Power Amplifiers.

Q1: Amplifier Classification (class A,B,AB and C)?List two suitable applications; explain the
circuit and function of each class. Differences of each class. (Hint noise, gain, efficiency, and so
on).
Ans: Classification of Amplifiers:
An Amplifier receives a signal from some pickup transducer or other input
source and provides a larger version of the signal to some output device or to another amplifier stage.
An input transducer signal is generally small (a few millivolts from a cassette or CD input or a few
microvolts from an antenna) and needs to be amplified sufficiently to operate an output device
(speaker or other power handling device). In small signal amplifiers, the main factors are usually
amplification linearity and magnitude of gain, since signal voltage and current are small in a smallsignal amplifier, the amount of power-handling capacity and power efficiency are of little concern. A
voltage a mA voltage amplifier provides voltage amplification primarily to increase the voltage of the
input signal. Large-signal or power amplifiers, on the other hand, primarily provide sufficient power
to an output load to drive a speaker or other power device, typically a few watts to tens of watts..
Amplifier provides voltage amplification primarily to increase the voltage of the input signal. There
are few classes of amplifier A,B,AB and C and all of these are due to classify the features of
amplifier like noise, gain applications and their specific characteristics. All of these terms refer to the
operating characteristics of the output stages of amplifiers. Lets discuss the abovementioned classes
one by one their characteristics and applications as well.
Characteristics:
Class A:
This is the most linear of the classes, meaning the output signal is a truer representation of
what was imputed. This is the simplest form of amplifier that always remain on when the current is
passing through it. It uses the transistor with standard common emitter configuration so this the
transistor that always remains on when the current is flowing through it. The main characteristics of
this Amplifier is to give complete and enhanced signal at output which has been taken from the input.
Now the characteristics curve of class A amplifier can be easily distinguished from the figure below:

FIG1:
As we can clearly see from the above figure that amplifier has an complete output signal from
the input an another benefit of using this amplifier is that it has no cross over distortion which

can be described as phase shift frequency. It means the input and output starts and ends at the
same place. It can be clearly seen from the above figure that Q-point is located exactly in the
center of the DC load line and the transistor conducts for every point in the input waveform.
Even these are the most popular op-amps but still their efficiency is just 50%. When the
capacitors are attached with the op-amps their efficiency can jump down to 25% due to the
wastage of energy in the form of heat to the circuit. These can be very expensive and bulky
sometimes because they need a proper heat sink to avoid damage or to prevent overheating.
Class B:
Class B can be termed as Push Pull amplifier because it uses two transistors in its internal
structure unlike class A which only has one. So in class B only on half of the input signal is
amplified normally the positive half if only one transistor is attached but if we attach two both of
the cycles will be amplified in the output signal, and the negative will remains zero. The Class B
Amplifier has the big advantage over their Class A amplifier cousins in that no current flows
through the transistors when they are in their quiescent state (ie, with no input signal), therefore
no power is dissipated in the output transistors or transformer when there is no signal present
unlike Class A amplifier stages that require significant base bias thereby dissipating lots of heat
even with no input signal present. But keeping in mind that the output of this amplifier is not as
smooth as class A because it has a cross over distortion which can be seen from the figure below.

FIG 2.
Class B Amplifier operation has zero DC bias as the transistors are biased at the cut-off, so each
transistor only conducts when the input signal is greater than the base-emitter voltage. Therefore,
at zero input there is zero output and no power is being consumed. This then means that the
actual Q-point of a Class B amplifier is on the Vce part of the load line as shown below.
FIG3:

Class AB:
As it name shows that its the combination of class and A and B amplifier. The class AB
is also a push-pull output circuit and is slightly less efficient than class B because it uses a small
quiescent current flowing, to bias the transistors just above cut off as shown in Fig 4, but the
crossover distortion created by the non-linear section of the transistors input characteristic
curve, near to cut off in class B is overcome. In class AB each of the push-pull transistors is
conducting for slightly more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the
full cycle of conduction of class A.
FIG4.

As each cycle of the waveform crosses zero volts, both transistors are conducting momentarily
and the bend in the characteristic of each one cancels out. However, for small signals, both
transistors are active, thus functioning like a Class A amp. For large-signal excursions, only one
transistor is active for each half of the waveform, thereby operating like a Class B amp. In
AUDIO SYSTEMS Class AB amps like the MAX98309 and the MAX98310 are used in portable
media players, digital cameras, tablets, and e-readers where high fidelity is a must. Some
headphone amplifiers use a Class AB topology in a bridge-tied-load configuration. Class AB has
an efficiency between 25%(50)% and 78.5%. Class AB arrangements are probably the most
commonly employed system for power amplifier output sections, although Pure Class A is
often used for low current/voltage applications where the poor power efficiency isnt a problem.
Class C:
Its an amplifier that only amplifies less than half cycle of an input signal. The reduced
conduction angle improves the efficiency to a great extend but causes a lot of distortion.
Theoretical maximum efficiency of a Class C amplifier is around 90%. Due to high levels of
distortion this op-amp cant be used in audio applications but its used for other things like in
radio applications where distortions doesnt affect the results. The input and output are shown in
the figure below:
FIG5.

