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Important Inorganic Compounds

Water
Most abundant inorganic compound
Vital properties

High heat capacity- does not change


temperature easily
Chemical reactivity- serves as a base
for reactions
Cushioning

Expands when it freezes


pH of 7 (neutral)

Important Inorganic Compounds


Water is polar:

- Good solvent- able to dissolve many


substances if they are polar
- Surface tension- water molecules
adhere to one another across its
surface
- Capillarity- water will rise up in a
tube due to cohesion and adhesion

Water and wastewater analysis


WATER POLLUTANTS AND THEIR SOURCES
TYPES OF POLLUTANTS

Non point sources : This is made up of pollutants from Agricultural runoff


and urban runoff( stormwater drainage). This is characterized by multiple
discharge points.

Point sources : This is made up of pollutants from domestic sewage and


industrial waste collected by a pipe network or channels and conveyed to
a single point for discharge .

In general point source pollution can be reduced or eliminated through


waste minimization and proper wastewater treatment prior to discharge to
a natural water source

Definition

Water
Earths surface is covered by 71% water
Essential for life can survive only a few days without water
A watershed describes the total area contributing drainage to a stream or
river
May be applied to many scales
A large watershed is made up of many small watersheds

Use of Water Resources


Humans directly or indirectly use about 54% of reliable runoff
Withdraw 34% of reliable runoff for:
Agriculture 70%
Industry 20%
Domestic 10%
Leave 20% of runoff in streams for human use: transport goods,
dilute pollution, sustain fisheries

Could use up to 70-90% of the reliable runoff by 2025

Four Major Types of Water Pollution

Safe drinking water

Free from pathogenic organisms


Clear
Not saline
Free from offensive taste or smell
Free from compounds that may have adverse
effect on human health
Free from chemicals that cause corrosion of
water supply systems

Unit Measurement
Parameter

Value

Dissolved oxygen

mg/L or ppm

Water temperature

Degrees C or F

pH
Total ammonia nitrogen

mg/L or ppm

Nitrite

mg/L or ppm

Alkalinity/Hardness

mg/L or ppm CaC03

Salinity

g/L or ppt salt

ppm: Most dissolved substances found in water are measured in parts per million
(ppm) or even smaller amounts. This means that for every one million parts (units)
of water there is a certain number of parts of the substance.
Concentration: Concentrations of certain substances are also measured in
parts per billion, parts per trillion and so on. These are very small amounts
but certain substances can be harmful even at these very low concentrations.
8

Water Quality Monitoring: Malaysia


Perspective
National Monitoring Network Established in 1978.
Aims
to establish the status of river water quality;
To detect changes in water quality as a result of development
activities.
To-date, 902 manual stations in 120 basins (462 rivers).
Program include:
In-situ measurements (more than 6 parameters: Turbidity,
dissolved oxygen, salinity, temperature, pH and electrical
conductivity.)
Sampling and Laboratory Analyses (24 physicochemical and
biological parameters). 10 Automatic water quality monitoring
stations on major rivers
To detect changes in river water quality on a continuous basis.
Water Quality levels violating the ambient standard for specific
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parameters will be transmitted real-time to DOE.

10

11

Effects of pollutant to environment and human

12

Major water pollutant categories and principal


sources of pollutants
Pollutant category Point Sources
Domestic
sewage

Industrial
Wastes

Non-Point Sources
Agric. runoff

Urban runoff

Oxygen-demanding
material

Nutrients

X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

Pathogens

Suspended solids
/sediments
Salts

Toxic metals
Toxic organic chemicals
Heat

X
13

Major water pollutant categories and principal


sources of pollutants

Oxygen demanding material: Any material that can be oxidized in the


receiving water using dissolved molecular oxygen.

Sources : Food residue , human waste , food processing , paper


industry, farm inputs e. g fertilizer, pesticide, herbicides.

Effects : Threat to aquatic and human life.


Nutrients :

Source : Nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers, food processing


wastes, detergents etc.

