Electronic engineering

lated elds, for example solid-state physics, radio engineering, telecommunications, control systems, signal
processing, systems engineering, computer engineering, instrumentation engineering, electric power control,
robotics, and many others.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) is one of the most important and inuential organizations for electronics engineers.

1 Relationship to electrical engineering

Electronic components

Electronics is a subeld within the wider electrical engineering academic subject. An academic degree with a
major in electronics engineering can be acquired from
some universities, while other universities use electrical
engineering as the subject. The term electrical engineer
is still used in the academic world to include electronic
engineers.[1] However, some people consider the term
'electrical engineer' should be reserved for those having specialized in power and heavy current or high voltage engineering, while others consider that power is just
one subset of electrical engineering and (and indeed the
term 'power engineering' is used in that industry) as well
as 'electrical distribution engineering'. Again, in recent
years there has been a growth of new separate-entry degree courses such as 'information engineering', 'systems
engineering' and 'communication systems engineering',
often followed by academic departments of similar name,
which are typically not considered as subelds of electronics engineering but of electrical engineering.[2][3]

Printed circuit board

See also: Electrical engineering

Electronics engineering, or electronic engineering, is an engineering discipline which utilizes
non-linear and active electrical components (such
as semiconductor devices, especially transistors, diodes
and integrated circuits) to design electronic circuits,
devices, Microprocessors/Microcontrollers and systems
including VHDL Modelling for Programmable logic
devices and FPGAs. The discipline typically also designs
passive electrical components, usually based on printed
circuit boards.

2 History
Main article: History of electronic engineering
Electronic engineering as a profession sprang from technological improvements in the telegraph industry in the
late 19th century and the radio and the telephone industries in the early 20th century. People were attracted to
radio by the technical fascination it inspired, rst in receiving and then in transmitting. Many who went into
broadcasting in the 1920s were only 'amateurs in the period before World War I.[4]

The term electronic engineering denotes a broad engineering eld that covers subelds such as analog
electronics, digital electronics, consumer electronics,
embedded systems and power electronics. Electronics
engineering deals with implementation of applications,
principles and algorithms developed within many re- To a large extent, the modern discipline of electronic en1

4 SUBFIELDS

gineering was born out of telephone, radio, and television

equipment development and the large amount of electronic systems development during World War II of
radar, sonar, communication systems, and advanced munitions and weapon systems. In the interwar years, the
subject was known as radio engineering and it was only
in the late 1950s that the term electronic engineering
started to emerge.[5]

Electronics

Main article: Electronics

nals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal

processing may involve the compression, error checking
and error detection of digital signals.
Telecommunications engineering deals with the
transmission of information across a channel such as a
co-axial cable, optical ber or free space.
Transmissions across free space require information to be
encoded in a carrier wave in order to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission, this is
known as modulation. Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. The choice of modulation aects the cost and
performance of a system and these two factors must be
balanced carefully by the engineer.

In the eld of electronic engineering, engineers design

and test circuits that use the electromagnetic properties
of electrical components such as resistors, capacitors,
inductors, diodes and transistors to achieve a particular
functionality. The tuner circuit, which allows the user of
a radio to lter out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit.

Once the transmission characteristics of a system are

determined, telecommunication engineers design the
transmitters and receivers needed for such systems. These
two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a transceiver. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their power consumption as this is closely related to their signal strength. If the
In designing an integrated circuit, electronics engineers signal strength of a transmitter is insucient the signals
rst construct circuit schematics that specify the electrical information will be corrupted by noise.
components and describe the interconnections between Control engineering has a wide range of applications
them. When completed, VLSI engineers convert the from the ight and propulsion systems of commercial airschematics into actual layouts, which map the layers of planes to the cruise control present in many modern cars.
various conductor and semiconductor materials needed It also plays an important role in industrial automation.
to construct the circuit. The conversion from schematics
Control engineers often utilize feedback when designing
to layouts can be done by software (see electronic design
control systems. For example, in a car with cruise conautomation) but very often requires human ne-tuning to
trol the vehicles speed is continuously monitored and fed
decrease space and power consumption. Once the layback to the system which adjusts the engines power outout is complete, it can be sent to a fabrication plant for
put accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control
manufacturing.
theory can be used to determine how the system responds
Integrated circuits and other electrical components can to such feedback.
then be assembled on printed circuit boards to form more
Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of
complicated circuits. Today, printed circuit boards are
devices to measure physical quantities such as pressure,
found in most electronic devices including televisions,
ow and temperature. These devices are known as
computers and audio players.[6]
instrumentation.
The design of such instrumentation requires a good
understanding of physics that often extends beyond
4 Subelds
electromagnetic theory. For example, radar guns use the
Doppler eect to measure the speed of oncoming vehiElectronic engineering has many subelds. This section cles. Similarly, thermocouples use the PeltierSeebeck
describes some of the most popular subelds in electronic eect to measure the temperature dierence between
engineering; although there are engineers who focus ex- two points.
clusively on one subeld, there are also many who focus
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as
on a combination of subelds.
the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example, a
Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipula- thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnaces
tion of signals. Signals can be either analog, in which case temperature remains constant. For this reason, instruthe signal varies continuously according to the informa- mentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart
tion, or digital, in which case the signal varies according of control engineering.
to a series of discrete values representing the information.
Computer engineering deals with the design of
For analog signals, signal processing may involve the computers and computer systems. This may involve the
amplication and ltering of audio signals for audio design of new computer hardware, the design of PDAs or
equipment or the modulation and demodulation of sig-

