A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that

moves materials from one location to another. Conveyors are especially useful in
applications involving the transportation of heavy or bulky materials. Conveyor
systems allow quick and efficient transportation for a wide variety of materials,
which make them very popular in the material handling and packaging industries.
Many kinds of conveying systems are available, and are used according to the
various needs of different industries. There are chain conveyors (floor and
overhead) as well. Chain conveyors consist of enclosed tracks, I-Beam, towline,
power & free, and hand pushed trolleys.

Industries that use conveyor systems

A lineshaft roller conveyor conveys boxed produce at a distribution center

A Conveyor belt conveys papers at a newspaper print plant

Roller conveyor for carton transport in the apparel industry

Conveyor systems are used widespread across a range of industries due to the numerous benefits
they provide.

Conveyors are able to safely transport materials from one level to another, which when
done by human labor would be strenuous and expensive.

They can be installed almost anywhere, and are much safer than using a forklift or other
machine to move materials.

They can move loads of all shapes, sizes and weights. Also, many have advanced safety
features that help prevent accidents.

There are a variety of options available for running conveying systems, including the
hydraulic, mechanical and fully automated systems, which are equipped to fit individual
needs.

Conveyor systems are commonly used in many industries, including the automotive, agricultural,
computer, electronic, food processing, aerospace, pharmaceutical, chemical, bottling and
canning, print finishing and packaging. Although a wide variety of materials can be conveyed,
some of the most common include food items such as beans and nuts, bottles and cans,
automotive components, scrap metal, pills and powders, wood and furniture and grain and
animal feed. Many factors are important in the accurate selection of a conveyor system. It is
important to know how the conveyor system will be used beforehand. Some individual areas that
are helpful to consider are the required conveyor operations, such as transportation, accumulation
and sorting, the material sizes, weights and shapes and where the loading and pickup points need
to be.

Care and maintenance of conveyor systems

A conveyor system is often the lifeline to a companys ability to effectively move its product in a
timely fashion. The steps that a company can take to ensure that it performs at peak capacity,
include regular inspections and system audits, close monitoring of motors and reducers, keeping
key parts in stock, and proper training of personnel.
Increasing the service life of your conveyor system involves: choosing the right conveyor type,
the right system design and paying attention to regular maintenance practices.
A conveyor system that is designed properly will last a long time with proper maintenance. Here
are six of the biggest problems to watch for in overhead type conveyor systems including I-beam
monorails, enclosed track conveyors and power and free conveyors.
Poor take-up adjustment: This is a simple adjustment on most systems yet it is often
overlooked. The chain take-up device ensures that the chain is pulled tight as it leaves the drive
unit. As wear occurs and the chain lengthens, the take-up extends under the force of its springs.
As they extend, the spring force becomes less and the take-up has less effect. Simply compress

the take-up springs and your problem goes away. Failure to do this can result in chain surging,
jamming, and extreme wear on the track and chain. Take-up adjustment is also important for any
conveyor using belts as a means to power rollers, or belts themselves being the mover. With
poor-take up on belt-driven rollers, the belt may twist into the drive unit and cause damage, or at
the least a noticeable decrease or complete loss of performance may occur. In the case of belt
conveyors, a poor take-up may cause drive unit damage or may let the belt slip off of the side of
the chassis.
Lack of lubrication: Chain bearings require lubrication in order to reduce friction. The chain
pull that the drive experiences can double if the bearings are not lubricated. This can cause the
system to overload by either its mechanical or electrical overload protection. On conveyors that
go through hot ovens, lubricators can be left on constantly or set to turn on every few cycles.
Contamination: Paint, powder, acid or alkaline fluids, abrasives, glass bead, steel shot, etc. can
all lead to rapid deterioration of track and chain. Ask any bearing company about the leading
cause of bearing failure and they will point to contamination. Once a foreign substance lands on
the raceway of a bearing or on the track, pitting of the surface will occur, and once the surface is
compromised, wear will accelerate. Building shrouds around your conveyors can help prevent
the ingress of contaminants. Or, pressurize the contained area using a simple fan and duct
arrangement. Contamination can also apply to belts (causing slippage, or in the case of some
materials premature wear), and of the motors themselves. Since the motors can generate a
considerable amount of heat, keeping the surface clean is an almost-free maintenance procedure
that can keep heat from getting trapped by dust and grime, which may lead to motor burnout.
Product Handling: In conveyor systems that may be suited for a wide variety of products, such
as those in distribution centers, it is important that each new product be deemed acceptable for
conveying before being run through the materials handling equipment. Boxes that are too small,
too large, too heavy, too light, or too awkwardly shaped may not convey, or may cause many
problems including jams, excess wear on conveying equipment, motor overloads, belt breakage,
or other damage, and may also consume extra man-hours in terms of picking up cases that
slipped between rollers, or damaged product that was not meant for materials handling. If a
product such as this manages to make it through most of the system, the sortation system will
most likely be the affected, causing jams and failing to properly place items where they are
assigned. It should also be noted that any and all cartons handled on any conveyor should be in
good shape or spills, jams, downtime, and possible accidents and injuries may result.
Drive Train: Notwithstanding the above, involving take-up adjustment, other parts of the drive
train should be kept in proper shape. Broken O-rings on a Lineshaft, pneumatic parts in disrepair,
and motor reducers should also be inspected. Loss of power to even one or a few rollers on a
conveyor can mean the difference between effective and timely delivery, and repetitive nuances
that can continually cost downtime.
Bad Belt Tracking or Timing: In a system that uses precisely controlled belts, such as a sorter
system, regular inspections should be made that all belts are traveling at the proper speeds at all
times. While usually a computer controls this with Pulse Position Indicators, any belt not
controlled must be monitored to ensure accuracy and reduce the likelihood of problems. Timing

is also important for any equipment that is instructed to precisely meter out items, such as a
merge where one box pulls from all lines at one time. If one were to be mistimed, product would
collide and disrupt operation. Timing is also important wherever a conveyor must "keep track" of
where a box is, or improper operation will result.
Since a conveyor system is a critical link in a company's ability to move its products in a timely
fashion, any disruption of its operation can be costly. Most downtime can be avoided by taking
steps to ensure a system operates at peak performance, including regular inspections, close
monitoring of motors and reducers, keeping key parts in stock, and proper training of personnel.