Effect : Excessive nutrients leads to upset in the food web (chain) e .


g excessive growth of algae , water hyacinth etc.
Pathogenic Organisms : Bacterial, viruses and protozoa excreted by
diseased persons or animals

Effect : Makes water unsafe for drinking , fishing , swimming. Certain


shell fish become toxic.
Suspended solids / sedimentation: Organic and inorganic particles in
waste water discharged into a receiving water.

Effects : Organic suspended solids exert oxygen demand,


Reduces the usefulness of water

Sources : Soil erosion due to logging ,strip mining , construction


activities, discharge of industrial waste , destruction of aquatic life due
to sediment deposits.
14

Major water pollutant categories and


principal sources of pollutants
Salts :
Make up of the total dissolved solids (TDS) in water .
Sources : Discharge from industries, excessive use of
fertilizers ( inorganic ) in farming.
Effects :Damage to aquatic and plant life. Makes water
unsuitable for water supplies,

Toxic metals and toxic organic compounds :


Sources : Urban runoff, agricultural runoff use of farm inputs
e . g pesticides, herbicides etc ,industrial waste water
discharges e . g. electroplating , electronics.
Effects : Toxicity in the food chain, Toxic to human even in
small quantities.

Heat :
Sources : Industrial processes, power plants etc
Effect : increases rate of oxygen depletion, reduces aquatic life
of fish.
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EFFECTS OF NUTRIENTS ON WATER


QUALITY

Effects of Nitrogen :

In high concentrations, NH3-N is toxic to fish.


NH3, in low concentrations, and NO3 serve as
nutrients for excessive growth of algae
The conversion of NH4+ to NO3- consumes
large quantities of dissolved oxygen.

Effects of Phosphorus :

Serves as a vital nutrient for algae growth.


Increase in oxygen demand by dead algae
(made up of organic matter).
Over taxing of the Dissolved oxygen (DO)
supply of the water leading to fish death.
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Management Strategy for control of


excessive nutrients

Removal of nitrogen and / or phosphorus from waste


water before discharge using tertiary treatment.
Reduction in the use of substances or industrial
process or producing nitrogen and phosphorus
containing materials.
Waste minimization through recycling, conversion ,
technology modification etc.

17

Receiving Water Quality Standards (from INWQS)


parameter

units

CLASSES

IIA

IIB

III

IV

DO

mg/L

5-7

5-7

3-5

<3

<1

COD

mg/L

10

25

25

50

100

>100

BOD

mg/L

12

>12

Total
dissolved
solids

mg/L

500

1000

4000

Total
suspended
solids

mg/L

25

50

50

150

300

>300

Faecal
coliform

counts/
100ml

10

100

400

5000

5000

Total
coliform

counts/
100ml

100

5000

5000

5000

5000

>50000
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Receiving Water Quality Standards (from INWQS)


Class

USES

Represents water bodies of excellent quality. Standards sets for the conservation of natural
environment in its undisturbed state. Water bodies such as those in the national park areas,
fountain heads, inland and in undisturbed areas come under this category where strictly no
discharges of any kind is permitted. Water bodies in this category meets the most stringent
requirements for human health and aquatic life protection.

II

Represents water bodies of good quality. Most existing raw water supply sources come under
this category. In practice, no body contact activity is allowed in this water for the prevention of
probable human pathogens. There is a need to introduce another class for water bodies not
used for water supply but similar quality which may be referred to as Class IIB. The
determination of Class IIB standards is based on criteria for recreational use and protection of
sensitive aquatic species

III

Is defined with the primary objectives of protecting common and moderately tolerant aquatic
species of economic value. Water under this classification may be used for water supply with
extensive/advanced treatment. This class of water is also defined to suit livestock drinking
needs.

IV

Defined water required for major agricultural activities which may not cover minor application to
sensitive crops

Represent other water which do not meet any of the above uses
19

Environmental quality Regulations, 1979


(Sewage and Industrial Effluents)
Maximum Effluent Parameter Limits Standards A and B

20

Key water quality parameters for various


water uses

21

Water Quality Parameters


Physical parameters
Characteristics that respond to the sense of sight, touch, taste or
smell.
Six common parameters: Suspended solid, temperature, taste,
odor, color and turbidity
Chemical Parameter
Substance that dissolved in water
Total dissolved solid, alkalinity, hardness, metals, organic
compounds, and nutrients
Bacteriological/microbiological
Living organism that can be found in the water.
It may lead to bad taste, odour, corrosion and slime production
Pathogen
22

Physical parameters: Suspended Solid


(TSS)

TSS is the measure of


the sediment suspended
in the water.

