Boilers Basics

Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Chapter 4

: Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

A number of items must be fitted to steam boilers, all with the objective of
improving:
- Operation.
- Efficiency
- Safety
Several key boiler attachments will now be explained, together with their associated
legislation where appropriate.

4.1 Burners
4.1.1 Oil burners
The ability to burn fuel oil efficiently requires a high fuel surface area-to-volume
ratio. Experience has shown that oil particles in the range 20 and 40 m are the
most successful. Particles which are:
- Bigger than 40 m tend to be carried through the flame without completing the
combustion process.
- Smaller than 20 m may travel so fast that they are carried through the flame
without burning at all.
A very important aspect of oil firing is viscosity. The viscosity of oil varies with
temperature: the hotter the oil, the more easily it flows. Indeed, most people are
aware that heavy fuel oils need to be heated in order to flow freely. What is not so
obvious is that a variation in temperature, and hence viscosity, will have an effect on
the size of the oil particle produced at the burner nozzle. For this reason the
temperature needs to be accurately controlled to give consistent conditions at the
nozzle.

4.1.1.1 Pressure jet burners

A pressure jet burner is simply an orifice at the end of a pressurised tube. Typically
the fuel oil pressure is in the range 7 to 15 bar.
In the operating range, the substantial pressure drop created over the orifice when
the fuel is discharged into the furnace results in atomisation of the fuel. Putting a
thumb over the end of a garden hosepipe creates the same effect.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig 4.1 Pressure Jet Burner

Varying the pressure of the fuel oil immediately before the orifice (nozzle) controls
the flowrate of fuel from the burner.
However, the relationship between pressure (P) and flow (F) has a square root
characteristic, PF, or knowing the flowrate PF2.
For example if:
F2 = 0.5 F1
P2 = (0.5)2 P1, P2 = 0.25 P1
If the fuel flowrate is reduced to 50%, the energy for atomisation is reduced to 25%.
This means that the turndown available is limited to approximately 2:1 for a
particular nozzle. To overcome this limitation, pressure jet burners are supplied with
a range of interchangeable nozzles to accommodate different boiler loads.
Advantages of pressure jet burners:
- Relatively low cost.
- Simple to maintain.
Disadvantages of pressure jet burners:
- If the plant operating characteristics vary considerably over the course of a day,
then the boiler will have to be taken off-line to change the nozzle.
- Easily blocked by debris. This means that well maintained, fine mesh strainers are
essential.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

4.1.1.2 Rotary cup burner

Fuel oil is supplied down a central tube, and discharges onto the inside surface of a
rapidly rotating cone. As the fuel oil moves along the cup (due to the absence of a
centripetal force) the oil film becomes progressively thinner as the circumference of
the cap increases. Eventually, the fuel oil is discharged from the lip of the cone as a
fine spray.

Fig 4.2 Rotary Cup Burner

Because the atomisation is produced by the rotating cup, rather than by some
function of the fuel oil (e.g. pressure), the turndown ratio is much greater than the
pressure jet burner.
Advantages of rotary cup burners:
- Robust.
- Good turndown ratio.
- Fuel viscosity is less critical.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Disadvantages of rotary cup burners:

- More expensive to buy and maintain.

4.1.2 Gas burners

Being a gas, atomisation is not an issue, and proper mixing of gas with the
appropriate amount of air is all that is required for combustion.
Two types of gas burner are in use 'Low pressure' and 'High pressure'.

4.1.2.1 Low pressure burner

These operate at low pressure, usually between 2.5 and 10 mbar. The burner is a
simple venturi device with gas introduced in the throat area, and combustion air
being drawn in from around the outside.
Output is limited to approximately 1 MW.