CONVEYOR

BELT

A conveyor belt is the carrying medium of a belt conveyor system (often shortened to belt
conveyor). A belt conveyor system is one of many types of conveyor systems. A belt conveyor
system consists of two or more pulleys (sometimes referred to as drums), with an endless loop of
carrying mediumthe conveyor beltthat rotates about them. One or both of the pulleys are
powered, moving the belt and the material on the belt forward. The powered pulley is called the
drive pulley while the unpowered pulley is called the idler pulley. There are two main industrial
classes of belt conveyors; Those in general material handling such as those moving boxes along
inside a factory and bulk material handling such as those used to transport large volumes of
resources and agricultural materials, such as grain, salt, coal, ore, sand, overburden and more.
Today there are different types of conveyor belts that have been created for conveying different
kinds of material available in PVC and rubber materials.
The belt consists of one or more layers of material. Many belts in general material handling have
two layers. An under layer of material to provide linear strength and shape called a carcass and
an over layer called the cover. The carcass is often a woven fabric having a warp & weft. The
most common carcass materials are polyester, nylon and cotton. The cover is often various
rubber or plastic compounds specified by use of the belt. Covers can be made from more exotic
materials for unusual applications such as silicone for heat or gum rubber when traction is
essential.
A conveyer belt can be a slide and be controlled by the force of gravity.
Material flowing over the belt may be weighed in transit using a beltweigher. Belts with
regularly spaced partitions, known as elevator belts, are used for transporting loose materials up
steep inclines. Belt Conveyors are used in self-unloading bulk freighters and in live bottom

trucks. Belt conveyor technology is also used in conveyor transport such as moving sidewalks or
escalators, as well as on many manufacturing assembly lines. Stores often have conveyor belts at
the check-out counter to move shopping items. Ski areas also use conveyor belts to transport
skiers up the hill.
Belt conveyor systems

Conveyors are durable and reliable components used in automated distribution and warehousing.
In combination with computer controlled pallet handling equipment this allows for more efficient
retail, wholesale, and manufacturing distribution. It is considered a labor saving system that
allows large volumes to move rapidly through a process, allowing companies to ship or receive
higher volumes with smaller storage space and with less labor expense.
Rubber conveyor belts are commonly used to convey items with irregular bottom surfaces, small
items that would fall in between rollers (e.g. a sushi conveyor bar), or bags of product that would
sag between rollers. Belt conveyors are generally fairly similar in construction consisting of a
metal frame with rollers at either end of a flat metal bed. The belt is looped around each of the
rollers and when one of the rollers is powered (by an electrical motor) the belting slides across
the solid metal frame bed, moving the product. In heavy use applications the beds which the
belting is pulled over are replaced with rollers. The rollers allow weight to be conveyed as they
reduce the amount of friction generated from the heavier loading on the belting. Belt conveyors
can now be manufactured with curved sections which use tapered rollers and curved belting to
convey products around a corner. These conveyor systems are commonly used in postal sorting
offices and airport baggage handling systems. A sandwich belt conveyor uses two conveyor belts,
face-to-face, to firmly contain the item being carried, making steep incline and even vertical-lift
runs achievable.
Belt conveyors are the most commonly used powered conveyors because they are the most
versatile and the least expensive. Product is conveyed directly on the belt so both regular and
irregular shaped objects, large or small, light and heavy, can be transported successfully. These
conveyors should use only the highest quality premium belting products, which reduces belt
stretch and results in less maintenance for tension adjustments. Belt conveyors can be used to
transport product in a straight line or through changes in elevation or direction. In certain
applications they can also be used for static accumulation or cartons

Heat sealer

heat sealer is a machine used to seal products, packaging, and other thermoplastic materials using
heat. This can be with uniform thermoplastic monolayers or with materials having several layers,
at least one being thermoplastic. Heat sealing can join two similar materials together or can join
dissimilar materials, one of which has a thermoplastic layer.
Heat sealing is the process of sealing one thermoplastic to another similar thermoplastic using
heat and pressure.[1] The direct contact method of heat sealing utilizes a constantly heated die or
sealing bar to apply heat to a specific contact area or path to seal or weld the thermoplastics
together. Heat sealing is used for many applications, including heat seal connectors, thermally
activated adhesives, film media, plastic ports or foil sealing.
Common applications for the heat sealing process:
Heat seal connectors are used to join LCDs to PCBs in many consumer electronics, as well as in
medical and telecommunication devices.
Heat sealing of products with thermal adhesives is used to hold clear display screens onto
consumer electronic products and for other sealed thermo-plastic assemblies or devices where
heat staking or ultrasonic welding are not an option due to part design requirements or other
assembly considerations.
Heat sealing also is used in the manufacturing of bloodtest film and filter media for the blood,
virus and many other test strip devices used in the medical field today. Laminate foils and films
often are heat sealed over the top of thermoplastic medical trays, Microtiter (microwell) plates,
bottles and containers to seal and/or prevent contamination for medical test devices, sample
collection trays and containers used for food products.
Medical and fluid bags used in the medical, bioengineering and food industries. Fluid bags are
made out of a multitude of varying materials such as foils, filter media, thermoplastics and
laminates.

Types of heat sealing

Hot bar sealers- have heated tooling kept at a constant temperature (also known as Direct
Contact Thermal Sealing). They use one or more heated bars, irons, or dies which contact
the material to heat the interface and form a bond. The bars, irons and dies have various
configurations and can be covered with a release layer or utilize various slick interposer
materials (i.e. Teflon films) to prevent sticking to the hot tooling.

Continuous heat sealers- (also known as Band type heat sealers) utilize moving belts over
heating elements.

Impulse heat sealers- have heating elements (one or two) of Nichrome placed between a
resilient synthetic rubber and a release surface of film or fabric. The heating elements are
not continuously heated; heat is generated only when current flows. When the materials
are placed in the heat sealer, they are held in place by pressure. An electric current heats
the heating element for a specified time to create the required temperature. the Jaws hold
the material in place after the heat is stopped, sometimes with cooling water: this allows
the material to fuse before stress can be applied.[3][4][5]

Hot melt adhesive can be applied in strips or beads at the point of joining. It can also be
applied to one of the surfaces during an earlier manufacturing step and reactivated for
bonding.

Hot wire sealing involves a heated wire that both cuts the surfaces and joins them with
a molten edge bead. This is not usually employed when barrier properties are critical.

Induction sealing is a non-contact type of sealing used for inner seals in bottle caps.

Induction welding heat sealing by non-contact induction

Ultrasonic welding uses high-frequency ultrasonic acoustic vibrations to workpieces

being held together under pressure to create a weld.

A type of heat sealer is also used to piece together plastic side panels for light-weight agricultural
buildings such as greenhouses and sheds. This version is guided along the floor by four wheels.

Heat gun

Example of hand held electric heat gun

Commercial heat gun kit

Flame heat gun for shrinkwrapping helicopter

Construction

A heat gun comprises a source of heat, usually an electrically heated element, but sometimes a
gas flame; a mechanism to move the hot air such as an electric fan, unless gas pressure is
sufficient; a nozzle to direct the air, which may be a simple tube pointing in one direction, or
specially shaped for purposes such as concentrating the heat on a small area or thawing a pipe
but not the wall behind; a housing to contain the components and keep the operator safe; a
mechanism to switch it on and off such as a trigger; a handle; and a built-in or external stand if
the gun is to be used hands-free. Although not called such, a hair dryer is a form of lowtemperature heat gun. Gas-powered soldering irons sometimes have interchangeable hot air
blower tips to produce a very narrow stream of hot air suitable for working with surface-mount
devices and shrinking heat shrink tubing.
Usage

Heat guns are used in physics, materials science, chemistry, engineering, and other laboratory
and workshop settings. Different types of heat gun operating at different temperatures and with
different airflow can be used to strip paint, shrink heat shrink tubing, shrink film, and shrink
wrap packaging, dry out damp wood, bend and weld plastic, soften adhesives, and thaw frozen
pipes.[1] Heat guns, often called hot air guns or hot air stations for this application, are used in
electronics to desolder and rework surface-mounted circuit board components. Heat guns are
also used for functional testing of overheat protection devices, in order to safely simulate an
overheat condition.