Water with high TSS


usually has high Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS)
as well.

TSS is related to
turbidity.

Sediments suspended in
the water increase
turbidity.
23

Physical Parameter: Taste and Odor


Mainly due to organic substances,
Biological activity, and industrial pollution
Taste buds in the oral cavity specially
detect inorganic compounds of metals like
magnesium, calcium, sodium, copper, iron
and zinc

Water should be free from objectionable


taste and odor.
24

Physical Parameter: Color


May be due to the Presence of organic
matter, metals (iron, manganese) or highly
colored industrial waste
Desirable that drinking water be colorless
Desirable limit, 5 Hazen unit
Permissible limit 25 Hazen Unit

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Color
Surface water, Swampy areas are coloured
:not acceptable for domestic or industrial uses
Colouring Materials: Humic Substances
(organic debris ), leaves, needles of conifers
and wood
Iron sometimes present as ferric humate and
produces a colour of high potency
Natural colour exists as negatively charged
colloidal particles
Its removal can be made easily by coagulation
withtrivalent metallic ion, e.g., Al3+, Fe3+
26

Color
Apparent colour: Caused by
suspended matters
True colour: Caused by vegetable (or)
organic extracts that are colloidal
It is important to differentiate b/t
apparent and true colour
Colour intensity with pH: it should be
measured

27

ColourCause
Pollution : dyeing/ Textile/paper and
pulp
Lignin: Resistant to biological attack
Waternatural colour are yellowbrownish
in appearance
Potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl6) tinted
with cobalt chloride
Spectrometer analysis: 400 nm to 800
nm
28

Calculate color units by the


following equation:

29

Physical Parameter: Turbidity


Caused by suspended matter
High level turbidity shield and protect
bacteria from the action of disinfecting
agents

Desirable limit-5NTU (Nephelometric


Turbidity Units)
should be below 1 NTU when disinfection
is practiced
Permissible limit-10NTU

30

Turbidity
Turbid: water containing suspended matter
that interferes with the passage of light through
the water
Turbidity: caused by wide variety of
suspended materials that range in size from
colloidal to coarse dispersions, depending
upon the degree of turbulence

31

Environmental Significance
Aesthetics
Filterability: difficult, costly, shortens filter runs
Disinfection: Turbid water has harmful
organism,Chlorine dioxide, chlorine, Ozone, UV
Giardia lamblia
Turbidity in treated water must never exceed 1
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)
WHO guideline 5 NTU to prevent consumer
complaints 1mgSiO2/L = 1 unit of turbidity

32

How do we measure turbidity?


Nephelometric Turbidity Units
The instrument used for measuring it is called
nephelometer or turbidimeter, which measures the
intensity of light scattered at 90 degrees as a beam of
light passes through a water sample.
The unit used in the ancient times was JTU (Jackson
Turbidity Units), measured with the Jackson candle
turbidimeter. This unit is no longer in standard use.

33

How do we measure turbidity?

In lakes the turbidity is measured with a secchi disk .


This is a black and white disk that is dropped in the water attached to a
rope.
The depth that the disk reaches before it disappears from sight is recorded.
This provides an estimation of the turbidity level in the lake.
A turbidity measurement could be used to provide an estimation of the TSS
(Total Suspended Solids) concentration, which is otherwise a tedious and
difficult parameter to measure.

34

Chemical Parameter: Total Dissolved Solid


(TDS)
TDS is the measure of the material
dissolved in water
This measure is related to hardness,
salinity and conductivity
Hard water has more TDS than soft water.