Fig 4.3 Low Pressure Gas Burner

4.2.2.2 High pressure burner

These operate at higher pressures, usually between 12 and 175 mbar, and may
include a number of nozzles to produce a particular flame shape.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

4.1.3 Dual fuel burners

A dual burner is an interruptible device which can operate on both gas (main supply)
& oil (alternative supply) fuel.
The usual arrangement is to have a fuel oil supply available on site, and to use this
to fire the boiler when gas is not available. This led to the development of 'dual fuel'
burners.
The notice given by the Gas Company that supply is to be interrupted may be short,
so the change over to fuel oil firing is made as rapidly as possible, the usual
procedure being:
- Isolate the gas supply line.
- Open the oil supply line and switch on the fuel pump.
- On the burner control panel, select 'oil firing'.
(This will change the air settings for the different fuel).
- Purge and re-fire the boiler.
This operation can be carried out in quite a short period. In some organisations the
change over may be carried out as part of a periodic drill to ensure that operators
are familiar with the procedure, and any necessary equipment is available.
However, because fuel oil is only 'stand-by', and probably only used for short
periods, the oil firing facility may be basic.
On more sophisticated plants, with highly rated boiler plant, the gas burner(s) may
be withdrawn and oil burners substituted.

Fig 4.4 Dual Fuel Burner

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Table 4.1 Typical Turndown Ratio Available with Different Type of Burners

4.1.4 Burner Turndown

An important function of burners is turndown. This is usually expressed as a ratio
and is based on the maximum firing rate divided by the minimum controllable firing
rate.
The turndown rate is not simply a matter of forcing differing amounts of fuel into a
boiler, it is increasingly important from an economic and legislative perspective that
the burner provides efficient and proper combustion, and satisfies increasingly
stringent emission regulations over its entire operating range.
As has already been mentioned, coal as a boiler fuel tends to be restricted to
specialised applications such as water-tube boilers in power stations. The following
Sections within this Module will review the most common fuels for shell boilers.

4.1.5 Burner control systems

Boilers operators should be aware that the burner control system cannot be viewed
in isolation. The burner, the burner control system, and the level control system
should be compatible and work in a complementary manner to satisfy the steam
demands of the plant in an efficient manner.

Fig 4.5 Relating boiler output to controls and burner type

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

4.1.5.1 On / Off control system

This is the simplest control system, and it means that either the burner is firing at
full rate, or it is off. The major disadvantage to this method of control is that the
boiler is subjected to large and often frequent thermal shocks every time the boiler
fires. Its use should therefore be limited to small boilers up to 500 kg/h.
Advantages of an on/off control system:
- Simple.
- Least expensive.
Disadvantages of an on/off control system:
- If a large load comes on to the boiler just after the burner has switched off, the
amount of steam available is reduced. In the worst cases this may lead to the boiler
priming and locking out.
- Thermal cycling.

4.1.5.2 High/low/off control system

This is a slightly more complex system where the burner has two firing rates. The
burner operates first at the lower firing rate and then switches to full firing as
needed, thereby overcoming the worst of the thermal shock. The burner can also
revert to the low fire position at reduced loads, again limiting thermal stresses within
the boiler. This type of system is usually fitted to boilers with an output of up to
5000 kg/h.
Advantages of a high/low/off control:
- The boiler is better able to respond to large loads as the 'low fire' position will
ensure that here is more stored energy in the boiler.
- If the large load is applied when the burner is on 'low fire', it can immediately
respond by increasing the firing rate to high fire, for example the purge cycle can be
omitted.
Disadvantages of a high/low/off control system:
- More complex than on-off control.
- More expensive than on-off control.

4.1.5.3 Modulating control system

A modulating burner control will alter the firing rate to match the boiler load over the
whole turndown ratio. Every time the burner shuts down and re-starts, the system
must be purged by blowing cold air through the boiler passages. This wastes energy
and reduces efficiency. Full modulation, however, means that the boiler keeps firing
over the whole range to maximise thermal efficiency and minimise thermal stresses.
This type of control can be fitted to any size boiler, but should always be fitted to
boilers rated at over 10 000 kg/h.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Advantages of a modulating control system:

The boiler is even more able to tolerate large and fluctuating loads. This is
because:
- The boiler pressure is maintained at the top of its control band, and the level of
stored energy is at its greatest.
- Should more energy be required at short notice, the control system can
immediately respond by increasing the firing rate, without pausing for a purge cycle.
Disadvantages of a modulating control system:
- Most expensive.
- Most complex.
- Burners with a high turndown capability are required.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