Heat guns working

Electric heat guns have now largely replaced the 'old fashion' paraffin and bottled gas blowlamps
for stripping paint on timber. The paraffin and bottled gas blowlamps still have a place in the tool
kit where electricity is not readily available but they have to be used with care to avoid scorching
the wood, setting fire to the stripped paint or cracking the glass when working on a window
frame.
The hot air flow of a heat gun is less dangerous than a naked flame but it can still cause highly
flammable items to catch fire, crack glass and injury if directed onto skin. One great advantage is
that the heat is almost instantaneous so the heat gun can be switched off during pauses in the
work while the flame blowlamps have the inconvenience of needing to be relit if the flame is
extinguished.
The electric heat guns now available are lightweight, easy-to-use tools which make it far less
likely to scorch wood or crack glass when used correctly to strip paint.
How heat guns work

Heat guns look a lot like hair dryers - but, as many instructions thoughtfully point out, should
never be used for drying hair! The method of operation of a hot air gun is similar to a hair dryer:

a fan pulls air into the body of the tool and drives it across an electric heating element and out
through a nozzle.
For stripping paint, the heated air is directed onto the painted surface, causing it to soften so that
it can be easily stripped off - either by using a stripping knife or hook. For best results it is best to
work up the surface with the heat gun above the stripping tool, softening the paint just before the
stripping tool reaches it. The tool is used one-handed, with the other hand to hold the stripping
tool.
Some heat guns can be used sitting on a bench so that two hands are free to use the hot air for
other applications.
Temperature settings

Very basic heat guns have just one heat setting and one fan speed and are designed primarily for
paint stripping. More complicated models have two or three heat settings or even fully variable
adjustment with in a range, together with a choice of two, three or variable speeds of air flow.
The effective temperature of any heat gun can be reduced by holding it further away from the
surface, but having variable settings gives more choice.
For paint stripping, the maximum speed and the maximum air flow is generally required - these
settings are also needed for other jobs such as soldering plumbing joints and freeing rusty nuts.
There are other uses of the heat gun where having lower air flows and/or lower temperatures can
be useful. Other uses for the heat gun include:

drying paint or varnish - 30 to 130 C - care has to be taken as dust particles may be
blown onto the paint/varnish.

drying out damp wood (before filling or painting) - around 100 to 200C.

softening adhesive (such as when applying worktop edge trim or lifting floor tiles) - 300
to 400C.

bending plastic pipes - 200 to 300C.

heat-shrinking plastic film - 200 to 300C.

welding some plastics - 330 to 400C.

A heat gun should always be used with care around copper plumbing where solder connectors
have been used as the heat can melt the solder and weaken the joints.

Special nozzles are available for most models of heat gun for specific uses other than stripping
paint.
Heat Gun features
As such a simple tool, there are not many differences between one model of heat gun and another
- but there are some features which are important.

Wattage - commonly from 1000W to 2000W (a measure of the power of the gun).
Providing that there are heat and/or airflow controls, the higher the wattage, the better.

Main control switch - usually mounted on the front of the pistol grip, and normally a
'dead man' switch so that power is switched off when the finger pressure is removed - an
ideal safety feature as the heat gun stops if it is accidentally dropped.

Temperature setting - at least 500C is needed for stripping paint - the lower the bottom
end of the range the more useful. A choice of controls make the tool more useful.

Airflow setting - having variable or more than one speed makes the tool more versatile.

Thermal cut out - this will switch off the tool if it becomes overheated. If this occurs, it
indicates a fault in the tool or method of use - for safety, the fault must be identified and
corrected before the heat gun is again used.

Flex length - lengths of 2.5 to 3 m are normally fitted, this means that when using an
extension lead, the tool can be used at the full reach without having the socket hanging in
mid air.

Hanging hook - useful for storing the tool.

Surface stand - this enables the heat gun to be safety 'rested' during pauses in the work
and after uses. It also allows the gun to be used 'hands-free' when two hands are required
on the work piece (such as when bending a plastic pipe).

Nozzles - most heat guns have a range of nozzles that can be fitted for specific uses,
generally these need to be purchased separately. The main types of nozzles are:

1. Reducer nozzle - when you want to concentrate the heat onto a specific area.
2. Reflector nozzle - wraps round a plastic or copper pipe to spread the heat around
the pipe surface.
3. Flat nozzle - for spreading the hot air over a wider narrower area.
4. Glass protector nozzle - for use when stripping paint on a window to keep the
direct heat off the glass.
Safety with heat guns
Although safer than using a naked-flame blowlamp, care is still required when using a heat gun.
Specific point is:

Because of the power of these tools (up to 2000W), when an extension lead is necessary,
only use a lead rated at 10 amp or greater and always completely unwind the lead.

Never obstruct or cover the air inlet grills. If the air flow is reduced the heat gun will
overheat and possible catch fire.

Never operate the heat gun with the outlet nozzle hard up against a surface, this will
reduce the air and can have the same effect as obstructing the air inlet grills,

Do not use a heat gun near flammable materials.

Always switch the tool off before putting it down on any surface.

Allow the tool to cool before storing it.

Do not place the nozzle next to anything whilst it is hot.

Never touch the hot metal nozzle with clothing or skin.

Do not use for stripping lead-based paints.

Do not allow any paint to stick to the nozzle - and if some paint does stick, allow the gun
to cool down and remove the paint.

Do not look down the nozzle while the gun is turned on.

Do not insert anything down the nozzle with the gun.

INDUCTIONMOTOR
I.OBJECTIVES
A.
Toexperimentallyevaluatethecircuitmodelelementsfora3phaseinductionmotor.
B.
1.

To start and test the performance of an induction motor under full load when it is
poweredfromthethreephaselinebyaFVNR(fullvoltage,nonreversing)combination
starter.

2.

Tocomparetheactualperformanceofathreephaseinductionmotorwiththatpredicted
bythecircuitmodel.

3.

Tostartaninductionmotor,examinevariablespeedoperation,andperformafullload
testwhenitispoweredbytheACTestDrive.

4.

Toobtainthedataforthetorquevs.speedandcurrentvs.speedcharacteristicsofthe
inductionmotorusingalabcomputerprogram.
II.THEORYANDBACKGROUND

A.

CONSTRUCTION

Theinductionmachinehastwopartsstatorandrotor.Thestatorcarriesadistributed3
phase winding. The stator winding is the input/output winding and is the armature of the
machine.Thelabmachinehasasquirrelcagerotor.Asquirrelcagerotorhassolidbarsinthe
slotsandtheyareshortedtogetherattheends.
B.

