implement. After the piston is
machined it is removed from the lathe and the part number stamped on the crown (top) of the
piston.
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Fig 17 : FINISHING PROCESS

The piston is now ready for the finishing processes.

4.4 FINISHING PROCESS


The first stages of the finishing process include drilling, slotting, valve and crank relieving.
4.4.1Drilling
Drilling includes all oil holes in places such as the gudgeon pin bosses and oil ring grooves.
4.4.2 Slotting
Slotting is where slots are placed in the skirt or in the oil ring groove.
4.4.3 Valve relieving
This process is done on a mill and invloves setting the machine up for the process, choosing
the correct cutter and completing the job. Since there are so many different types of valve
reliefs it is impossible to have a specialised machine set up to do one job.
4.4.4 Crank relieving
Crank releiving is carried out on a specialised machine which scallops the skirt of the piston
to the required shape and depth by using two opposed cutters placed on a common shaft.

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4.4.5 Grinding
This process involves the final size being machined on the piston. The grinder machines the
skirt of the piston only and in the majority of cases is cam ground. Cam grinding ensures the
piston will "grow" evenly in the bore of the engine. A perfectly round piston will expand
unevenly during use because of the uneven placement of material in the casting (gudgeon pin
bosses and ribbing used for strenghtening).

Fig 18 : Grinding

4.4.6 Reaming :
The final machining process for the piston is that of reaming. This process involves the piston
being placed in a bath of oil and reamed at different sizes to reach the final size required.
Since the pin boring process is only rough it is necessary to ream the pin bore a number of
times to achieve the surface finish and size required. Reaming is not a fast process and is only
partially automated (there are automatic feeds on the reaming machines). Tolerances
achieved on the finished reamed surface is 0.4Ra.

Fig 19 : Reaming
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4.4.7 Pin Fitting and Final Inspection


At this stage the piston is cleaned, fitted with the appropriate gudgeon pin, stamped with the
pistons' oversize and any other markings, and then sent to despatch.