35

Chemical Parameter: Nutrient


Excess nutrients cause algal blooms. As algae die and decay, the high
bacterial
load rapidly consumes dissolved oxygen.
Nitrate

Increasing level of nitrate is due to Agricultural fertilizers, manure, animal


dung, nitrogenous material ,sewage pollution (blue baby diseases to
infants)

Under normal conditions, the nitrogen cycle keeps the amount of


available nitrogen in balance with the demands. However, excessive use
of fertilizers and nutrient rich sewage release have created a surplus of
nitrate. The result is eutrophication from excess algae and bacteria with
reduced dissolved oxygen.
Phosphate

Phosphates concentrations in clean water is generally low; however,


phosphorus is used extensively in fertilizer and other chemicals.

The primary sources of phosphates to surface water are detergents,


fertilizers, and natural mineral deposits.
High levels of phosphate can over stimulate the growth of aquatic plants
and algae.

36

Biological Parameter:
Pathogens
Capable of infecting and transmitting diseases to human
Bacteria:
Virus: smallest microorganisms with sizes range from
0.01 to 0.3 m. Could cause certain disease like
hepatitis, flu, jaundice, polio
Protozoa: simplest animal species. Infection are
usually characterized by gastrointestinal disorders.
Fungi: can produce musty taste and odour as well as
colour and turbidity.
Algae: Increase the level of DO in water. But too
much of algae, will affect taste and smell and can
reduce the intensity of light penetration.
37

Dissolved oxygen and water temperature


Oxygen meter

dissolved oxygen and water


temperature usually vary over a
24 hour cycle.
Surface dissolved oxygen, mg/L

Surface water temperature, C

15

31

10

29

27

summer

25

0
6 a.m.

noon

6 p.m.

midnight

6 a.m.
38

Dissolved oxygen and water temperature

Stratification can cause dissolved oxygen and temperature to vary at


different depths in the same pond.

Epilimnion

High temperature
High dissolved oxygen

Thermocline
Hypolimnion

Low dissolved oxygen


Low temperature

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Chemical Parameter: Alkalinity

pH is the measure of hydrogen ion concentration


Neutral water pH-7
Acidic water has pH below 7
Basic water has pH above 7
Desirable limit 6.5-8.5 Beyond this limit the water will
affect the mucous membrane and water supply system
Capacity to neutralize acid
Presence of carbonates, bi-carbonates and hydroxide
compounds of Ca, Mg, Na and K
Alkalinity = hardness, Ca and Mg salts
Alkalinity > hardness - presence of basic salts, Na, K along
with Ca and Mg
Alkalinity < hardness neutral salts of Ca & Mg present
40

Chemical Parameter: Hardness


Capacity of water for reducing and destroying
the lather of soap
It is total concentration of calcium and
magnesium ions
Temporary hardness Bicarbonates of Calcium
and Magnesium
Permanent hardness Sulphates, chlorides and
nitrates of calcium and magnesium
0 50 mg/l
- soft
50 150 mg/l - moderately hard
150 300 mg/l - hard
300 above
- very hard
Surface water is softer than ground water
Causes encrustations in water supply structures

41

Alkalinity and Hardness


hardness

alkalinity
Total titratable bases
bicarbonate
carbonate
HCO3CO3--

Calcium bicarbonate

Ca( HCO3 )2

Calcium carbonate

CaCO3

Total divalent salts


calcium
magnesium
Ca++
Mg++

Magnesium
bicarbonate

Magnesium
carbonate

Mg( HCO3 )2

MgCO3
42

Alkalinity and Hardness


The form alkalinity takes is linked to pH of the system.

43

Chemical Parameter: Metal


IRON
One of the earths most plentiful resource
High iron causes brown or yellow staining of laundry, household
fixtures
Metallic taste, offensive odour, poor tasting coffee
Cause iron bacteria
Acceptable limit 0.3 mg / l

Fluoride
Occurs naturally
Long term consumption above permissible level can cause
dental flurosis (molting of teeth)
Skeletal flurosis
Acceptable limit 1 mg / l
Maximum permissible limit 1.5 mg / l
Remedy 1) Deflouridation
2) Mixing Fluoride free water
3) Intake of vitamin C,D, calcium, antioxidants

44

Arsenic
Occur in ground water
Industrial waste, agricultural insecticide
High arsenic causes 1) various type of dermatological lesions, muscular
weakness, paralysis of lower limbs, can also cause skin and lung cancer
Acceptable limit 0.05 mg / l
Heavy Metal
Present as mineral in soil and rocks of earth
Human activities
Battery Lead & Nickel
Textile - Copper
Photography Silver
Steel production Iron

45

Chemical Parameter: BOD & COD

46

Biochemical Oxygen Demand


(BOD)

As micro-organisms decompose (through respiration) organic matter, they


use up all the available oxygen.
BOD is amount of oxygen required to decay a certain amount of organic
matter.
If too much organic matter is added, the available oxygen supplies will be
used up.