5.3

Electronic devices and circuits

the use of computers to control an industrial plant. Development of embedded systemssystems made for specic
tasks (e.g., mobile phones)is also included in this eld.
This eld includes the micro controller and its applications. Computer engineers may also work on a systems
software. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which
is usually considered a separate discipline.

5.3 Electronic devices and circuits

Electronic devices: Energy bands in silicon, intrinsic

and extrinsic silicon. Carrier transport in silicon: diffusion current, drift current, mobility, resistivity. Generation and recombination of carriers. p-n junction
diode, Zener diode, tunnel diode, BJT, JFET, MOS
capacitor, MOSFET, LED, p-i-n and avalanche photo
diode, LASERs. Device technology: integrated circuit
VLSI design engineering VLSI stands for very large
fabrication process, oxidation, diusion, ion implantascale integration. It deals with fabrication of ICs and vartion, photolithography, n-tub, p-tub and twin-tub CMOS
ious electronics components.
process.[13][14]

Typical undergraduate syllabus

Analog circuits: Equivalent circuits (large and smallsignal) of diodes, BJTs, JFETs, and MOSFETs. Simple diode circuits, clipping, clamping, rectier. Biasing
and bias stability of transistor and FET ampliers. Ampliers: single-and multi-stage, dierential, operational,
feedback and power. Analysis of ampliers; frequency
response of ampliers. Simple op-amp circuits. Filters.
Sinusoidal oscillators; criterion for oscillation; singletransistor and op-amp congurations. Function generators and wave-shaping circuits, Power supplies.[15]

Apart from electromagnetics and network theory, other

items in the syllabus are particular to electronics engineering course. Electrical engineering courses have
other specialisms such as machines, power generation
and distribution. This list does not include the extensive
engineering mathematics curriculum that is a prerequisite
Digital circuits: Boolean functions (NOT, AND, OR,
to a degree.[7][8]
XOR,...). Logic gates digital IC families (DTL, TTL,
ECL, MOS, CMOS). Combinational circuits: arithmetic
circuits, code converters, multiplexers and decoders.
Sequential circuits: latches and ip-ops, counters
5.1 Electromagnetics
and shift-registers. Sample and hold circuits, ADCs,
DACs. Semiconductor memories. Microprocessor
Elements of vector calculus: divergence and curl; Gauss 8086: architecture, programming, memory and I/O
and Stokes theorems, Maxwells equations: dieren- interfacing.[16][17]
tial and integral forms. Wave equation, Poynting vector. Plane waves: propagation through various media;
reection and refraction; phase and group velocity; skin 5.4 Signals and systems
depth. Transmission lines: characteristic impedance;
impedance transformation; Smith chart; impedance Denitions and properties of Laplace transform,
matching; pulse excitation. Waveguides: modes in rect- continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier series,
angular waveguides; boundary conditions; cut-o fre- continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier Transform,
quencies; dispersion relations. Antennas: Dipole anten- z-transform. Sampling theorems. Linear Time-Invariant
nas; antenna arrays; radiation pattern; reciprocity theo- (LTI) Systems: denitions and properties; causality,
rem, antenna gain.[9][10]
stability, impulse response, convolution, poles and zeros