Fig 20 : Pin Fitting and Final Inspection


4.5 CALCULATIONS FOR PISTON DESIGN:
The Physical and material properties of Aluminum Alloy are given below: [4]
Density 2770 (Kg/m3)
Poisson Ratio 0.33
Young Modulus 7.1x1010 (Pa)
Tensile Ultimate Strength 3.1x108(Pa)
Tensile Yield Strength 2.8x108(Pa)
Compressive Yield strength 2.8 x108(Pa)
Calculations : Analytical Design
mp = mass of the piston (Kg)
V = volume of the piston (mm3)
th = thickness of piston head (mm)
D = cylinder bore (mm)
pmax = maximum gas pressure or explosion pressure (MPa)
t = allowable tensile strength (MPa)
ut = ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
F.O.S = Factor of Safety = 2.25
k = thermal conductivity =174.15(W/m C)
Tc = temperature at the centre of the piston head (0C)
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Te = temperature at the edge of the piston head (0C)
HCV = Higher Calorific Value of fuel (KJ/Kg) = 47000 KJ/Kg (petrol)
BP = brake power of the engine per cylinder (KW) =4KW. Value obtained experimentally
considering the following conditions. N=1500rpm, Compression Ratio (rc) =16.5, fully
loaded condition.
m = mass of fuel used per brake power per second (Kg/KW s) =0.25/3600 (Kg/KW s).Value
obtained experimentally considering the following conditions:B.P=4KW, CV=47000Kj/kg
(petrol), N=1500, fully loaded condition.
C = ratio of heat absorbed by the piston to the total heat developed in the cylinder = 5% or
0.05
b = radial thickness of ring (mm)
Pw = allowable radial pressure on cylinder wall (N/mm2) = 0.042 MPa
h2 = axial thickness of piston ring (mm)
t1 = thickness of piston barrel at the top end (mm)
t2 = thickness of piston barrel at the open end (mm)
do = outer diameter of piston pin (mm)
Engine Specifications:
Engine make: Kirloskar
Bore Diameter: 80mm
Stroke Length: 110mm.
Calculation of Dimensions Of Piston For Analysis:[8]
Thickness of Piston Head (tH) : The piston thickness of piston head calculated using the
following Grashoffs formula,
tH =D (3p)/ (16t) in mm
P= maximum pressure in N/mm=8 N/mm.
This is the maximum pressure that Aluminium alloy can withstand.
D= cylinder bore/outside diameter of the piston in mm= 80mm.
t=permissible tensile stress for the material of the piston.
= t =280/2.25=124.4 MPa.
tH= 8.9mm.
Heat Flow through the Piston Head (H)
The heat flow through the piston head is calculated using the formula
H = 12.56*tH * k * (Tc-Te) KJ/sec
Where
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k=thermal conductivity of material which is 174.15W/mC
Tc = temperature at center of piston head in C.
Te = temperature at edges of piston head in C.
(Tc-Te)=75C for Aluminium alloy.
On the basis of the heat dissipation, the thickness of the piston head is given by:
H = [C x HCV x m x BP]
= 0.05 x 47000 x 0.25/3600 x 4
=0.6527 KJ/s
tH = H/(12.56 x k (Tc Te))
= Hx1000/12.56 x 174.15 x 75
=3.98mm.
Comparing both the dimensions, for design purpose we will be considering the maximum
thickness, hence required thickness of piston head is 8.9mm.
Radial Thickness of Ring (t1):
t1 = D3pw/t
Where,
D = cylinder bore in mm=80mm.
Pw= pressure of fuel on cylinder wall in N/mm. Its value is limited from 0.025N/mm to
0.042N/mm. Here Pw value is taken as 0.042N/mm while t= 124.4Mpa for aluminum
alloy.
(t1): 3mm.
Axial Thickness of Ring (t2)
The thickness of the rings may be taken as
t2 = 0.7t1 to t1
=0.7 t1=2.1mm.
Number of rings (nr)
Minimum axial thickness (t2)
t2= D/( 10*nr )
nr = 3.86 or 4 rings.
Width of the top land (b1)
The width of the top land varies from
b1 = tH to 1.2 tH
=1.2 tH = 1.2 x8.9 =10.68mm.
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Width of other lands (b2):
Width of other ring lands varies from
b2 = 0.75t2 to t2
=0.75 t2= 0.75x2.1=1.575mm.
Maximum Thickness of Barrel at the top end (t3):
Radial depth of the piston ring grooves (b) is about 0.4 mm more than radial thickness of the
piston rings(t1),therefore
b = 0.4 +t1 =0.4+3 =3.4 mm
t3 = 0.03*D + b + 4.5 mm
t3=0.03*80+3.4+4.9=10.7mm.
Thickness of piston barrel at the open end (t4):
t4= 0.25 t1 to 0.35 t1)
t4=0.25*10.7=2.675mm
Piston pin diameter (do):
do=0.03D=24mm.
Theoretical Stress Calculation:
The piston crown is designed for bending by maximum gas forces Pzmax as uniformly loaded
round plate freely supported by a cylinder. The stress acting in MPa on piston crown:
b=Mb/Wb=Pzmax(ri/)2
Where ,
Mb = (1/3) Pzmax ri3 is the bending moment, MN m;
Wb = (1/3) ri2 is the moment of resistance to bending of a flat crown, m3;
Pzmax = Pz, is the maximum combustion pressure, MPa;=5Mpa.
This value varies from 2Mpa-5Mpa in case of aluminium alloy.
ri = [D / 2 - (s + t1 + dt)] is the crown inner radius, m.;
Where, Thickness of the sealing part s = 0.05D= 0.05X80=4mm.
Radial clearance between piston ring and channel :dt= 0.0008m
Radial thickness of ring (t1) =3mm.
Therefore, ri=[0.08/2-(0.004+0.003+0.0008)]=0.0322m
Thickness of piston crown =(0.08 to 0.1)XD= 0.085X80=7mm.
b= 5X[(0.0322/0.007)^2] Mpa= 105.8Mpa.
Hence required theoretical stress obtained from calculation is 105.8Mpa.