The definition is:


1 mg/L of BOD will, after uptake by bacteria, decrease the DO level by
1 mg/L.
Note: 1 mg/L of BOD may correspond to more or less than 1 mg/L of the
offensive substance.
BOD is determined in the laboratory by measuring the depletion of
dissolved oxygen in the contaminated water placed in a closed
container, over the course of several days (usually 5 days)
47

Calculating BOD
sample size

volume of undiluted sample


volume of diluted sample

Dilution factor P
BODt

x100

volume of wastewater sample


volume of wastewater sample plus dilution sample

DOb ,t DOs ,t

P
DOb ,t dissolve oxygen concentrat ion in blank after t day of incubation , mg / L
DOs ,t dissolve oxygen concentrat ion in sample after t day of incubation , mg / L
P dilution factor
( DOs ,i DOs ,t ) ( DOb ,i DOb ,t ) f
BODt
P
DOs ,i initial dissolve oxygen of sample
DOb ,i initial dissolve oxygen of blank
f ratio of seed in diluted sample to blank
(volume of seed in diluted sample) /( volume of blank )

48

The BOD of a wastewater sample is


estimated to be 180mg/L.
What volume of undiluted sample should be
added to a 300 mL bottle? What are the
sample size and dilution factor using this
volume? Assume 4 mg/L BOD can be
consumed in the BOD bottle.
What is the BOD5 of wastewater sample if
DO values for the blank and diluted sample
after 5days are 8.7 and 4.2 mg/L,
respectively.
49

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)

Definition: The amount of oxygen required to oxidize a substance to


carbon dioxide and water by microorganisms.
When a water sample is placed in a closed container and inoculated
with bacteria, the oxygen consumption follows the pattern shown
below:

50

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) contd.

BOD can be described mathematically as a first order reaction as follows:

dL
kL
dt
L oxygen equivalent of the organic chemicals remaining
k reaction rate constant(in days-1 )
dL
kdt
L
Lt
t
dL
Lo L k 0 dt
ln

Lt
kt
Lo

or
Lt L0 e kt
Lo oxygen equivalent of organics at time , t o(mg/L)
Lt oxygen equivalent of the organic chemicals remaining at time , t (mg/L)
BODt Lo Lt
Lo Lo e kt
BODt amount of oxygen used in the consumption of organics
Lo ultimate BOD i.e. the maximum oxygen consumption possible when the waste has been completely degraded
51

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) contd.


Oxygen depletion:
Related to the ultimate BOD and the rate constant
(k)
The ultimate BOD increase in direct proportion to
the concentration of degradable organic matter.
The rate constant is dependent on the following:

The nature of the waste


The ability of the organisms in the system to use
the waste
The temperature
52

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND


(BOD)contd.- Temperature
The temperature

T= temperature of interest , 0C
kT= BOD rate constant at the
temperature of interest ( in days-1)
K20= BOD rate constant determined
at 200 C ( in days-1)
= Temperature coefficient. For
typical domestic wastewater this
varies from 1.135 for 4 0C to 20 0C
And 1.056 for 20 0C to 300C

kT k 20 ( )

T 20

53

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) contd.


Nature of the Waste

There are thousands of naturally occurring organic compounds, and not all of
them can be degraded;

Simple sugars and starches are rapidly degraded and will therefore have a
very large BOD rate constant.

Cellulose (for example, toilet paper) degrades much more slowly

Compounds such as the higher molecular weight polycyclic aromatic


hydrocarbons, highly chlorinated compounds such as DDT, PCBs, caffeine, or
many of the estrogenic compounds used 'in birth control pills are almost
undegradable in the BOD test or in conventional wastewater treatment. In
some cases,

Many of the phenolic compounds are actually toxic to the microorganisms,


killing them so that little or no degradation of the waste can occur.