OPERATION

Whenabalanced3phasevoltageissuppliedtothearmature,arotatingmagneticfieldis
produced(justasinasynchronousmachine). Thespeedofrotationisthe synchronousspeed
givenby
4f1
s
rad / s
p
or

ns

120 f1
rpm,
p

wherepisthenumberofpolesofthearmaturewindingandf1isthelinefrequency.
However,therotorrotatesataspeedlessthanthesynchronousspeed.Wewilldesignate
theangularspeedoftherotorinrad/sbyandthespeedinrev/min(rpm)byn.Theslipspeed
isspeedoftherotorrelativetothefield,i.e.,
Slipspeed=s(rad/s)
=nsnrpm
Theperunitslip,or,simplyslip,isdefinedas
s

s ns n

s
ns

Themagnitudeandfrequencyoftherotorinducedvoltagedependsonthespeedoftherelative
motion(betweenrotorandfield),whichis
slipspeed=s=ss.
Therotorfrequencyis,thus,
f2=sf1
Thevoltageinduced(andtherebythecurrent)inthesquirrelcagerotorisbalancedthreephase
withthesamenumberofpolesasinthearmature.Thebalanced3phasecurrentatthefrequency
off2causesarotatingmagneticfieldthatrotatesattheslipspeed(s)withrespecttothe
rotor,whichmeansatsynchronousspeedwithrespecttothestator. Thetworotatingfields
(stator field and rotor field) rotate at the same (synchronous) speed and maintain a certain
angularrelationshipwitheachotherinsteadystate.
C.

EQUIVALENTCIRCUIT

TheequivalentcircuitgiveninFigure1servesasanapproximatecircuitmodelforone
phaseoftheinductionmotor.

I1
+

x1

r1

I2

x2
r2

V1

xm

r2 1 s
s

r2
s

Figure1.PerphaseEquivalentCircuitofInductionMotor
ThesymbolsusedinFigure1aredefinedbelow:
V1 = linetoneutralterminalvoltage.ThephasewindingsareconsideredtobeinaY
configuration.
r1 = statorresistanceperphase
x1 = statorleakagereactanceperphase
r2 = rotorresistancereferredtothestator,perphase
x2 = rotorleakagereactancereferredtothestator,perphase
xm = ashuntreactancesuppliedtoprovideapathforthemagnetizingcomponentofthe
currentflowinginthestator.Itisthiscurrentwhichproducestherevolvingfield
inthemotor.
Notethatcorelossesandrotationallossesarenotaccountedforintheequivalentcircuit.
Omitting core losses causes small but negligible errors. The mechanical power and torque
calculated using the equivalent circuit are the generated values. Rotational losses may be
subtractedtoobtainactualoutputvalues.Anotherapproximationisthatr2isconstant.Inmost
generalpurposemotors,r2varieswiththefrequencyoftherotorcurrents(andalsotemperature).
Itisnecessarytousethecorrectvalueofr2.
D.

LABORATORYEVALUATIONOFTHEEQUIVALENTCIRCUIT
IMPEDANCES.

Three tests are required to evaluate the impedances of the equivalent circuit of a
polyphaseinductionmotor:
1.
StatorDCresistancemeasurement.
2.
Noloadtest.
3.
Blockedrotortest.
Sincean"equivalent"circuitisbeingdeveloped,andonlythethreelineterminalsofthe
statorwindingarebroughtout,oneisfreetoassumeeitherthatthewindingisconnectedinaY
configuration,orthatitisconnectedinaconfiguration.ItiseasiertodealwithaYcircuit,so

thatistheusualassumption.Thus,forexample,theDCresistancebetweenanytwoterminalsof
thewindingistakentobetwicetheresistanceofonestatorphase.
1.DCresistancetest.
TwoterminalsoftheinductionmotorareconnectedtoaDCsupplythroughacircuit
breaker,ammeterandaloadbox.Theloadboxisusedtolimitthecurrentthroughthemotor.
Itsresistanceisadjustedtobringthecurrenttoroughlytheratedvalue,andthevoltageacrossthe
twoterminalsofthemotorismeasured.
1 VDC
r1
.
2 I DC
Then
SinceV1(Figure1)isDC,x1=xm=0,andtherotorimpedanceisnotcoupledtothestator.
2.Blockedrotortest.
Forthistest,themotorshaftisclampedsothatitcannotturn.Themotorterminalsare
connectedtoa3phasesupply.Therotorbecomesthesecondaryofatransformeroperatingat
thesupplyfrequency.However,innormaloperationthefrequencyoftherotorcurrentsiss*60
or60s,whichisabout2Hz.Sincethesemachineshavedeepbars,a60Hzblockedrotortest
wouldyieldavalueof r2 whichistoohigh. Reducedfrequencyisrecommendedbymany
authors,andbytheIEEEstandards.Wewilluseasupplyfrequencyof15Hztoobtainavalue
of r2 morenearlycorrectforfullloadcalculations. Thissupplyfrequencyproducesarotor
currentdistributionsimilartofullloadconditions,andstillpermitstheACtransducerstooutput
stablereadings.Transducersareprovidedtomeasurelinevoltage,thethreelinecurrents,and
power (two wattmeter method). Current will be limited to the rated value. The measured
quantitieswillbedesignated Vbr, Ibr, Pbr. Thesemeasurementspermitthecalculationofthe
blockedrotorimpedance,Zbr.
Approximation:Undertheassumption,s=1,thecurrentthruxm isquitesmall,comparedtoI2,
andwillbeneglected.Thusitisassumedthat:
I1br=I2br,
andasaresult,
V1br
Z br Rbr jx br .
I1br
Itmustberealizedthatweareattemptingtoconstructa60Hzequivalentcircuit,whilethe
blockedrotortestisperformedatanotherfrequency(say,fbr).Thesumofactualreactances(for
the60Hzcircuit)x1+x2willbeobtainedby

x1 x2
xbr

60
fbr

wherexbristhereactancecalculatedbythetest.Tosplitx1andx2fromthesum,notethatthe
labmachineisageneralpurposemachineofNEMADesignBsothat
x1=0.4(x1+x2)
and
x2=0.6(x1+x2).
3.Noloadtest
Themotorisoperatedfreeofanyshaftloadforthistest.Themotorisconnectedtoa3
phaseAClinewithinstrumentationprovidedtomeasurelinevoltage,linecurrents,andpower.
AnACsourceofratedvoltageandratedfrequencyisusedandtheterminallinevoltage(Vnl),
averagelinecurrent(Inl),inputpower(Pnl),andnoloadimpedanceZnl)aredetermined.
Sincetheslipisnearlyzero,r2/sisverylargeandthustheouterbranchoftheequivalent
circuitcanbeconsideredopencircuited.Thisassumptioncanbeemployedforcalculations.We
have,then,
Znl=r1+jx1+jxm
E.