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CHAPTER-05
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO PRO-ENGINEER WILDFIRE 5.0
PTC Creo, formerly known as Pro/ENGINEER, is a 3D CAD/CAM/CAE featurebased,associative solid modeling software. It is one of a suite of 10 collaborative applications
that provide solid modeling, assembly modelling, 2D orthographic views, finite element
analysis, direct and parametric modeling , subdivisional and NURBS surfacing , and NC and
tooling for mechanical designers.
Creo Elements/Parametric compete directly with Solidworks, CATIA, and NX/Solid Edge. It
was created by Parametric Technology Corporation (PTC) and was the first of its kind to
market. The application runs on Microsoft Windows.
The UNIX version was discontinued after 4.0,[2] except x86 64 UNIX on Solaris.[3]The name
changed to Creo 1.0 after Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire 5.0 (rebranded PTC Creo
Elements/Pro),[4] took place on October 28, 2010, which coincided with PTCs announcement
of Creo, a new design software application suite. Creo Elements/Pro will be discontinued
after version 2 in favor of the Creo design suite.
Creo

Elements/Pro

(formerly

Pro/ENGINEER), PTC's parametric,

integrated

3D

CAD/CAM/CAE solution, is used by discrete manufacturers for mechanical engineering,


design and manufacturing.
Pro/ENGINEER was the industry's first rule-based constraint (sometimes called "parametric"
or "variational") 3D CAD modeling system.[5] The parametric modeling approach uses
parameters, dimensions, features, and relationships to capture intended product behavior and
create a recipe which enables design automation and the optimization of design and product
development processes. This design approach is used by companies whose product strategy is
family-based or platform-driven, where a prescriptive design strategy is fundamental to the
success of the design process by embedding engineering constraints and relationships to
quickly optimize the design, or where the resulting geometry may be complex or based upon
equations. Creo Elements/Pro provides a complete set of design, analysis and manufacturing
capabilities on one, integral, scalable platform. These required capabilities include Solid
Modeling, Surfacing, Rendering, Data Interoperability, Routed Systems Design, Simulation,
Tolerance Analysis, and NC and Tooling Design.

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Creo Elements/Pro can be used to create a complete 3D digital model of manufactured goods.
The models consist of 2D and 3D solid model data which can also be used downstream
in finite element analysis, rapid prototyping, tooling design, and CNC manufacturing. All
data are associative and interchangeable between the CAD, CAE and CAM modules
without conversion. A product and its entire bill of materials (BOM) can be modeled
accurately with fully associative engineering drawings, and revision control information. The
associativity functionality in Creo Elements/Pro enables users to make changes in the design
at any time during the product development process and automatically update downstream
deliverables. This capability enables concurrent engineering design, analysis and
manufacturing engineers working in parallel and streamlines product development
processes.

5.2 SUMMARY OF CAPABILITIES :


Creo Elements/Pro is a software application within the CAID/CAD/CAM/CAE category.
Creo Elements/Pro is a parametric, feature-based modeling architecture incorporated into a
single database philosophy with advanced rule-based design capabilities. It provides in-depth
control of complex geometry, as exemplified by the trajpar parameter. The capabilities of the
product can be split into the three main headings of Engineering Design, Analysis and
Manufacturing. This data is then documented in a standard 2D production drawing or the 3D
drawing standard ASME Y14.41-2003.
5.2.1 PRODUCT DESIGN
Creo Elements/Pro offers a range of tools to enable the generation of a complete digital
representation of the product being designed. In addition to the general geometry tools there
is also the ability to generate geometry of other integrated design disciplines such as
industrial and standard pipe work and complete wiring definitions. Tools are also available to
support collaborative development.

A number of concept design tools that provide up-front Industrial Design concepts can then
be used in the downstream process of engineering the product. These range from conceptual
Industrial design sketches, reverse engineering with point cloud data and comprehensive freeform surface.

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5.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR AIR GAP PISTON


5.3.1 Design of PISTON
The following steps are used in modeling of piston in pro-e wildfire 5.0
Step 1: Open pro-e wildfire 5.0 software ,select a new file and windows opens then select part
and click ok

Step 2: Go to status bar ,select insert and go to helical sweep-click protrusion

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Step 3: In attribute window select variable pitch ,thru axis, choose right handed and click
done

Step 4: Select the front plane and click okay in the direction window (menu manager)
Step 5: Now select default in the sketch view (menu manager)
Step 6: Take reference line on the plane using line (reference) command

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Step 7: Draw a line with 25mm center of the point.
Step 8: Draw an arc in the end of the line and the arc distance is 25mm.
Step 9: Then below of the line 5mm thickness draw another arc.