4.2 Economizers
An economizer removes additional Btus from the stack gasses by circulating the
deaerated boiler feedwater through a series of bent tubes in the stack. This
translates into a free source of energy from the boiler operation. Finned tube
economizers are less costly and more efficient as the fins are a source of heat
transfer as well as the tubes. Economizers in watertube boilers typically increase the
efficiency of the boiler 4-10% which is usually less than a one year payback. Due to
the higher efficiencies of firetube boilers the payback is usually longer and therefore
economizers are not used as frequently on them. An economizer can also be a useful
means of increasing the steam capacity of a boiler.
The use of high sulfur oils, particularly #6 oil, is very corrosive on the economizer
tubes. This can be improved by increasing the temperature of the feedwater to the
economizer and the use of soot blowers but the life of an economizer in that
environment is limited to about 2-3 years. A bare tube economizer is easier to keep
free of the corrosive sulfur but requires more tubes to achieve the same efficiency as
a finned tube economizer.

Fig 4.6a Typical Economizer

Note:
Because the economiser is on the high-pressure side of the feedpump,
feedwater temperatures in excess of 100C are possible. The boiler water
level controls should be of the 'modulating' type, (i.e. not 'on-off') to ensure
a continuous flow of feedwater through the heat exchanger.
The heat exchanger should not be so large that:
- The flue gases are cooled below their dew point, as the resulting liquor may be
acidic and corrosive.
- The feedwater boils in the heat exchanger.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig 4.6b a Boiler with an Economiser

4.3 Superheaters
Whatever type of boiler is used, steam will leave the water at its surface and pass
into the steam space. Steam formed above the water surface in a shell boiler is
always saturated and cannot become superheated in the boiler shell, as it is
constantly in contact with the water surface.
If superheated steam is required, the saturated steam must pass through a
superheater. This is simply a heat exchanger where additional heat is added to the
saturated steam.
In water-tube boilers, the superheater may be an additional pendant suspended in
the furnace area where the hot gases will provide the degree of superheat required
(see Figure 4.7). In other cases, for example in CHP schemes where the gas turbine
exhaust gases are relatively cool, a separately fired superheater may be needed to
provide the additional heat.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig 4.7 water tube boiler with a superheater

4.4 Boiler Safety Valves & Fittings

4.4.1 Safety Valves
An important boiler fitting is the safety valve. Its function is to protect the boiler
shell from over pressure and subsequent explosion.
Many different types of safety valves are fitted to steam boiler plant, but they must
all meet the following criteria:
- The total discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be at least equal to the
'from and at 100 C capacity of the boiler. If the 'from and at' evaporation is used to
size the safety valve, the safety valve capacity will always be higher than the actual
maximum evaporative boiler capacity.
- The full rated discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be achieved within
110% of the boiler design pressure.
- The minimum inlet bore of a safety valve connected to a boiler shall be 20 mm.
- The maximum set pressure of the safety valve shall be the design (or maximum
permissible working pressure) of the boiler.
- There must be an adequate margin between the normal operating pressure of the
boiler and the set pressure of the safety valve.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig 4.8 Boiler safety valve

4.4.1.1 Safety valve regulations

A boiler shall be fitted with at least one safety valve sized for the rated output of the
boiler. The discharge pipework from the safety valve must be unobstructed and
drained at the base to prevent the accumulation of condensate. It is good practice to
ensure that the discharge pipework is kept as short as possible with the minimum
number of bends to minimise any backpressure, which should be no more than 12%
of the safety valve set pressure. It will be quite normal for the internal diameter of
the discharge pipework to be more than the internal diameter of the safety valve
outlet connection, but under no circumstances should it be less.

4.4.2 Boiler stop valves

A steam boiler must be fitted with a stop valve (also known as a crown valve) which
isolates the steam boiler and its pressure from the process or plant. It is generally an
angle pattern globe valve of the screw-down variety. Figure 4.9 shows a typical stop
valve of this type.
In the past, these valves have often been manufactured from cast iron, with steel
and bronze being used for higher pressure applications. The different standards state
that cast iron valves are no longer permitted for this application on steam boilers.
Nodular or spheroidal graphite (SC) iron should not be confused with grey cast iron