PREDICTINGINDUCTIONMOTORPERFORMANCEFROMTHE
EQUIVALENTCIRCUIT

It is assumed that the equivalent circuit elements have been determined, and the
synchronousspeed(ns)isknown.Theproblem:Giventheappliedvoltageandtheslip,s,find
theoutputspeed,horsepower,torque,inputcurrent,power,andpowerfactor.Alsofindtherotor
andstatorcopperlosses,andtheefficiency.
FromACcircuittheory,itisclearthatiftheequivalentcircuitparameters,linevoltage,
andslip(orequivalently,speed)areknown,twomeshequationsmaybesolvedtoobtainphasor
currentsI1andI2.(UseV1asthereferencephasor.)Applyingtheperphasemodelresultstothe
threephasemotoryieldsthefollowingpredictions.
Speed=ns(1s);wherens=120f/p,rev./min.,andpisthenumberofpoles.
2 r2
3 I2
Watts
s
Pg=RotorPowerInput=
2
1s
1 sPg or 3 I2 r2
Watts
s
DevelopedMechanicalPower(DMP)=

Pout
746

Horsepower=
3 I1

r1 Watts

SCL=StatorCopperLoss=
I1
PF=PowerFactor=cos
Pin=PowerInput=3|V1||I1|(PF)(Watts)
Pout
Pin
Efficiency=
III.THELABORATORYMACHINE
Theinductionmachineofthelaboratoryhasthefollowingnameplatedata:
H.P.5;
RPM1750;

Phase3; Hz60;
Amps(for230V)12.5;

DesignB;
Amps(for460V)6.25

Thestatorhastwo3phasewindings. Thecorrespondingphasesmaybeconnectedin
seriesorinparallel. Foraseriesconnection,theratingof460V,6.25Aappliesandfora
parallelconnection230V,12.5A. Thelatterappliesforourcase. Thus beforestartinglab
work,youmustremembertoconnectthetwo3phasewindingsinparallel
IV.INSTRUCTORLABORATORYPREPARATION
TheblockedrotortestinDay1willneedaspecialsupply,namely,3phaseACof15Hz.
This section assists the instructors to generate this supply. A separate work station with a
synchronousmachineistobeusedandthesupplywillreachotherstationsthroughthestationtie
line.
ThecircuitconnectionsandprocedurewillbesomewhatsimilartoDay3ofSynchronous
Machineexperiment,exceptthatnosynchronizationwillhavetobeperformed. Connectthe
fieldwindingsofthesynchronousmachinetotheoutletsoftheFieldExciter.Connectthethree
terminalsofthearmatureofthemachinetothe1Mcontactorthroughthethreephasetransducer
package.Usevoltmeterstomeasurelinetolinevoltages.Theoutputsidesofthe1Mcontactors
gotothetielines.SeeFigure2forthecircuitdiagram.

Tie
Line

F1
Field
Exciter

Synchronous
Machine

3phase
Meter
Package

F2

1M
Figure2.CircuitforGeneratingtheSpecialSupply

TurnthedynoandACTestDrivecircuitbreakersONandputthecontactorpanelinthe
HANDmode.2MmaybeOFFasitisnotused.Toprotectthefieldexciter,makesurethatthe
fieldconnectionismadeandtheexciterisoff.Nowmakethefollowingsettingsonthedyno:
SPEEDmode; FULLfield;

CurrentLimit=50%.

Themode(MANUAL/COMPUTER)isyourchoice.Turnthedynoonwiththespeedsettingat
zero.Increasethespeedto450rpm(2rpm).(450rpmwillgenerateafrequencyof15Hz).
NowturntheexciteronandincreaseIfwatchingthegeneratedvoltage.IncreaseIf(0.60.7A)
suchthatthelinetolinegenerated(opencircuit)voltageis60(1)volts.Whenthecurrentwill
bedrawn,thevoltagewilldropdowntoabout15V.
ThissupplywillbeusedintheBlockedRotorTest.Atonetimethesupplyshouldbe
madeavailabletoonlyonestationandotherstationsmusthavenoconnectionsmadetothetie
line.Uponmakingtheconnection,thelinecurrentshouldbeapproximately12.5A.Ifthereisa
sizabledifference,adjustIf,whichchangesthevoltage.
Whenallaredone,firstreduceIftozeroandturntheexciteroff.Thereafter,reducethe
dynospeedtozeroandturnitoff.
V.LABORATORYPROCEDUREDAY1
Inthefirstday'swork,experimentswillbeperformedfordeterminingimpedancesofthe
equivalentcircuit. TheMONITORcomputerprogramwillactasyour"multimeter"forthese
experiments.
A.

DCRESISTANCETEST

TheschematicforthistestisgiveninFigure3. ConnectthetwoleadsfromtheDC
circuittoanytwostatorterminalsoftheinductionmotor.Thereshouldbenootherconnection
tothemotor. Makesurealloftheloadboxswitchesareintheoff(center)position. Using
properprocedures,connecttheinputtothe125VDClaboratorysupply. Haveyourwiring
checked by your instructor. Close the circuit breaker and line contactor 1M. By proper

manipulationoftheloadboxswitches(connectingresistiveelementssuccessivelyinparallel),
bringtheDCcurrentthroughthetwostatorphasewindingsuptoapproximatelytheratedAC
value(12.5A).ReadandrecordVdcandIdc.Openthelinecontactor,turnoffthepoweratthe
mainpowerpanel,anddisconnectthecircuit.
Ifthe250VDCsupplyisusedinsteadof125V,aslightlydifferentconfigurationistobe
adoptedfortheloadbox.Iftheresistors(whichare39ohmseach)areconnectedinparallelthen
thecurrentthrougheachwouldbeabout6.4amps,whichwouldbewellovertheratedcurrentof
theelement.Thus,groupsoftworesistors(inseries)shouldbeconnectedinparallelinthiscase.
LoadBox
1M
I
125Vdc

InductionMotor

V
externaldc
voltmeter
Figure3.SchematicforDCStatorResistanceTest
B.

NOLOADTEST

TheschematicforthistestisgiveninFigure4.Besurethatthemotorisuncoupledfrom
thedynamometer.Connectthemotorterminalstotheoutputofthetransducerpackagewhich
encompassespowermeasurementbythe2wattmetermethod. Thenmakeconnectionstothe
CombinationStarteroutput,usingpropersafetyprocedures.Yourwiringshouldbecheckedby
your instructor before proceeding. Close the circuit breaker and press START on the
CombinationStarterpanel.Thenoloadspeedshouldbeabout1799rpm.Readandrecordthe
linecurrents,linevoltage,andwattmeterreadings(youmayprefertojustprintthemonitorand
highlightthechannelsofinterest,asusual).STOPtheinductionmotorfromtheCombination
Starter.
Note: Actually,theinductionmotorisselfstarting,buttheCombinationStarterisusedtomake
thestartingsmoother.

CombinationStarter
IA

PA

IB

PB

IC

PC

V
230V
3
60Hz
V

InductionMotor

Figure4.SchematicforNoLoadandFullLoadMotorTests.
C.