5.2

Network analysis

Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs; incidence, fundamental cut set and fundamental circuit matrices. Solution methods: nodal and mesh analysis. Network theorems: superposition, Thevenin and Nortons
maximum power transfer, Wye-Delta transformation.[11]
Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors. Linear
constant coecient dierential equations; time domain
analysis of simple RLC circuits, Solution of network
equations using Laplace transform: frequency domain
analysis of RLC circuits. 2-port network parameters:
driving point and transfer functions. State equations for
networks.[12]

frequency response, group delay, phase delay. Signal

transmission through LTI systems. Random signals
and noise: probability, random variables, probability
density function, autocorrelation, power spectral density,
function analogy between vectors & functions.[18][19]

5.5 Control systems

Basic control system components; block diagrammatic
description, reduction of block diagrams Masons rule.
Open loop and closed loop (negative unity feedback) systems and stability analysis of these systems. Signal ow
graphs and their use in determining transfer functions of
systems; transient and steady state analysis of LTI control
systems and frequency response. Analysis of steady-state
disturbance rejection and noise sensitivity.

Tools and techniques for LTI control system analysis

and design: root loci, Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion,
Bode and Nyquist plots. Control system compensators:
elements of lead and lag compensation, elements of
Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller (PID). Discretization of continuous time systems using Zero-order
hold (ZOH) and ADCs for digital controller implementation. Limitations of digital controllers: aliasing. State
variable representation and solution of state equation of
LTI control systems. Linearization of Nonlinear dynamical systems with state-space realizations in both
frequency and time domains. Fundamental concepts
of controllability and observability for MIMO LTI systems. State space realizations: observable and controllable canonical form. Ackermanns formula for statefeedback pole placement. Design of full order and reduced order estimators.[20][21]

PROJECT ENGINEERING

ters degree may consist of either research, coursework or

a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy consists
of a signicant research component and is often viewed
as the entry point to academia.
In most countries, a bachelors degree in engineering represents the rst step towards certication and the degree program itself is certied by a professional body.
After completing a certied degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work
experience requirements) before being certied. Once
certied the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South
Africa), Chartered Engineer or Incorporated Engineer
(in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India and Zimbabwe),
Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New
Zealand) or European Engineer (in much of the European Union).

Digital communication systems: pulse code modulation (PCM), Dierential Pulse Code Modulation
(DPCM), Delta modulation (DM), digital modulation
schemes-amplitude, phase and frequency shift keying
schemes (ASK, PSK, FSK), matched lter receivers,
bandwidth consideration and probability of error calculations for these schemes, GSM, TDMA.[22][23]

Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics

and mathematics as these help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will
work. Today most engineering work involves the use of
computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided
design and simulation software programs when designing electronic systems. Although most electronic engineers will understand basic circuit theory, the theories
employed by engineers generally depend upon the work
they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid
state physics might be relevant to an engineer working
on VLSI but are largely irrelevant to engineers working
with macroscopic electrical systems.

7 Professional bodies

5.6

Communications

Analog communication systems: amplitude and angle

modulation and demodulation systems, spectral analysis
of these operations, superheterodyne noise conditions.

Education and training

Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) and the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE)
(now renamed the Institution of Engineering and Technology or IET). Member of the Institution of Engineering
and Technology (MIET) is recognised in Europe as Electrical and computer (technology) engineer. The IEEE
claims to produce 30 percent of the worlds literature in
electrical/electronic engineering, has over 370,000 memThe degree generally includes units covering physics,
bers, and holds more than 450 IEEE sponsored or cosponchemistry, mathematics, project management and spesored conferences worldwide each year.
cic topics in electrical engineering. Initially such topics
cover most, if not all, of the subelds of electronic engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or
more subelds towards the end of the degree.
8 Project engineering
Electronics engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electronic engineering. The length
of study for such a degree is usually three or four years and
the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of
Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Applied
Science, or Bachelor of Technology depending upon the
university. Many UK universities also oer Master of
Engineering (MEng) degrees at undergraduate level.

Some electronics engineers also choose to pursue a

postgraduate degree such as a Master of Science (MSc),
Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering (PhD), or an Engineering Doctorate (EngD). The masters degree is being
introduced in some European and American Universities
as a rst degree and the dierentiation of an engineer
with graduate and postgraduate studies is often dicult.
In these cases, experience is taken into account. The mas-

For most engineers not involved at the cutting edge of

system design and development, technical work accounts
for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time
is also spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with
clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules. Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason project man-

5
agement skills are important. Most engineering projects
involve some form of documentation and strong written
communication skills are therefore very important.