The BOD rate constant for a complex waste depends very much on the
relative proportions of the various components.

The lower rate constants for treated sewage compared with raw sewage
result from the fact that easily degradable organics are more completely
removed than less readily degradable organics during wastewater treatment.

54

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) contd.


Ability of Organisms to Use Waste.
Any given microorganism is limited in its ability to use organic compounds.
Many organic compounds can be degraded by only a small group of
microorganisms.
In a natural environment receiving a continuous discharge of organic
waste, that population of organisms that can most efficiently use this waste
will predominate.
However, the culture used to inoculate the sample used in the BOD test
may contain only a very small number of organisms that can degrade the
particular organic compounds in the waste.
This problem is especially common when analyzing industrial wastes.
The result is that the BOD rate constant would be lower in the laboratory
test than in the natural water.
To avoid this undesirable outcome the BOD test should be conducted with
organisms that have been acclimated to the waste so that the rate
constant determined in the laboratory is comparable to that in the river.
Acclimated means that the organisms have had time to adapt their
metabolisms to the waste or that organisms that can use the waste have
55
been given the chance to predominate in the culture.

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) contd.


Temperature.
Most biological processes speed up as the temperature increases
and slows down as the temperature drops.
Because oxygen use is caused by the metabolism of microorganisms,
the rate of its use is similarly affected by temperature.
Ideally, the BOD rate constant should be experimentally determined
for the temperature of the receiving water.
There are two difficulties with this ideal.
Often the temperature of the receiving water changes throughout
the year. -a large number of tests would be required to define k.
An additional difficulty is the task of comparing data from various
locations having different temperatures.
Laboratory testing is therefore done at a standard temperature of 200
C, and the BOD rate constant is adjusted to the temperature of the
receiving water using the following expression:.
56

LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
Standard BOD Test: the standard BOD test is outlined
with emphasis placed on the reason for each step rather
than the details.
Step 1.
A special 300 mL BOD bottle (Figure 5-4) is completely
filled with a sample of water that has been appropriately
diluted and inoculated with microorganisms.
Samples require dilution because the only oxygen
available to the organisms is dissolved in the water.
The most oxygen that can dissolve is about 9 mg/L so
the BOD of the diluted sample should be between 2 and
6 mg/L.
57

LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF BOD


Standard BOD Test (contd.) Step1...
Samples are diluted with a special dilution water that contains a lot
of the trace elements required for bacterial metabolism so that
degradation of the organic matter is not limited by lack of bacterial
growth.
The dilution water also contains an inoculum of microorganisms so
that all samples tested on a given day contain approximately the
same type and number of microorganisms.
The ratio of undiluted to diluted sample is called the sample size,
usually expressed as a percentage:
Sample size (%) = Volume of undiluted sample x 100
Volume of diluted sample
The inverse relationship is called the dilution factor.
Dilution factor, P = Volume of wastewater sample
Volume of wastewater plus dilution water

58

Standard BOD Test (contd.) Step 1...


The appropriate sample size to use can be
determined by dividing 4 mg/L (the midpoint of
the desired range of diluted BOD) by the
estimated BOD concentration in the sample
being tested.
A convenient volume of undiluted sample is
then chosen to approximate this sample size.
The bottle is then stoppered to exclude air
bubbles.
59

Standard BOD Test (contd.) Step 2

Step 2.
Blank samples containing only the
inoculated dilution water are also placed in
BOD bottles and stoppered.
Blanks are required to estimate the
amount of oxygen consumed by the added
inoculum in the absence of the sample.

60

Standard BOD Test (contd.) Step 3


Step3.
The stoppered BOD bottles containing diluted samples and blanks
are incubated in the dark at 200C for the desired number of days.
The samples are incubated in the dark to prevent photosynthesis
from adding oxygen to the water and invalidating the oxygen
consumption results.
For most purposes, a standard time of 5 days is used.
To determine the ultimate BOD and the BOD rate constant,
additional times are used.

61

Standard BOD Test (contd.)