BLOCKEDROTORTEST

Withthepowerturnedoff,connectthemotortothetransducerpackageand3phase
contactor1MtotheStationTieLine,asshowninFigure5.Yourinstructorshouldverifyyour
wiring.Thetransducerpackageistoincludepowermeasurementbythetwowattmetermethod.
Nowclamptheshaftofyourmotorasexplainedbyyourinstructor.Onememberofthegroup
shouldholdtheclamp(sothattheshaftdoesn'tbangtoastop).IMPORTANT:Onlyonegroup
(station)atatimemayconnecttothetieline. Onasignalfromyourinstructor,close1M.
Allowthereadingstostabilize(5secondsorso),thencapturethedataonthecomputerscreen.
TurnOFFthe1M3phasecontactorandremovethewiresfromthestationtieline.Highlight
linecurrents,voltages,andpowerreadingsonyourprintout.TheaverageofIa,Ib,andIcwill
beIbr.
V

1M
IA
Station
TieLine
(energizedat
15V,15Hz)

PA

lowvoltage
output
IB

PB

IC

PC

InductionMotor

Figure5.SchematicforBlockedRotorTest

VI.LABORATORYPROCEDUREDAY2
Forthisperiod,theobjectivesarefullloadoperationoftheinductionmotorwithline
supplyandACTestDrivesupply,andobtainingdataforinductionmotorcharacteristicsbya
computerizedtest.
A.

FULLLOADTESTWITHLINEOPERATION

Themotormustbecoupledtothedynowiththechainguardinplace.Unpinandzerothe
torquetablewiththecomputer.Thecircuitforthistestisthesameasthatusedforthenoload
test(Figure4).Afteryourinstructorhascheckedyourwiring,STARTtheinductionmotor.If
thedirectionofrotationisnotpositive(asperourconvention),STOPthemotor,interchangetwo
terminalsatthemotorconnection,rezerothetorquetable,andagainSTART.
The speed should be slightly less than the noload speed. Capture the data on the
computerdisplayforlaterreference. PlacethedynocontrolintheCURRENTmode,FULL
field. Setthecurrentto0withtheCurrentLimitat30%. STARTthedynamometer. There
shouldbenochangeinthespeedofthemachine.NowincreasetheCurrentControlslowlyin
thesenseoppositetothedirectionofrotation.Onememberofthelabgroupshouldobservethe
computerreadouttodeterminewhenfullloadspeed(17502rpm)isreached.(Note:Itmay
benecessarytoincreasetheCurrentLimitslightlytoachievefullloadspeed)Readandrecord
linevoltage,linecurrents,wattmeterreadings,torque,andspeedorjustgetaprintoutofthedata
onthecomputerscreen.STOPthedynamometer,thenSTOPtheinductionmotor,andturnOFF
thecombinationstarter.
B.

ACTESTDRIVESUPPLY

AdetaileddescriptionofACTestDriveisintheSynchronousMachineExperiment6
(SectionIII:LaboratoryEquipment).Here,theinductionmachineisoperatedwiththiskindof
supply.
ThecircuitdiagramisthesameasinFigure4,exceptfortwodifferences:
(a)
and

(b)

TheACinputisfromthe3phaseoutputterminalsoftheACTestDrive(rather
thanthecombinationstarter).
Connectoneofthelinevoltagestoanisolationpackage.

Alter/maketheconnectionsandhavethemcheckedbyyourinstructor.Rezerothetorquetable.
TurnONthecircuitbreakerfortheACTestDrive.

Withthefrequency(voltage)controlsettozero,startthedrivebyfrequencycontrol.If
thedirectionofrotationis"wrong,"reducethefrequencycontroltozero,STOPtheACTest
Drive,altertheFORWARD/REVERSEswitchsettingandagainSTART.Smoothlyincreasethe
frequencycontrol. (Thisisknownas"softstarting"). Watchhowvariablespeedoperationis
possible(infullrange)andnotethatspeedabove1800rpmispossible.(Howdoesitcompare
withlineoperation?)
Connecttheoutputoftheisolationpackagetoanoscilloscopetoexaminethewaveform
ofthelinetolinevoltage.Use"LineTriggering"onthescopeandvarythefrequencycontrolof
theACTestDrivesothatthepictureonthescopebecomesstationary.Inthiscondition,theAC
inputtothemotorisat60Hz.Roughlycopythewaveformontoyournotebooknotingdownthe
associatedscales.(Optional:takeapictureusingaPolaroidcamera.)
Getaprintoutofthedataonthecomputerdisplayfortheexistingcondition.Whyare
current,speedetc.differentfromthelineoperationcase?
SetthedynamometerandapplyaloadjustasinPartA(lineoperation)andrecordthe
data onthe computer display. CAUTION: Becertain that youare loading the motor; i.e.
increasingdynocurrent(torque)inthedirectionopposingrotation. TheACTestDriveisnot
regenerative,anda"runaway"conditionmayoccurifyoudrivethemachineasagenerator.
(However,regenerationispossibleinlineoperation.)
Reducethedynocurrentsettingtozeroandturnifoff. Reducethefrequency/voltage
knoboftheACTestDriveandturnitoff.
C.

COMPUTERIZEDTESTFORCHARACTERISTICS

Inthispartoftheexperiment,thedynowillforcetheinductionmotorthroughspeeds
zero(blockedrotor)through1800rpm(synchronousspeed).Thecomputerwillrunthetestin
accordancewithyourspecificationsandrecordthedata.
ThecircuitforthistestisgiveninFigure6.Notethathere230V,60Hzisused(instead
ofthecombinationstarterortheACTestDrive). ThedatatobeobtainedisforTorquevs.
SpeedandCurrentvs.Speedgraphs. Hence,measurementsofvoltagesandpowersarenot
required.Theammetersofthetransducerpackagearedesignedforamaximumcurrentof25A,
butcurrentmagnitudesintheexperimentwillbewelloverthatvalue.Therefore,thecurrentwill
bemeasuredthroughacurrenttransformer(CT).TheCTratioof50:5isselectedbasedon
(a)
theactualmaximummagnitudeofthecurrent
and (b)
avoidanceofsaturation(forthesakeofaccuracy).

230V
60Hz
Output
Terminals

CT50:5
1M
Contactor

InductionMotor
IA

Figure6.CircuitDiagramforComputerizedCharacteristicsTest
ThewiringdiagramisgiveninFigure7(sothatyoucanverifyyourconnections). Withthe
circuitwiredandcheckedbytheinstructor,unpinandzerothetorquetablereadingfromthe
computer.
Manuallystarttheinductionmotortocheckthedirectionofrotation.Ifitisoppositeto
the"+"directionmarked,STOPthemotor,andreversethephasesequence.Oncethedirection
ofrotationhasbeenverified,STOPthemotor.
ExittheMONITORprogramandentertheINDUCTIONMACHINEprogramfromthe
PowerExperimentsmenu.BesurethatallneededcircuitbreakersandswitchesareturnedON.
Also,thethermocouplemustbeconnected,otherwiseafalsetemperaturemeasurementmaynot
letthetestproceed(duetothethermalprotectionfeatureintheprogram).
Forthenumericalvalues(testparameters)requestedbytheprogram,enterthefollowing:
InitialSpeed(RPM):
1860
FinalSpeed(RPM):
0
RampTime(seconds)
10(sec.)
DynoCurrentLimit:
100%
When all values have been entered, select "Continue with above values" and press
<Enter>.Whenthecomputerdisplays,"Pressanykeywhenallswitcheshavebeenset",dothe
following:
PutthedynocontrolintoCOMPUTERmode,
SelectFULLfieldonthedynopanel,
Putthe1McontactorintheAUTOposition.