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

as it has mechanical properties approaching those of steel. For this reason many
boilermakers use SC iron valves as standard.
The stop valve is not designed as a throttling valve, and should be fully open or
closed. It should always be opened slowly to prevent any sudden rise in downstream
pressure and associated waterhammer, and to help restrict the fall in boiler pressure
and any possible associated priming.
To comply with Standard regulations, the valve should be of the 'rising handwheel'
type. This allows the boiler operator to easily see the valve position, even from floor
level. The valve shown is fitted with an indicator that makes this even easier for the
operator.
On multi-boiler applications an additional isolating valve should be fitted, in series
with the crown valve. At least one of these valves should be lockable in the closed
position. The additional valve is generally a globe valve of the screw-down, nonreturn type which prevents one boiler pressurising another. Alternatively, it is
possible to use a screw-down valve, with a disc check valve sandwiched between the
flanges of the crown valve and itself.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig 4.9 Boiler stop valve

4.4.3 Feedwater check valves

The feedwater check valve (as shown in Figures 4.10 and 4.11) is installed in the
boiler feedwater line between the feedpump and boiler. A boiler feed stop valve is
fitted at the boiler shell.
The check valve includes a spring equivalent to the head of water in the elevated
feedtank when there is no pressure in the boiler. This prevents the boiler being
flooded by the static head from the boiler feedtank.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig 4.10 Feedwater Check valve

Under normal steaming conditions the check valve operates in a conventional

manner to stop return flow from the boiler entering the feedline when the feedpump
is not running. When the feedpump is running, its pressure overcomes the spring to
feed the boiler as normal.
Because a good seal is required, and the temperatures involved are relatively low
(usually less than 100C) a check valve with a EPDM (Ethylene Propylene) soft seat
is generally the best option.

Fig 4.11 Location of Feedwater Check valve

4.4.4 Air vents and vacuum breakers

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

When a boiler is started from cold, the steam space is full of air. This air has no heat
value, and will adversely affect steam plant performance due to its effect of
blanketing heat exchange surfaces. The air can also give rise to corrosion in the
condensate system, if not removed adequately.
The air may be purged from the steam space using a simple cock; normally this
would be left open until a pressure of about 0.5 bar is showing on the pressure
gauge. An alternative to the cock is a balanced pressure air vent which not only
relieves the boiler operator of the task of manually purging air (and hence ensures
that it is actually done), it is also much more accurate and will vent gases which may
accumulate in the boiler. Typical air vents are shown in Figure 4.12.
When a boiler is taken off-line, the steam in the steam space condenses and leaves a
vacuum. This vacuum causes pressure to be exerted on the boiler from the outside,
and can result in boiler inspection doors leaking, damage to the boiler flat plates and
the danger of overfilling a shutdown boiler. To avoid this, a vacuum breaker (see
Figure 4.12) is required on the boiler shell.

Fig 4.12 Typical air vents and vacuum breakers

4.4.5 Bottom blowdown

This ejects the sludge or sediment from the bottom of the boiler. The control is a
large (usually 25 to 50 mm) key operated valve. This valve might normally be
opened for a period of about 5 seconds, once per shift.
Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14 illustrate a bottom blowdown valve and its typical
position in a blowdown system.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig. 4.13 Key operated bottom blowdown valve

Fig. 4.14 Typical position for a bottom blowdown valve

4.4.6 TDS control

This controls the amount of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the boiler water, and is
sometimes also referred to as 'continuous blowdown'. The boiler connection is
typically DN15 or 20. The system may be manual or automatic. Whatever system is
used, the TDS in a sample of boiler water is compared with a set point; if the TDS
level is too high, a quantity of boiler water is released to be replaced by feedwater
with a much lower TDS level. This has the effect of diluting the water in the boiler,
and reducing the TDS level.
On a manually controlled TDS system, the boiler water would be sampled every shift.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig. 4.15 Typical automatic TDS control system

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

4.5 Boiler Instrumentation & Measuring Devices

4.5.1 Pressure gauges
All boilers must be fitted with at least one pressure indicator.
The usual type is a simple pressure gauge constructed to BS 1780 Part 2 - Class
One.
The dial should be at least 150 mm in diameter and of the Bourdon tube type, it
should be marked to indicate the normal working pressure and the maximum
permissible working pressure/design pressure.
Pressure gauges are connected to the steam space of the boiler and usually have a
ring type siphon tube which fills with condensed steam and protects the dial
mechanism from high temperatures.
Pressure gauges may be fitted to other pressure containers such as blowdown
vessels, and will usually have smaller dials as shown in Figure 4.16.