From the above figure it is clear that more than half of the input signal is missing in the output
and the output is in the form of some sort of a pulse. Now lets have a look on the characteristics
curve of class C.
FIG6.

From the above figure it can be clearly seen that the operating point is placed below the cut off
point in DC load line so only the fraction of the input curve can be seen at the output. The benefit
of this class is that these basically have efficiency up to 90%. These are very useful in RF circuits
and FM transmitters due to the amplification in terms of the output curve amplitude.
Applications:
There are numerous applications of op-amps in all the fields of electronics as well as
in radio technology also because these are the main building blocks of electronics and their
importance cannot be denied. Now we are going to discuss two applications of these amplifiers,
the functions of applications and also the working of the circuit followed by the use of
amplifier(IC) in that circuit.
Intruder Alarm:
This is the circuit of a simple burglar alarm that produces a loud beep when
somebody crosses a protected area or door. The circuit is highly sensitive and can detect the
shadow of the moving person from a distance of up to 1 meter. Two ICs are used in this
experiment. IC2 uA 741 is wired as a sensitive comparator. IC555 is wired as a monostable
multivibrator. When there is an intruder near the LDR the shadow causes its resistance to
increase. Based on this effect the circuit gets activated. The circuit looks like this:

FIG7.

T
h

e shadow of an intruder passing through a distance of up to one meter nearby the circuit
is enough to trigger the alarm.
Here IC2 uA 741 is wired as a sensitive comparator, whose set point is set by R6 &R7.
The voltage divide by LDR and R9 is given at non inverting pin of IC2. At standby mode
these two voltages are set equal by adjusting R9.
Now the output (pin6) of comparator will be high. Transistor Q1 will be off. The voltage
at trigger pin of IC1 will be positive and there will be no alarm.
When there is an intruder near the LDR the shadow causes its resistance to increase.
Now the voltages at the inputs of comparator will be different and the output of IC2 will
be low.
This makes Q1 on. This makes a negative going pulse to trigger the IC1 which is wired as
a monostable multivibrator.
The output of IC1 will be amplified by Q2 (SL 100) to produce alarm.

Two op-amps used in the circuit belongs to A and D uA741 and NE555 respectively.
The functions of applications are as follows:
1. To protect the entry of unauthorized person in restricted area.
2. It is easy to understand that a security alarm system provides peace of mind when youre
away from your place of business, and is there to meet insurance requirements while
minimizing burglary loss.
3. It can be used as fence alarm to protect your garden from animals.
4. It can be used at night by shopkeepers to protect the valuables in their showrooms.
5. You can also use it at your doors to indicate that some stranger is present on door.
6. This circuit can also be used for home securities too.
Fire Alarm:
This project consists of a tube starter as its main part which expands on heating
which in turn will be contacted with the circuit and this response will let the alarm to produce a
sound. This circuit is powered with a three volt battery and class amplifier named as UM66. So
now lets see the circuit diagram and how it works:

FIG8.

Here is a simple circuit which can be used as a Fire Alarm. 3 Volt is enough to operate this
project. There is not much to the circuit. The IC UM66 is connected to its supply and its output is
fed to a transistor for amplification. UM66 is a complete miniature tone generator with a ROM
of 64 notes, oscillator and a preamplifier. For amplification we have used a NPN transistor which
is BC548. Here BC548 makes a common emitter circuit. For limiting the base current we have
used a resistance of 220 Ohms so that transistor will not get damaged. For heat sensor we have
used tube light starter in place of manual switch. In a starter there is a metal plate and a pin with
small gap. When starter gets heated then metal plate of starter expands and get in contact with
the pin and circuit is completed and we get audio from speaker. For fast sensing we can use
starter without its glass body by carefully breaking glass cover.
Functions of Applications:

The main function of fire alarms is the early warning benefit. The fire alarms can be
installed just about anywhere in a commercial building and best of all the fire safety
measure is highly cost effective for smoke and fire protection.
Fire Alarm systems are one of the best investments someone can ever make for his
business.
Emergency medical help can be immediately sent out to those in need.
Fire department personnel can help people exit the building safely.
It can be installed at places where we dont normally go like in store rooms or school
where children lives can be in danger by playing with anything that can lit a fire.
It can be used in homes because we cant always monitor the whole house.
Differences of Classes:

Description.

Class A

Class B

Class AB

Class C

Efficiency

25-50%

78.5%

Between 25%(50)%
and 78.5%

90%

Gain

Highest

>Class A.

