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on the same saturation line, one of those sloping upwards to the left
on the charts. For example, all of these points are on the same
saturation line: ( T , H ) = (250, 0.008), (170,0.026) and (100,0.043);
Besides the obvious processes of humidification and dehumidification of air for control of environment, interaction of air and water is
a major aspect of the drying of wet solids and the cooling of water
for process needs. Heat and mass transfer then occur simultaneously. For equilibrium under adiabatic conditions, the energy
balance is
where ps is the vapor pressure at the wet bulb temperature T,,. The
moisture ratio, H l b water/lb dry air, is related to the partial
pressure of the water in the air by
H = W,,,/W,.
(9.5)
H, - H = ( h / A k ) ( T- T,,)
= (C/A)(T- T ) .
% R H = 100H/Hs = lOOp/p,.
For water, numerically C = h/k, so that the wet bulb and adiabatic
saturation temperatures are identical. For other vapors this
conclusion is not correct.
For practical purposes, the properties of humid air are
recorded on psychrometric (or humidity) charts such as those of
Figures 9.1 and 9.2, but tabulated data and equations also are
available for greater accuracy. A computer version is available
(Wiley Professional Software, Wiley, New York). The terminal
properties of a particular adiabatic humification of air are located
(9.6)
231
p. = exp(11.9176 - 7173.9/(T
+ 389.5)),
atm, "F.
(9.8)
232
Figure 9.1. Psychrometric chart in English units (Carrier Corp. Syracuse, NY).Example: For air at 200F with
H = 0.03 Ib/lb: T, = 106.5"F,V, = 17.4 cuft/lb dry, 100H/Hs = 5.9%, h = h, + D = 84 - 1.7 = 82.3 Btu/lb dry.
233
EXAMPLE
9.1
Conditions in an Adiabatic Dryer
The air to a dryer has a temperature of 250F and a wet bulb
temperature of 101.5"F and leaves the process at 110F. Water is
T,=lOOF
T, = 250 F
H = 0.043
Tnb= 101.5 F
Dry air =
1OOHRI, = 73%
l5Oo
= 45,455 lb/hr
0.043 - 0.010
D =q229.8/15(~/4)=4.4ft.
5. The humid volume is the volume of 1lb of dry air plus the
volume of its associated water vapor,
(9.9)
+ C,H
(9.10)
+ (0.45T + 11OO)H.
(9.11)
h = h, + D.
(9.12)
5
2.4
10
1.6
15
1.0
20
0.7
25
0.55
Other criteria for dryers and cooling towers will be cited later.
9.2. RATE
OF DRYING
_--=
dW
A de
(9.13)
235
. Fino1 rnoistule
content (FMC)
Tme
Relative, humidity %
(b)
N
,
a
L
z
0
-
n
a
0
LL
t
4
n
V. SATURATION
(C)
UOlSlURE
CJNTENT.LBS./LB.Of
DRI S A N D
(4
Figore 9.3. (a) Classic drying curve of moisture content against time; a heat-up period in which no drying occurs also is usually present
(Proctor and Schwartz, Inc.; Schweitzer, p . 4.144). (b) Equilibrium moisture content as a function of relative humidity; many other data are
tabulated in Chemical Engineers Handbook (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984, 20.12). (These data are from National Academy of Science,
copyright 1926.) (c) Rate of drying as a function of % saturation at low (subscript 1) and high (subscript 2) drying rates: (A) glass spheres,
60 pm, bed 51 mm deep; (B) silica flour, 23.5 pm, 51 mm deep; (C) silica flour, 7.5 pm, 51 mm bed; (D) silica flour, 2.5 p , 65 mm deep (data
of Newitt et al., Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. 27, 1 (1949). (d) Moisture content, time and drying rates in the drying of a tray of sand with
superheated steam; surface 2.35 sqft, weight 27.125 Ib. The scatter in the rate data is due to the rough numerical differentiation (Wenzel,
Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, 1949). (e) Temperature and drying rate in the drying of sand in a tray by blowing air across it. Dry bulb
76.1C, wet bulb 36.0"C (Ceaglske and Hougen, Trans. AIChE 33, 283 (1937). (f) Drying rates of slabs of paper pulp of several thicknesses
[after McCready and McCabe, Trans. AIChE 29, 131 (193311. ( g ) Drying of asbestos pulp with air of various humidities [McCready and
McCabe, Trans. AIChE 29, 131 (1933)l. (h) Effect of temperature difference on the coefficient K of the falling rate equation -dW/dB = KW
[Sherwood and Comings, Trans. AIChE 27, 118 (1932)l. (i) Effect o f air velocity on drying of clay slabs. The data are represented by
R =~,OU~.'~(H
- ,H).
, , The dashed line is for evaporation in a wetted wall tower (Walker, Lewis, McAdams, and Gilliland, Principles of
Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1937).
236
0.4
BO
c.L
u.
::
70
4,
0.3
3
60
p.
w
0
0.2
j
0
*
Y
50
Y
I-
w
U
"
r
R F A C E TEMPERATURE
0. I
40
.e
30
IO
15
20
25
30
35
(e)
"0
0.5
x,FREE
.o
(f)
0.4
10
0.3
0.9
N
4z
00
.
e
L
w
m
L
0.7
0.2
F
a
WC
06
05
0.1
04
0.3
Average free moisture content, lb/lb
(g)
Figure 9.3-(conrinued)
1.5
20
dW
--={
d0
237
EXAMPLE
9.2
Drying Time over Constant and Falling Rate Periods with
Constant Gas Conditions
The data of Figure 9.3(d) were obtained on a sample that contained
27.125 lb dry sand and had an exposed drying surface of 2.35 sqft.