Fig 4.16 Pressure Gage with a Ring Siphon

4.5.2 Gauge glasses and fittings

All steam boilers are fitted with at least one water level indicator, but those with a
rating of 100 kW or more should be fitted with two indicators. The indicators are
usually referred to as gauge glasses.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig 4.17 Gage Glass & Fittings

A gauge glass shows the current level of water in the boiler, regardless of the boiler's
operating conditions. Gauge glasses should be installed so that their lowest reading
will show the water level at 50 mm above the point where overheating will occur.
They should also be fitted with a protector around them, but this should not hinder
visibility of the water level. Figure 4.17 shows a typical gauge glass.
Gauge glasses are prone to damage from a number of sources, such as corrosion
from the chemicals in boiler water, and erosion during blowdown, particularly at the
steam end. Any sign of corrosion or erosion indicates that a new glass is required.
When testing the gauge glass steam connection, the water cock should be closed.
When testing the gauge glass water connections, the steam cock pipe should be
closed.
To test a gauge glass, the following procedure should be followed:
1- Close the water cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.
2- Close the drain cock and open the water cock
Water should return to its normal working level relatively quickly. If this does not
happen, then a blockage in the water cock could be the reason, and remedial action
should be taken as soon as possible.
3- Close the steam cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.
4- Close the drain cock and open the steam cock.
If the water does not return to its normal working level relatively quickly, a blockage
may exist in the steam cock. Remedial action should be taken as soon as possible.
The authorised attendant should systematically test the water gauges at least once
each day and should be provided with suitable protection for the face and hands, as
a safeguard against scalding in the event of glass breakage.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Note: that all handles for the gauge glass cocks should point downwards
when in the running condition.

4.5.2.1 Gauge glass guards

The gauge glass guard should be kept clean. When the guard is being cleaned in
place, or removed for cleaning, the gauge should be temporarily shut-off.
Make sure there is a satisfactory water level before shutting off the gauge and take
care not to touch or knock the gauge glass. After cleaning, and when the guard has
been replaced, the gauge should be tested and the cocks set in the correct position.

4.5.2.2 Maintenance
The gauge glass should be thoroughly overhauled at each annual survey. Lack of
maintenance can result in hardening of packing and seizure of cocks. If a cock
handle becomes bent or distorted special care is necessary to ensure that the cock is
set full open. A damaged fitting should be renewed or repaired immediately. Gauge
glasses often become discoloured due to water conditions; they also become thin
and worn due to erosion. Classes, therefore, should be renewed at regular intervals.
A stock of spare glasses and cone packing should always be available in the boiler
house.
Remember:
- If steam passes are choked a false high water level may be given in the gauge
glass. After the
gauge has been tested a false high water level may still be indicated.
- If the water passages are choked an artificially high water level may be observed
due to steam condensing in the glass. After testing, the glass will tend to remain
empty unless the water level in the boiler is higher than the top connection, in which
case water might flow into the glass from this connection.
- Gauge glass levels must be treated with the utmost respect, as they are the only
visual indicator of water level conditions inside the boiler. Any water level perceived
as abnormal must be investigated as soon as it is observed, with immediate action
taken to shut down the boiler burner if necessary.

4.5.3 Water level controls

The maintenance of the correct water level in a steam boiler is essential to its safe
and efficient operation. The methods of sensing the water level, and the subsequent
control of water level is a complex topic that is covered by a number of regulations.
The following few Sections will provide a brief overview, and the topic will be
discussed in much greater detail later.
External level control chambers
Level control chambers are fitted externally to boilers for the installation of level
controls or alarms, as shown in Figure 4.18.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig 4.18 External Level Control Chamber

The function of the level controls or alarms is checked daily using the sequencing
purge valves. With the handwheel turned fully anticlockwise the valve is in the
'normal working' position and a back seating shuts off the drain connection. The
handwheel dial may look similar to that shown in Figure 4.19. Some handwheels
have no dial, but rely on a mechanism for correct operation.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Fig 4.19 Purge Valve Handwheel