Operatin
g Cycle

360

180

180 -360

Linearity

Highest

Lowest

Normal

Poorest

Distortion

Lowest

Small to
Moderate

Distortion at O
line on a graph.

Highest
Distortion

Maximum
Peak-Peak
Voltage.

MPP>Vcc

MPP=Vcc

>Class A<Class B.

MPP>or=Vcc

Bit lower than A.

Less than 180

MPP=2(Vcc)

From the figure below ones can easily visualize the amplified output of each class.
FIG9.

So above figure is basically the output of each cycle but the point highlighted in red is the actual
signal that we can have at the output for each class.
So the difference between these classes are described below in a broad manner:
Class A:
In this case, transistor is so biased that the output current flows for the entire cycle of the
input signal. Thus the operating point is so selected that the transistor operates only over the
linear region of its load line. So such an amplifier can amplify input signal of small amplitude.
As the transistor operates over the linear portion of load line, the output waveform is exactly
similar to input waveform. So class A amplifiers are characterised by a high fidelity of the
output. Such amplifiers are used where freedom from distortion is prime aim. Operation is
restricted only over a small central region of the load line so such amplifiers can be used for
amplifying signals of small amplitude. Also ac power output per transistor is small. The
maximum possible overall efficiency with resistive load is 25%. The maximum possible
collector efficiency with resistive load is 50%. In case an output transformer is used, both of
these efficiencies are 50%. Uses are in low power amplifiers where efficiency is not important.
Class B:
In this case, the transistor bias and signal amplitude are such that output current flows only
during positive half cycle of the input signal. At zero signals, the collector current is zero and no
biasing system is required in class B amplifiers. The operating point is selected at collector cutoff voltage; Because of total absence of negative half cycle from the output the signal distortion
is high. Zero signal input represents the best condition for class B amplifiers because of zero
collectors current. The transistor dissipates more power with increase in signal strength. In
comparison to class A amplifiers average current is less, power dissipation is less. So overall
efficiency is increased. The theoretical efficiency in class B operation is about 78.5% while it is
only 50% in class A operation. Uses are in output power amplifiers.

ClassAB:
An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the zero base current level of class B power
amplifiers and above one-half the supply voltage level of class A; this bias condition is class AB.
Class AB operation still needs a push-pull connection to achieve a full output cycle, but the dc
bias level is usually closer to zero base current level for better power efficiency. For class AB
operation the output signal swing occurs between 180 degree and 360 degree and is neither class
A nor class B operation. It is used in car radios.
Class C:
A class C power amplifier is biased for operation for less than 180 of the input signal
cycle and will operate only with a tuned or resonant circuit which provides a full cycle of
operation for the tuned or resonant frequency. Such power amplifiers are, therefore, employed in
special areas of tuned circuits, such as radio or communications. These are used in RF amplifiers
but cant be used as audio amplifiers due to high distortion.

Q2: Each of the following faults will cause this audio amplifier circuit to stop working.
Determine what diagnostic voltage measurement(s) would positively identify each one of the
faults.

Microphone coil

fails open:?

Capacitor C1 fails shorted:?

Resistor R1 fails open:?

Resistor R2 fails open:?

Capacitor C3 fails open:?

Transformer T1 primary winding fails open:?

Any faults in the circuit will cause the malfunction of resistors, capacitors, transformer and
microphone. So lets why the fault that are mentioned in the above circuit occurs:

Microphone coil fails open: Microphone will not work in the absence of AC voltage because
there is no AC voltage across all the terminals of Microphone.
Capacitor C1 fails shorted: The presence of DC voltage will make the microphone terminals to
fails shorted.
Resistor R1 fails open: Full DC supply voltage dropped across R1, no DC voltage dropped
across R2 (could indicate a shorted R2 as well - no way to tell unless a resistance measurement is
taken).
Resistor R2 fails open: Increased DC voltage drop across R2, decreased DC voltage drop across
R1, reasonable transistor DC voltages (VE 0.7 volts less than VB, VC as expected based on
value of VE and R3, R4 values) indicate that Q1 is probably not the source of the trouble.
Capacitor C3 fails open: When the AC voltage is higher than the voltage at collector terminal,
with no AC voltage present across transformer primary winding the capacitor C3 will fail to
open.
Transformer T1 primary winding fails open: More than normal AC voltage across transformer
primary winding, with no AC voltage across transformer secondary winding will be the cause of
the transformer T1 primary winding fails open.
Conclusion:
The purpose of this question is to approach the domain of circuit troubleshooting from a
perspective of knowing what the fault is, rather than only knowing what the symptoms are.
Amplifiers have a very vast applications, these are present in almost all the electronic devices
especially in audio amplifier so it is very useful to know the faults by knowing the symptoms of
failure of any of the parts in the circuit and we have already learned that from this question.