Step 4.

After the desired number of days has elapsed, the samples and
blanks are removed from the incubator and the dissolved oxygen
concentration in each bottle is measured.
The BOD of the undiluted sample is then calculated using the
following equation:

BODt

( DOb,t DOs ,t )
P

DOb,t = dissolved oxygen concentration in blank (blank) after t days


of incubation (in mg/ L)
DOs,t = dissolved oxygen concentration in sample after t days of
incubation (in mg/L)
P = dilution factor
62

Standard BOD Test (contd.) Step 3...


Note:
The preceding equation is valid only when the BOD of the seed water
or the dilution water is negligible.
If the BOD of the dilution or seed water is significant, then the
following equation must be used.

P = dilution factor

BODt

( DOs ,i DOs ,t ) ( DOb,i DOb,t ) f


P

DOb,t = the initial DO of the sample


DOb,i = the initial DO of the blank (seed) control
DOb,t = dissolved oxygen concentration in blank (blank) after t days of
incubation (in mg/ L)
DOs,t = dissolved oxygen concentration in sample after t days of
incubation (in mg/L
f = ratio of seed in diluted sample to seed in seed control = (% seed in
diluted sample)./(% seed in seed control) = (volume of seed in diluted
sample)/volume of seed in seed control)
63

Standard BOD Test (contd.)


Notes:
The preceding equation is valid only when the BOD of the seed
water or the dilution water is negligible.
If the BOD of the dilution or seed water is significant, then the
following equation must be used.
DOb,t = the initial DO of the sample
DOb,i = the initial DO of the blank (seed) control
f = ratio of seed in diluted sample to seed in seed control = (% seed
in diluted sample)./(% seed in seed control) = (volume of seed in
diluted sample)/volume of seed in seed control)

64

CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND(COD)


COD test
This is used to determine the oxygen equivalent of the organic
matter that can be oxidized by a strong chemical oxidizing
agent eg. Potassium dichromate in an acid medium.
In general the COD of a waste will be greater than the BOD5
because more compounds can be oxidized chemically than
can be oxidized biologically.
BOD5 is typically less than ultimate BOD( which is less than
COD) except for totally biodegradable waste.
The result can be correlated with BOD5 which can be used to
aid in the operation and control of the wastewater treatment
plant.

65

Acids and Bases


- Solutions can be acidic or basic
- Acids and Bases have unique properties when dissolved in
water
- Acids = sour taste
- Bases = bitter taste
- Indicators are substances that change color when mixed
with a solution, which helps to determine if a substance is an
acid or a base. (pH paper, Litmus paper, cabbage juice)
66

Acids
Proton donors (H+)
Acids contain hydrogen and produce positive
ions (H+) when dissolved in water
Acids = good electrolytes
Examples of acids:

Lemon Juice
Citric Acid
Carbonic Acid
HCl

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Bases
Proton acceptors
Bases contain hydroxide ions (OH-) when
mixed with water.
Bases = weak electrolytes
Examples of bases:
Ammonia
Soap
Bleach (chlorine)
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Combining Acids and Bases


-Mixing acids and bases is a balancing act.
(like a teeter-totter)

Acid + Base = neutral (water and salt)

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Combining Acids and Bases


EXAMPLE:
Acid + Base = neutral (water and salt)

H+ + OH-
Acid
Base
Ex. HCl +

NaOH

HOH + Salt
water

H2O + NaCl
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Measuring Acids and Bases


pH scale- used to measure the acidity of a
solution.
Measure pH with indicators
pH scale goes from 0 14
0 = very acidic
14 = very basic
7 = neutral

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Acids and Bases

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Important Inorganic Compounds


Neutralization reaction

Acids and bases react to form water


and a salt
Ex.HCl + NaOH -> H2O + NaCl

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pH
Measures relative
concentration of
hydrogen ions
pH 7 = neutral
pH below 7 = acidic

pH above 7 = basic
Buffers

Chemicals that can


regulate pH change
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Water and wastewater analysis


Best reference:
Sawyer, C.N., Mc Carty, P.L. Parkin, G.F., Chemistry for
Environmental Engineering and Science, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill

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