The following is a typical procedure that may be used to test the controls
when the boiler is under pressure, and the burner is firing:
- Slowly turn the handwheel clockwise until the indicating pointer is at the first
'pause' position. The float chamber connection is baffled, the drain connection is
opened, and the water connection is blown through.
- Pause for 5 to 8 seconds.
- Slowly move the handwheel further clockwise to full travel. The water connection is
shut-off, the drain valve remains open, and the float chamber and steam connections
are blown through. The boiler controls should operate as for lowered water level in
boiler i.e. pump running and /or audible alarm sounding and burner cut-out.
Alternatively if the level control chamber is fitted with a second or extra low water
alarm, the boiler should lock-out.
- Pause for 5 to 8 seconds.
- Slowly turn the handwheel fully anticlockwise to shut-off against the back seating
in the 'normal working' position.
Sequencing purge valves are provided by a number of different manufacturers. Each
may differ in operating procedure. It is essential that the manufacturer's instructions
be followed regarding this operation.
Internally mounted level controls
Level control systems with sensors (or probes) which fit inside the boiler shell (or
steam drum) are also available. These provide a higher degree of safety than those
fitted externally. The level alarm systems may also provide a self-checking function
on system integrity.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Because they are mounted internally, they are not subject to the procedures
required to blow down external chambers. System operation is tested by an
evaporation test to '1st low' position, followed by blowing down to '2nd low' position.
Protection tubes are fitted to discourage the movement of water around the sensor.

Fig 4.20 Internally Mounted Level Control

4.5.4 Pressure Switches

Pressure-limit switches and pressuretrols are operated by steam pressure. A typical
pressure switch is shown in figure 4.21. They control burner operation within a fixed
range of boiler pressures. Basically, they consist of a bellows assembly linked with a
snap switch through a pressure-adjusting mechanism. The bellows assembly
expands or contracts with any increase or decrease in boiler pressure and cause the
snap switch to open or close its contacts. The pressure-adjusting mechanism is set
so that the contacts open and close at specified values of cutout and cut-in boiler
pressures. The differential between the cutout and cut-in pressures may be either
adjustable or fixed.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

On boilers set up for automatic operation, the snap switch is wired into the burner
electric circuit so that it will break the circuit and stop the burner when the cutoff
pressure is reached and will make the circuit and restart the burner when the boiler
pressure falls below the cut-in pressure.

Fig 4.21 Pressure Switches

4.5.5 Stack Switches and Pyrostats

Stack switches and pyrostats consist basically of a bimetallic helix, a mounting
frame, a shaft carrying a contact mechanism, and an electric switch. The helix is
connected to the mounting frame at one end and to the shaft at the other.
Typical construction of a pyrostat is shown in figure 4.22.
Stack switches and pyrostats are mounted on the boiler smoke pipe or hood,
with the helix protruding into the path of the combustion gases. The switch is
wired into the burner electric circuit so that when the contacts are open, no
current is supplied to the burner except through the Protectorelay (to permit
initial ignition). When there is no heat in the boiler, the switch contacts are open.

Boilers Basics
Boiler Accessories, Fittings & Mountings

Figure 4.22 Construction details of a pyrostat.

When the burner is ignited, the increase in the stack temperature causes the
helix to expand, and this expansion in turn causes the shaft to rotate and close
the contacts. Unless the stack temperature decreases, the contacts will remain
closed, permitting the operation of the burner. In the event of flame failure, the
helix contracts as the stack temperature falls and causes the shaft to rotate in
the reverse direction. This opens the contacts and shuts down the burner.
Photoelectric Safety Combustion Controls
Photoelectric safety combustion controls consist basically of a photoelectric cell,
an amplifying unit, and a relay. These controls operate by the luminosity (light)
of the flame acting upon the photoelectric cell. The photo-electric cell makes a
contact within itself when light rays impinge upon it. The amplified current of the
photoelectric cell operates the relay, which is wired into the burner control
circuit, causing the relay to close the burner circuit when the flame is established
and to break the burner circuit in the event of flame failure.