[7] Rakesh K. Garg/Ashish Dixit/Pavan Yadav Basic Electronics, p. 1, Firewall Media, 2008 ISBN 978-81-3180302-8

The workplaces of electronics engineers are just as var- [8] Sachin S. Sharma Power Electronics, p. ix, Firewall Media, 2008 ISBN 978-81-318-0350-9
ied as the types of work they do. Electronics engineers
may be found in the pristine laboratory environment of a [9] Edward J. Rothwell/Michael J. Cloud Electromagnetics,
fabrication plant, the oces of a consulting rm or in a reCRC Press, 2001 ISBN 978-0-8493-1397-4
search laboratory. During their working life, electronics
[10] Joseph Edminister Schaums Outlines Electromagnetengineers may nd themselves supervising a wide range
ics, McGraw Hill Professional, 1995 ISBN 978-0-07of individuals including scientists, electricians, computer
021234-3
programmers and other engineers.

[11] J. O. Bird Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology, pp.

Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for

372443, Newness, 2007 ISBN 978-0-7506-8139-1
electronics engineers. Membership and participation in
technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the [12] Alan K. Walton Network Analysis and Practice, Cambridge University Press, 1987 ISBN 978-0-521-31903-4
eld and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining prociency. And these are mostly [13] David K. Ferry/Jonathan P. Bird Electronic Materials and
Devices, Academic Press, 2001 ISBN 978-0-12-254161used in the eld of consumer electronics products.[24]
2

See also
Analog signal processing
Digital signal processing
Electronics engineering technology

[14] Jimmie J. Cathey Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of Electronic Devices and Circuits, McGraw Hill,
2002 ISBN 978-0-07-136270-2
[15] Wai-Kai Chen Analog Circuits and Devices, CRC Press,
2003 ISBN 978-0-8493-1736-1
[16] Ronald C. Emery Digital Circuits: Logic and Design, CRC
Press, 1985 ISBN 978-0-8247-7397-7

List of electrical engineering topics (alphabetical)

[17] Anant Agarwal/Jerey H. Lang Foundations of Analog

and Digital Electronic Circuits, Morgan Kaufmann, 2005
ISBN 978-1-55860-735-4

List of electrical engineers

[18] Michael J. Roberts Signals and Systems, p. 1, McGraw

Hill Professional, 2003 ISBN 978-0-07-249942-1

Muntzing

[19] Hwei Piao Hsu Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems

of Signals and Systems, p. 1, McGrawHill Professional,
1995 ISBN 978-0-07-030641-7

History of radio

Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering

List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing companies by revenue

10

References

[1] Allan R. Hambley Electrical Engineering, pp. 3, 441,

Prentice Hall, 2004 ISBN 978-0-13-147046-0
[2] Principles of Electrical Engineering. Books.google.com.
Retrieved 2012-10-29.
[3] Anthony J. Pansini Electrical Distribution Engineering, p.
xiv, The Fairmont Press Inc., 2006 ISBN 978-0-88173546-8
[4] Erik Barnouw A Tower in Babel, p. 28, Oxford University
Press US, 1966 ISBN 978-0-19-500474-8
[5] Radio Engineering Principles. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-10-29.
[6] Charles A. Harper High Performance Printed Circuit
Boards, pp. xiiixiv, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2000
ISBN 978-0-07-026713-8

[20] Gerald Luecke, Analog and Digital Circuits for Electronic

Control System Applications, Newnes, 2005. ISBN 978-07506-7810-0.
[21] Joseph J. DiStefano, Allen R. Stubberud, and Ivan J.
Williams, Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems
of Feedback and Control Systems, McGraw-Hill Professional, 1995. ISBN 978-0-07-017052-0.
[22] Shanmugam, Digital and Analog Communication Systems,
Wiley-India, 2006. ISBN 978-81-265-0914-0.
[23] Hwei Pia Hsu, Schaums Outline of Analog and Digital Communications, McGrawHill Professional, 2003.
ISBN 978-0-07-140228-6.
[24] Homer L. Davidson, Troubleshooting and Repairing Consumer Electronics, p. 1, McGrawHill Professional, 2004.
ISBN 978-0-07-142181-2.