Step 10: Then second end of the arc line draw a line with 15mm.
Step 11: Then the extra line will be trim by trim option
Step 12: Draw line 15mm and divide 3mm slots for piston rings.
Step 13: Then select line option draw16mm a line from end of the piston ring slot
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Step 14: At end point of this line draw a arc of 15mm radius for the piston ring.
Step 15: Then select line option draw7mm a vertical line from end of the piston ring slot

Step 16 : At end of this line draw a slot of 5mm for spring ring.

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Step 17: Then select line option draw15mm a vertical line from end of the piston ring slot
this line ends the bottom end of the piston

Step 20 :The wall thickness 10mm select the extrude option ,reveled with 80mm dia.

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Step 21 : At last the get 80mm dia ,110mm length and 10mm wall thickness piston with 4
rings

slots

5.3.2DESIGN OF PISTON PLATE:


Step 1 : draw a line 16mm on center of the point .
Step 2: draw a arc with distance of 25mm and draw a another arc with 5mm distance .
Step 3 : draw a 15mm line .
Step 4: draw a 9mm thickness and extrude 5mm
Step 5: revolved the option and finally it get the piston plate.

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CHAPTER-06
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS 14.0
ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite
Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small
pieces (of user-designated size) called elements. The software implements equations that
govern the behavior of these elements and solves them all creating a comprehensive
explanation of how the system acts as a whole. These results then can be presented in
tabulated, or graphical forms. This type of analysis is typically used for the design and
optimization of a system far too complex to analyze by hand. Systems that may fit into this
category are too complex due to their geometry, scale, or governing equations.
ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical Engineering
Department at many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and Electrical Engineering, as
well as the Physics and Chemistry departments.
ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products or
processes in a virtual environment. This type of product development is termed virtual
prototyping.
With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to optimize
the product long before the manufacturing is started. This enables a reduction in the level of
risk, and in the cost of ineffective designs. The multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a
means to ensure that users are able to see the effect of a design on the whole behavior of the
product, be it electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.

6.2 GENERIC STEPS TO SOLVING ANY PROBLEM IN ANSYS


Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define (1) your solution domain,
(2) the physical model, (3) boundary conditions and (4) the physical properties. You then
solve the problem and present the results. In numerical methods, the main difference is an
extra step called mesh generation. This is the step that divides the complex model into small
elements that become solvable in an otherwise too complex situation. Below describes the
processes in terminology slightly more attune to the software.

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6.2.1 Build Geometry


Construct a two or three dimensional representation of the object to be
modeled and tested using the work plane coordinate system within ANSYS.

6.2.2 Define Material Properties


Now that the part exists, define a library of the necessary materials that composes the
object (or project) being modeled. This includes thermal and mechanical properties.

6.2.3 Generate Mesh


At this point ANSYS understands the makeup of the part. Now define how the
modeled system should be broken down into finite pieces.

6.2.4 Apply Loads


Once the system is fully designed, the task is to burden the system with constraints,
such as physical loadings or boundary conditions.

6.2.5 Obtain Solution


This is actually a step, because ANSYS needs to understand within what state (steady
state, transient etc.) the problem must be solved.

6.2.6 Present the Results


After the solution has been obtained, there are many ways to present ANSYS results,
choose from many options such as tables, graphs, and counter plots.

6.3 SPECIFIC CAPABILITIES OF ANSYS


6.3.1 Structural
Structural analysis is the most probably the most common application of the finite
element method as it implies bridges and buildings, naval, aeronautical and mechanical
structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies and machine housings, as well as mechanical
components such as pistons, machine parts and tools.

6.3.1.1 Static Analysis


Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading conditions. ANSYS
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can compute both linear and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can include plasticity,
stress stiffening, large deflection, Large strain, hyper elasticity, contact surfaces and creep.

6.3.1.2 Modal Analysis


A modal analysis is typically used to determine the vibration characteristics (natural
frequencies and mode shapes) of a structure or a machine component while it is being
designed. It can also serve as a starting point for another, more detailed, dynamic analysis,
such as a harmonic response or full transient dynamic analysis.
Modal analyses, which being one of the most basic dynamic analysis types available
in ANSYS, can also be more computationally time consuming than a typical static analysis.
A reduced solver, utilizing automatically or manually selected master degrees of freedom is
used to drastically reduce the problem size and solution time.