Take the case of a sample that initially contained 0.1681b
moisture/lb dry material and is to be dried to W = 0.005 Ib/lb. In
these units, the constant rate shown on the graph is transformed to
This checks the reading off the plot of the original data on Figure
9.3( d).
= 0.04 Ib/lb.
e=- w-w,
+)
1
+In(
0.03292 0.823
- 0.168-0.04 I 1 :,, 0.04
- 0.03292
0.823 (0.005)
= 6.42 hr.
238
EXAMPLE
9.3
Drying with Changing Humidity of Air in a Tunnel Dryer
A granular material deposited on trays or a belt is moved through a
tunnel dryer countercurrently to air that is maintained at 170F with
steam-heated tubes. The stock enters at 1400 lb dry/hr with
W = 1.161b/lb and leaves with O.llb/lb. The air enters at 5%
relative humidity (H, = 0.0125 lb/lb) and leaves at 60% relative
humidity at 170F (H, = 0.203 Ib/lb). The air rate found by moisture
balance is 7790 lb dry/hr:
170 F, H, = 0.203
7790 Ib/hr
170 F,H, =
0.01 25
w = 0.10
W = 1.16
dW
-loo-=
dB
0.28 (lb/lb)/hr,
(2)
( 0.28(Hs - H,)
0.0082
1.16
1.oo
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.58
0.50
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.203
0.174
0.156
0.138
0.120
0.099
0.210
0.182
0.165
0.148
0.130
0.110
0.096
0.080
0.061
0.045
0.0315
0.084
0.066
0.048
0.030
0.0125
RH
0.335
0.29
0.24
0.18
0.119
0.050
I,,
0.10
0=
1/Rate
0.044
4.184
3.663
3.257
2.933
2.933
2.809
3.003
3.247
4.695
6.173
9.804
0.040
0.035
0.028
0.021
0.011
by trapezoidal rule.
-00
f \
(3)
Rate
0.239
0.273
0.303
0.341
0.341
0.356
0.333
0.308
0.213
0.162
0.102
dw
We
(4)
v-m
00
00
Air
Stock
00
EXAMPLE
9.4
S=1400
W=140
S=1400
W = 1624
Humidity of the air at any point is obtained from the water balance
(1)
(2)
(3)
C = 0.24 + 0.45Hg.
(4)
I
900
170- T, =-(H, - H,)=-(H,
C
C
H,).
(5)
The drying rate equations above and below the critical moisture
content of 0.58 are
R=O
=(
0.58<W<1.16, (6)
W C0.58.
(7)
H, =
A = 7790
H, =
dW
-loo- dB
.. .
34.15(R + 1)o.8(H
H,),
s
60.33(R+ 1)o'8(HsH,)(W-0.014),
239
+ 1 and no
1. Specify the recycle ratio R (lbs recycle/lb fresh air, dry air basis).
2. Take a number of discrete values of W between 1.16 and 0.1.
For each of these find the saturation temperature T, and the
drying rates by the following steps.
3. Assume a value of T,.
4. Find H,, Ps,H,,and C from Eqs. (1)-(4).
5. Find the value of T, from Eq. ( 5 ) and compare with the assumed
value. Apply the Newton-Raphson method with numerical
derivatives to ultimately find the correct value of T, and the
corresponding value of H,.
6. Find the rate of drying from Eqs. (6), (7).
7. Find the drying time by integration of the reciprocal rate as in
Example 9.3,with the trapezoidal rule.
The printout shows saturation temperatures and reciprocal
rates for R = 0, 1, and 5 with recycle; and for R = 1 with only the
fresh air rate increased, using Eq. (8). The residence times for the
four cases are
R = 0, moist air, 0 = 3.667hrs
= 2.841
= 1, moist air,
= 1.442
= 5, moist air,
= 1.699.
= 1, fresh air,
Although recycling of moist air does reduce the drying time
because of the increased linear velocity, an equivalent amount of
fresh air is much more effective because of its lower humidity. The
points in favor of moist air recycle, however, are saving in fuel
when the fresh air is much colder than 170F and possible avoidance
of case hardening or other undesirable phenomena resulting from
contact with very dry air.
R = 1, fresh air
R = 1, moist air
R = 5, moist air
~~
1 I Rate
1 I Rate
1 4 0 I F R B S ( K / T X = . ~ B ~THEN
~ ~
168
158 GOTO 70
160 P R I N T U S I N G 178 i W > T c l / R l !
Subst RZ f o r R 1 when W<.58
170 IMAGE D . DDI 2 x 1 DDD . DD, 2 X a D . DD
DD
1 7 5 GOTO 38
180 END
280 ! SR f o r sat temp
2 1 0 P=EXP(11.9176-7173.3/(T+J89.
5))
! 5at humidit
220 H = . 6 2 1 * P / { l - P >
>
238 Y = 1 7 0 - T - 9 8 8 S < H - H l ) / C
2 4 0 R1=34.15S~R+l)*.#*CH-H1)
25EI R2=68.33SCR+l~*.#S(H-Hl)t(W.014)
268 RETURN
270 END
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