11 External links
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Electronic engineering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering?oldid=708378705 Contributors: Danny, Heron, Edward, Delirium, Darkwind, , Reddi, Tpbradbury, Henrygb, Blainster, Alan Liefting, Cedars, Giftlite, AJim, Djegan, Quarl, Phil Sandifer, MFNickster, Icairns, Hugh Mason, Abdull, Richardelainechambers, Brianhe, Bender235, ESkog, UnHoly, Spangineer, Wtmitchell,
Velella, Cgmusselman, Wtshymanski, Commander Keane, Ruud Koot, Je3000, Cbdorsett, Damicatz, Sega381, Graham87, Mendaliv,
Vegaswikian, Mbutts, Gurch, Fresheneesz, KrisH, Ec-, Angus Lepper, Kafziel, RussBot, Tole, Pseudomonas, Spike Wilbury, Dureo, Jpbowen, Mikeblas, DeadEyeArrow, Searchme, Light current, Deville, Ninly, Closedmouth, Tabby, Symon, JLaTondre, DVD R W, SmackBot, Xjordanx, Melchoir, Larry Doolittle, C J Cowie, Andazp, HalfShadow, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam, Hmains, Rmosler2100,
KD5TVI, Chris the speller, Samiran, Oli Filth, EncMstr, Steve90210, C trillos, JonHarder, Mosca, Krich, MrRadioGuy, Dreadstar, Imecs,
Charivari, Jonnty, SpareHeadOne, Kuru, Mgiganteus1, Ben Moore, Willy turner, Dicklyon, Kvng, DabMachine, Iridescent, Inigo75, Igoldste, Flubeca, JohnTechnologist, JForget, Van helsing, Bgramkow, Sorn67, Chrislk02, Lee, ErrantX, Editor at Large, Epbr123, Barticus88,
Mbell, Tkteun, Blathnaid, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Dylan Lake, JAnDbot, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Hut 8.5, GoodDamon, SiobhanHansa, VoABot II, Email4mobile, User86654, Cpl Syx, SlamDiego, InvertRect, Patrick Denny, STBot, Manavbhardwaj, Sigmundg, R'n'B,
J.delanoy, Mange01, Mu li, KTOmega, Thedeadlypython, Coppertwig, Mrg3105, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Ohms law, Y2H, Inter16, Pdcook, Inwind, Specter01010, Mlewis000, Funandtrvl, Nemochki, VolkovBot, Indubitably, Soliloquial, Philip Trueman, The Original Wildbear, Sparkzy, Anna Lincoln, Jpat34721, RiverStyx23, Madhero88, Haseo9999, Synthebot, Enviroboy, Spinningspark, Awlma, Biscuittin,
Yngvarr, CunningWizard, Flyer22 Reborn, Steven Crossin, Saket316verma, Correogsk, Cyfal, DRTllbrg, ClueBot, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Uncle Milty, Drew335, SpikeToronto, Lihmwiki, Okiefromokla, JDPhD, Legroup, Lambtron, XLinkBot, Roxy the dog, Gwandoya,
Dekart, Addbot, Landon1980, Jncraton, WikiUserPedia, Cst17, Glass Sword, Eagle999, Tide rolls, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, Niklo
sv, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Neurolysis, SlavMFM, Simbu1902, Millahnna, Nasnema, Mlpearc, Isheden, Nasa-verve,
Nedim Ardoa, Locobot, FrescoBot, Pepper, Oneworld12, Pinethicket, Lissajous, FoxBot, SchreyP, Kisiel1mk, Defender of torch, Reaper
Eternal, Skeletronz, ChainBreakerJules, Onel5969, Balph Eubank, Immunize, Aberglaube, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Hhhippo, Wackywace,
Lateg, Quondum, Wayne Slam, L Kensington, Donner60, Anonimski, Rmashhadi, Goatboy22, ClueBot NG, Anupmehra, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Wbm1058, KLBot2, AvocatoBot, Neetesh000, Atalobelete, Malini.025, Mysterious Whisper, Frosty, Epicgenius, XFEM Skier, Vanished user 9oijnsdfknejh3tjas34, Noyster, Thewikiguru1, JaconaFrere, Granzeierpeter, NNSurya, Lich counter, Lor, Sudheerelktronics,
Abhay Chaurasia, Darknight1209, Roboter27, Cookie crawler demper, CMS:112, Vinodcd1, Rafey Iqbal, Vvk495, Suman chowdhury 22
and Anonymous: 381

12.2

Images

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Componentes.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Componentes.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kae
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg License: LGPL Contributors: Own work based on Image:Nuvola apps kcmsystem.png by Alphax originally from [1] Original artist:
MesserWoland
File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png License: LGPL
Contributors: http://icon-king.com Original artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Silego_clock_generator.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Silego_clock_generator.JPG License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: AAAndrey A
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

12.3

12.3

Content license

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0