6.3.1.3 Harmonic Analysis


Used extensively by companies who produce rotating machinery, ANSYS Harmonic
analysis is used to predict the sustained dynamic behavior of structures to consistent cyclic
loading. Examples of rotating machines which produced or are subjected to harmonic loading
are:

Gas turbines for Aircraft and Power Generation

Steam Turbines

Wind Turbines

Water Turbines

Turbo-pumps

Internal Combustion engines

Electric motors and generators

Gas and fluid pumps

Disc drives
A harmonic analysis can be used to verify whether or not a machine design will

successfully overcome resonance, fatigue and other harmful effects of forced vibrations.
Transient Dynamic Analyses Used to determine the response of a structure to
arbitrarily time varying loads. All nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above are
allowed.
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Buckling Analysis Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling
mode shape. Both linear (eigenvalue) buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible.
In addition to the above analysis types, several special-purpose features are available such as
Fracture mechanics, Composite material analysis, Fatigue and pMethod and Beam analyses.

6.3.2 Thermal
ANSYS is capable of both steady state and transient analysis of any solid with
thermal boundary conditions.
Steady-state thermal analyses calculate the effects of steady thermal loads on a system
or component. Users often perform a steady-state analysis before doing a transient thermal
analysis, to help establish initial conditions. A steady-state analysis also can be the last step
of a transient thermal analysis; performed after all transient effects have diminished. ANSYS
can be used to determine temperatures, thermal gradients, heat flow rates and heat fluxes in
an object that are caused by thermal loads that do not vary over time. Such loads include the
following:

Convection

Radiation

Heat flow rates

Heat fluxes (heat flow per unit area)

Heat generation rates (heat flow per unit volume)

Constant temperature boundaries


A steady-state thermal analysis may be either linear, with constant material properties;

or nonlinear, with material properties that depend on temperature. The thermal properties of
most material vary with temperature. This temperature dependency being appreciable, the
analysis becomes nonlinear. Radiation boundary conditions also make the analysis nonlinear.
Transient calculations are time dependent and ANSYS can both solve distribution as well as
create video for time incremental displays of models.

6.3.3 Fluid Flow


The ANSYS/FLOTRAN CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) offers comprehensive
tools for analyzing two-dimensional and three-dimensional fluid flow fields. ANSYS is
capable of modeling a vast range of analysis types such as: air foils for pressure analysis of
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Airplane wings (lift and drag), flow in supersonic nozzles, and complex, three-dimensional
flow patterns in a pipe bend. In addition, ANSYS/FLOTRAN could be used to perform tasks
including:

Calculating the gas pressure and temperature distribution in an engine exhaust


manifold.

Studying the thermal stratification and breakup in piping systems.

Using flow mixing studies to evaluate potential for thermal shock.

Doing natural convection analyses to evaluate the thermal performance of chips in


electronic enclosures.

Conducting heat exchanger studies involving different fluids separated by solid


regions.

6.3.4 Acoustics / Vibration


ANSYS is capable of modeling and analyzing vibrating systems in order to that
vibrate in order to analyze.
Acoustics is the study of the generation, propagation, absorption, and reflection of
pressure waves in a fluid medium. Application for acoustics include the following:

Sonar the acoustic counterpart of radar.

Design of concert halls, where an even distribution of sound pressure is desired.

Noise minimization in machine shops.

Noise cancellation in automobiles.

Under water acoustics.


Design of speakers, speaker housings, acoustic filters, mufflers and many other

similar devices.
Geophysical exploration.
Within ANSYS, an acoustic analysis usually involves modeling a fluid medium and
the surrounding structure. Characteristics in question include pressure distribution in the fluid
at different frequencies, pressure gradient, particle velocity, the sound pressure level, as well
as scattering, diffraction, transmission, radiation, attenuation and dispersion of acoustic
waves. A coupled acoustic analysis takes the fluid-structure interaction into account. An
uncoupled acoustic analysis models only the fluid and ignores any fluid-structure interaction.
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6.3.5 Coupled Fields


A coupled-field analysis is an analysis that takes into account the interaction
(coupling) between two or more disciplines (fields) of engineering. A piezoelectric analysis,
for example, handles the interaction between the structural and electric fields it solves for the
voltage distribution due to applied displacements, or vice versa. Other examples of coupledfield analysis are thermal-stress analysis, thermal-electrical analysis, and fluid-structure
analysis.
Some of the applications in which

coupled-field analysis may be required are

pressure vessels (thermal-stress analysis), fluid flow constrictions (fluid-structure analysis),


induction heating (magnetic-thermal analysis), ultrasonic transducers (piezoelectric analysis),
magnetic forming (magneto-structural analysis), and micro-electro mechanical systems
(MEMS).