FURNAS

2A

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
125 V DC 250 V DC

CONTROL POWER
110 V AC

IAR

IAL
DYNAMDRIVE

sec

DC TEST
DRIVE

IBL

pri

IBR

CT

AC TEST
DRIVE

230 V AC

ICR

ICL

THERMOCOUPLE
AC COMB

2B

STARTER

InductionMotor

2-STEP STARTER

ID
IE
125 V DC

250 V DC
TACH

A
AC TEST

DC TEST
BLOWER

230 V AC

AC
STARTER

TIE
LINE

FurnasMotorControlCenter
gure7.WiringDiagramforFigure6.

Fi

Onceyoupressakeytostartthetest,thedynowillbeturnedonfirstandthenthe1M
contactorwillbeturnedon. NotethatthedynoissettoSPEEDmodebytheprogram. The
speedsettingwillberampedaccordingtothetestparametersenteredandthedatastored.When
theprogramexits,savethedatafile.
When the test is over, place all controls in MANUAL or HAND position to avoid
accidental starting. Youshould obtain a printed copy ofthe data and check to seeif it is
reasonable.
Notes:
(i)

The experiment for gathering data for the required characteristics cannot be
conductedinamanualway("Manual"Method).Thelargecurrentsrequiredfor
thetestwoulddestroythemotor.Inthecomputerizedmethod,thelargecurrents
areofshortdurationandsotolerable.

(ii)

ThedynoisplacedintheSPEEDmodebytheprogram.Ifthedynoisplacedin
theCURRENTmode,itwouldbeacomplicatedproceduretoobtaindataforthe
completecharacteristics.
VII.CALCULATIONSANDGRAPHS

1.

Determinetheimpedances(resistancesandinductances)oftheequivalentcircuitmodel
usingtheDCtest,BlockedRotortest,andNoLoadtestdata.

2.

Usethismodeltopredictmotorperformanceatthesamevoltageandspeedasinthefull
loadlineoperation.

3.

Calculatetheaveragelinecurrent,power,powerfactor,horsepower,andefficiencyfrom:
(a)
fullloadlineoperationdata,
and
(b)
fullloadACTestDriveSupplydata.

4.

Fromthecomputercontrolledexperimentdata,plotTorquevs.Speedand(Average)
Currentvs.Speedfrom0to1800rpm.Discardpoints(ifany)above1800rpm.
VIII.ANALYSIS

1.

Prepareatablecomparingpredictedandmeasuredperformanceoftheinductionmotor
operatedfromthe230Vline.Mentionsomesourcesofthediscrepancies.

2.

Compareefficienciesfromlineandinverter(ACTestDrive)operationandcommenton
thedifference.

3.

In terms of the equivalent circuit, explain the relationship of increasing current and
decreasingpowerfactorasthemotorisslowedbelowsynchronousspeed.

4.

Examinethegraphsintheneighborhoodofns.Intermsoftheequivalentcircuit,what
arethespeed,torque,power,andstatorcurrentatns?

Dynamic modelling of the induction motor

Vector control purpose

Mechanical motion

Linear motion

For linear motion, the forces acting on a body may usually be simplified to a driving
force, Fe, acting on the mass, and an opposing force (or load), Fl, as shown on
Figure 1.

Figure 1: A body acted on by two forces.

For translational motion the following may be written:

dv Fe FL

dt
M

In any speed and position control of linear motion, force is the fundamental variable
which needs to be controlled.

Rotary motion

If the motion is rotary about an axis instead of translational, a situation as shown in

Figure 2 arises.

Figure 2: A body acted on by two torques.

For rotary motion the following may be written:

dw T TL

dt
J

In any speed and position control of rotary motion, torque is the fundamental
variable which needs to be controlled.

Torque in an electric drive

Electromagnetic torque produced by a motor is opposed by load torque. The

Tem TL
difference,

, will accelerate the system.

Figure 3: A load acted on by a motor

For motor-load motion the following may be written:

dw Tem TL

dt
J

Torque is the fundamental variable which needs to be controlled. Note that under

Tem TL
steady state conditions angular speed is constant and

DC-motor drive performance

One of the most essential qualities of a motor is the ability to generate torque. The
total torque may be described by

Tem ka f I a

where Ia is the current flowing in the armature and ka becomes a factor describing
the physical shape of the winding. DC machine equivalent circuit is shown in Figure
4.

Figure 4: DC machine equivalent circuit

Tem
To change
as a step, the armature current ia is changed as a step by the powerprocessing unit as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: DC-motor drive performance

Emulation of DC-motor drive performance

ia t
In vector control of induction-motor drives, the stator phase currents

isq t

ic t
and

ib t

are controlled in such a manner that

delivers the desired

isd t
electromagnetic torque while

maintains the peak rotor-flux density at its

isq* t

isd* t

rated value. The references values

and
are generated by the torque,
speed, and position control loops. The total torque may be described by

Tem kT Br isq

Simulation
Simulink

of

induction

machine

using

Matlab

and

Traditionally in analysis and design of 3-phase induction motors, the per-phase

equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 6 has been widely used. In the circuit, Rs (Rr) is
the stator (rotor) resistance and Lm is called the magnetizing inductance of the
motor. Note that stator (rotor) inductance Ls (Lr) is defined by

Ls = Lls + Lm,

Lr = Llr + Lm

(1.1)

where Lls (Lrs) is the stator (rotor) leakage inductance. Also note that in this
equivalent circuit, all rotor parameters and variables are not actual quantities but
are quantities referred to the stator.

Figure 6: Conventional Per-phase Equivalent Circuit

It is also known that induction motors do not rotate synchronously to the excitation
frequency. At rated load, the speed of induction motors are slightly (about 2 - 7%
slip in many cases) less than the synchronous speed. If the excitation frequency
injected into the stator is wsyn and the actual speed converted into electrical
frequency unit is wm, slip s is defined by

s = (wsyn - wm ) / wsyn = wslip / wsyn,

(1.2)

and wslip is called the slip frequency which is the frequency of the actual rotor
current.

Although the per-phase equivalent circuit is useful in analyzing and predicting

steady-state performance, it is not appropriate to explain dynamic performance of
the induction motor.

Dynamic model in space vector form

In an induction motor, the 3-phase stator windings are designed to produce

sinusoidally distributed mmf in space along the airgap periphery. Assuming uniform
airgap and neglecting the effects of slot harmonics, distribution of magnetic flux will
also be sinusoidal. It is also assumed that the neutral connection of the machine is
open so that phase voltages, currents and flux linkages are always balanced and
there are no zero phase sequence component in the system.

For such machines, the notation in terms of the space vector is very useful. For a
sinusoidal 3-phase quantity of constant rms value, the space vector of the stator
voltage, current and flux linkage are constant-magnitude vectors rotating at the
frequency of the sinusoid with respect to the fixed (stationary) reference frame.
With space vector notation, voltage equations on the stator and rotor circuits of
induction motors are,

v Ri

d
dt

v Ri L

Li

di dL
i
dt dt

where the voltages v and currents i are vectors, and where the resistance R and
inductance L are matrices. Eq. 34 describes the electromagnetic system by a set of
6x6 matrices of differential equations. The coupling between stator and rotor is
dependent on the rotor-position.

Phase transformation

In many cases, analysis of induction motors with space vector model is complicated
due to the the fact that we have to deal with variables of complex numbers. When
induction motors are controlled by a vector drive, control computation is often done
in the synchronous frame. Since actual stator variables either to be generated or to
be measured are all in stationary a-b-c frame, frame transform should be executed
in the control. The most popular transform is between stationary a-b-c frame
quantities to synchronously rotating d-q quantities.

If the goal is to create a rotating space vector describing a circle, three phases with
sinusoidal currents are not necessary. From analytic geometry it is known that the
circle may be described by two coordinates in space (x and y). This may be used in

this case, by placing two coils at 90 and by supplying them with sinusoidal current
displaced by 90 (or /2). These two coils are usually named the d-coil and the qcoil. In the rotating frame of reference the frame of reference in regard to the phase
A is named the d-axis (for direct axis) and the other axis is named the q-axis (for
quadrature axis).

This method reduces the three-phase system to a two-phase system.

Doing this, it is possible to model the cross-couplings between the individual coils. A
further advantage is that in steady-state, the currents flowing in the coils are a DC
current. Using the rotating frame of reference, the differentials of any state value
(d/dt) are zero in steady-state and when the differentials are different from zero,
they give the change from steady-state only. The rotating frame of reference also
has the advantage that the rotor-angle is known (it is a state).

Transformation of currents, voltages, flux-linkage, etc.

What remains is to define a method for performing the phase transformations to the
rotating frame of reference. The transformation is done by defining a
transformation-matrix for the systems as

f dq Tabcdq f abc

where f denote currents, voltages, flux-linkage, etc. For current case, this is shown
in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Transformation of phase quantities into dq winding quantities (current

case).

The electromagnetic torque

Properly the most important task for the induction motor is to produce a torque on
the shaft. The developed torque may be written on the flowing form,

Tem

p
rqird rd irq
2

d-q equivalent circuit

The result from the above is a set of equations describing the electromagnetic
system in the rotating frame of reference. The equations describing the system may
be interpreted as equivalent circuits, which may help in understanding the
dynamics of the system.

Using this set of equations, it is possible to construct an equivalent-diagram of the

d-, and q-axis individually. For the rotating frame of reference the resulting
equivalent diagram for each of the axis is shown in Figure 105 .

a) d-axis

b) q-axis
Figure 8. dq-winding equivalent circuits.

Solving the system: Voltages as Inputs

What remains is to find a strategy for solving the differential equations given in Eq.
5555. One possibility exist: solving for the flux linkages and then calculating the
currents. The flux linkage associated with the d-, q-axis are calculated as

Computer simulation

In order to carry out computer simulations, it is necessary to calculate intial values

of the state variables, that is, of the flux linkages of the dq windings. These can be
calculated in terms of the initial values of the dq windings currents. These currents
allow us to compute the electromagnetic torque in steady state, thus the initial
loading of the induction machine. Initial conditions are computed in Example 3-1
and in the matlab file EXE_1.m (or EXE_2.m).

Finally, the Simulink model is shown in Figure 9.

Load Torque

DQ-WINDING REPRESENTATION
Va

Va

Inertia

Vb
i_dq
Vc

Vb

i_dq

f(u)

Tem

1/Jeq

Torque Eq. 3-47

Wmech

rad/s --> RPM

1
s

Eq. 3-48

Wmech

-K-

RPM
Tem

ELECRODINAMICS

abc --> dq
Vc

Plot

Entrada
trifasica
Info

Start
Double Click to
load parameters and initial conditions

Figure 3-13 Simulation of Example 3-3; File Name EX3_3_1.mdl

After Simulation, Double Click to

plot results using MATLAB

Electromagnetic Torque on the Rotor d-Axis

n

weber-vueltas

La figura 2.11 muestra las relaciones de causalidad entre i, H, B, , y .

El flujo enlazado por el devanado q del rotor es

rq Lr irq Lmisq

Lm
El devanado q tiene una inductancia constante
magnetomotriz que genera este flujo enlazado es

Fisq

3 2Ns
isq
p

r r
Hdl
ni

El campo magnetico H (aplicando

H isq

1
lg

3 2Ns
isq
p

. Por tanto, la fuerza

isq
La densidad de campo en el entrehierro debida a

Bisq

0
lg

es

3 2N s
isq
p

irq
Del mismo modo la densidad de campo en el entrehierro debida a

Birq

0
lg

es

3 2 N s Lr
irq
p
Lm

Por lo tanto:

Brq

0
lg

3 2Ns
p

isq

Lr
irq
Lm

The concept of vector control has opened up a new possibility that induction motors
can be controlled to achieve dynamic performance as good as that of DC or
brushless DC motors. In order to understand and analyze vector control, the
dynamic model of the induction motor is necessary. It has been found that the
dynamic model equations developed on a rotating reference frame is easier to
describes the characteristics of induction motors.

It is the objective of the article to derive and explain induction motor model in
relatively simple terms by using the concept of space vectors and d-q variables. It
will be shown that when we choose a synchronous reference frame in which rotor
flux lies on the d-axis, dynamic equations of the induction motor is simplified and
analogous to a DC motor.

PRINCIPLES OF VECTOR CONTROL

So far, we have not paid attention to the alignment of the rotating reference frame
with respect to the physical coordinate. Noting in Eq. 3.28 that torque is directly
proportional to Iqs if qr = 0, one can choose the rotating d-axis to be the angle of
the rotor flux linkage. In fact, this choice offers a lot of advantages of simplifying
control and analysis of the motor. Other choices frequently used in direct vector
control are stator flux linkage frame (d-axis is aligned to the stator flux linkage) and
airgap flux linkage frame, which will be discussed briefly at the end of the section.

Principles of operation

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying

conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it
will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the
external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite
(North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South)
repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction
between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational
motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or
winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South"
polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field
magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that BEAMers will see), the
external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets1. The stator is the
stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent
magnet pole pieces. The rotors (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with
respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being
electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power
is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and
the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches
alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding.
Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current through the
rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating.
In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very common
number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with
our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned
with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a
moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both
commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy,
and damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that
it would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic
with the position of the rotor).

ou'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but two others
are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the next,
one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs
within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime you
can see that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series wiring:

There's probably no better way to see how an average DC motor is

put together, than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is
tedious work, as well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly
good motor.
Luckily for you, I've gone ahead and done this in your stead. The
guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the same
model that Solarbotics sells) are available for you to see here (on
10 lines / cm graph paper). This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2
brushes and three commutator contacts.
The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite common, and has a number
of advantages2. First off, the iron core provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a
particularly important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also conducts heat away
from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven harder than might otherwise be the
case. Iron core construction is also relatively inexpensive compared with other construction
types.