6.4 ANALYSIS PROCEDURE FOR AIR GAP PISTON


Step 1: Import file from PRO-E (File import browse Air Gap Piston)
Step 2: Go preferences structural ok
Preprocessor element type add/edit/delete

Add

Solid

Brick 8 node 185

Ok

Clear
Step 3: Material Prop. material models Structural linear elastic Isenttropic
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Ex: Youngs modulus 1.1 e5
Poisons ratio 0.22

Ok
Step 4: meshing mesh tool global set element
Step 5: Pick all close
Step 6: Loads Define loads apply Thermal On Areas

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6.5 ANALYTICAL RESULTS


For piston
Stresses
Stress intensity
Degree of freedom
Vonmisses stress
Mechanical strain intensity
Table .6 analytical result for piston

For air gap piston


Stresses
Stress intensity
Degree of freedom
Vonmisses stress
Mechanical strain intensity
Table .7 analytical result for air gap piston

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CHAPTER-07
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
The chapter discusses the results of air gap piston for invar alloy 36 material.
Static analysis of air gap piston was performed using ANSYS 14.0 analysis software by
considering the pre-determined condition (necessary boundary condition and loads) to
achieve the results.
From the static analysis, DOF, stress intensity ,mechanical strain intensity ,vonmisses stress
are obtained .the contour plots obtained from ANSYS software are shown in last chapter . the
experimental and theoretical results are within the analytical result limits.

Analytical results
For piston
Stresses
Stress intensity
Degree of freedom
Vonmisses stress
Mechanical strain intensity
Table .6 analytical result for piston
For air gap piston
Stresses
Stress intensity
Degree of freedom
Vonmisses stress
Mechanical strain intensity
Table .7 analytical result for air gap piston

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CHAPTER-08
CONCLUSION
8.1CONCLUSION
From the analysis of air gap piston the following conclusion are drawn

From the results of static analysis, it was observed that the material used in
manufacturing of air gap piston is observed to be better in case of stress intensity and
mechanical strain intensity then compared to normal piston .

8.2 SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK


Following work may for the scope for future work
1. The variable stresses acting on air gap piston calculated by analytical method can be
validated by FEA for analysis approach
2. The analysis of air gap piston can be further extended for advance automobile work
and cost factor.
3. The analysis can be further extended for design modification to overcome the failure

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REFERENCES
[1] P.N. Shrirao, and A.N. Pawar, Performance Evaluation of Turbocharged Single Cylinder
Diesel Engine with Mullite as Thermal
Barrier Coating International Journal of Industrial Engineering and Technology. ISSN
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259269.
[2] N. Janardhan, M.V.S. Murali Krishna, P.Ushasri and P.V.K. Murthy4, Potential Of A
Medium Grade Low Heat Rejection Diesel
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[3] 3.T. Ratna Reddy, M. V. S. Murali Krishna, Ch. Kesava Reddy and P. V. K. Murthy.,
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[5] Murthy P.V.K, Murali Krishna M.V.S., Sitarama Raju A, Vara Prasad C.M.Srinivasulu
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Murali Krishna, Performance of a Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine With Air Gap
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[7] Automotive Hand Book. 5th edition, Mico Bosch, SAE International 2000.
[8] Heat and Mass Transfer Data Book, C.P. Kothandaraman & S. Subramanyan, 6th edition,
New Age International Publishers, 2007.
[9] Internal Combustion Engines, K.K. Ramalingam, SCI Tech Publications (India) Pvt. Ltd.,
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of an IDI diesel engine, Applied thermal engineering 28, 2008.
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[11] Dr. Ahmed A, Dr. Basim., Thermal effects on diesel engine piston and piston
compression ring, Engineering and technology Journal, Vol. 27, No. 8, 2009.
[12]Beg.R.A, P.K.Bose, Jadavpur Univ and B.B.Ghoshi, T.Kr. Banerjee and A.Kr.Ghosh, IIT
Kharagpur (1997) Experimental Investigation on Some Performance Parameters of a Diesel
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