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Introduction to DSP
i.e.
Ts
T
T
2
Thus sampling period should be less than or equal to half period of the signal.
Ts
Example 1.4.8
Solution : i) x( t ) = 25 e j 500 p t
w = 500 p
Here
\
2 p f = 500 p
f = 250 Hz
0.1
[ sin(-1800p t) + sin( 2200 pt) ]
2
w max = 2200 p
f max = 1100 Hz
iii) x( t ) = 10 sinc 5t
= 10
Here
1-2
Introduction to DSP
sin 5p t
5pt
w = 5p
2p f = 5 p
f=
5
2
\ Nyquist rate = 5 Hz
iv) x(t) = 2 sinc (50 t) sin (5000 p t)
1
1
sin 50pt
= 2
[ cos 4950 p t - cos 5050 p t]
sin 5000 pt =
25 p t 2
50pt
Here
w max = 5050 p
2p f max = 5050 p
f max = 2525 Hz
f1 =
W = f max = f 2 = 2000 Hz
ii) Here
x (t) =
1
1
= 0.25 msec
=
2W
4000
sin 2 ( 4000 p t)
( p t) 2
w = 8000 p f = W =
( p t) 2
8000 p
w
= 4000 Hz
=
2p
2p
1
1
= 0.125 msec.
=
2W
8000
Example 1.4.10
Solution : i) g 1 ( t ) = sinc (200 t)
sin 200 p t
=
200 p t
Here
\
w max = 200 p
f max = 100 Hz
TM
1-3
1
1
=
= 0.005 sec
200
2 f max
200 p t
( 200 pt) 2
=
Here
1- cos 400 pt
2( 200 pt) 2
w max = 400 p
f max = 200
1
1
= 2.5 msec
=
400
2 f max
w 1 = 200 p
Here
\
and w 2 = 400 p
f max = 200 Hz
and
Nyquist rate =
1
1
= 2.5 msec
=
400
2 f max
Example 1.5.6
Solution : i)
(-1) k d ( t - 2k)
k =-
k =-
The above signal is shown in the Fig. 1.1. Observe that the signal is
periodic with period T = 4
TM
Introduction to DSP
1-4
d(t)
k=0
d(t + 4)
k = 2
6
Introduction to DSP
d(t 4)
k=2
2
5 4 3
1
d(t + 2)
k = 1
0 1
d(t 2)
k=1
d(t 6)
k=3
(-1)k d (t - 2k )
k =-
ii) x( n) = (-1) n
= 1 ,
( n=0 )
-1 ,
( n=1)
1 ,
( n= 2 )
-1 ,
1 ,
( n= 3 )
( n= 4 )
-1 , .....
( n=5 )
iii) x( t ) =
w ( t - 2k)
k =-5
5
x(t) = w (t 2k)
k = 5
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
2 3
(a)
x(t) = w (t 3k)
k =
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
2 3
9 10 11
k
(b)
9 10 11 12 13 k
From above Fig. 1.2 (a), observe that x(t) exists from k = 11 to 11 only. Hence it is
non periodic signal.
iv) x(t) =
w ( t - 3k)
k =-
Above signal is shown in the Fig. 1.2 (b). Observe that the signal is
periodic with period 3.
TM
1-5
Introduction to DSP
Example 1.5.7
4
4
np
= sin
4
np
1
Compare this equation with x(n) = sin 2p f n, hence 2p f n =
f = cycles/sample. Since
4
8
k 1
f = = . There will be 8 samples in one period of DT sine wave.
N 8
np
Fig. 1.3 shows the waveform of x(n) = sin
and its even and odd parts are also shown.
4
Even and odd parts are given as,
1
Even part, x e (n) =
{x(n) + x(-n)} and
2
1
Odd part, x o (n) =
{x(n) - x(-n)}
2
Even part of x(n)
x(n)
5
0 1
3 4
sin
x(n)
np
4
x(n)
xe(n) =
1
[x(n) + x(n)] =0
2
xo(n) =
1
[x(n) x(n)]
2
Odd part
t
0 t 1
ii) x(t) =
2- t 1 t 2
This is a triangular pulse as shown in the Fig. 1.4. It's odd and even parts are also shown
in the Fig. 1.4.
TM
1-6
Introduction to DSP
x(t)
x(t)
1
xe(t) =
0
1
[x(t) + x(t)]
2
Even part
0.5
2
1
xo(t) =
1
[x(t) x(t)]
2
Odd part
0.5
0
0.5
pt
iii) x(t) = cos 2
2
1+cos pt
1+cos 2q
, since cos 2 q =
2
2
1 1
= + cos( pt)
2 2
x(t) =
TM
Here
2pft = pt f =
1-7
Introduction to DSP
1
or T = 2. The waveform x(t) and its odd and even parts are
2
1 cos p t
2
DC shift of
1
2
x(t)
1
T=2
x(t)
1
0
xe(t) =
1
[x(t) + x(t)
2
Even part
xo(t) =
1
[x(t) x(t)] = 0
2
[Zero odd part]
t
pt
Fig. 1.5 Odd and even parts of x(t) = cos2
2
Example 1.5.8
cos(pn)
Solution : i) x(n) =
0
for - 4 n 4
otherwise
This signal is given only for |n| 4. Hence it is not periodic. Let us calculate its energy
directly,
TM
E =
x(n)
1-8
Introduction to DSP
cos 2 ( pn)
n=
n=4
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 9 <
n =-4
for n 0
otherwise
Let us calculate power for this function, since cos ( pn) is periodic function i.e.,
N
N
1
1
P = lim
|x(n)|2 = lim
|(-1) n|2
N 2 N +1
N 2 N +1
n =-N
lim
lim
1
2N +1
1
2N +1
n =-N
[(-1) 2 ]n by rearranging
n =-N
N
1 = lim
n =-N
1
2 N +1 = 1 W
2N +1
1
1
lim |x(t)|2 dt
P = lim
|x(t)|2 dt = lim
T T -T / 2
T T
T -T / 2
1
lim
|x(t)|2 dt Here limits are changed to -, as T
T T
-
1
lim E ,
T
T
1
lim = 0
T T
Thus, power of the energy signal is zero over infinite time.
= 0E = 0,
since
1-9
Introduction to DSP
E =
|x(t)|2 dt
T T
and take lim . This will not change
,
2 2
T
E = lim
T -T 2
|x(t)|2
T 2
1
2
dt = lim T
|x(t)| dt
T
T
-T 2
by rearranging
T 2
1
= lim T lim
|x(t)|2 dt = lim T P since quantity inside brackets is P.
T
T
T
T -T 2
= By taking limits as T
Thus, energy of the power signal is infinite over an infinite time.
Example 1.5.10
pn
Solution : i) x(n) = 1+ cos
2
This signal is periodic, and it has a DC shift. It's frequency is,
pn
1 k
2p f n =
f= =
N= 4
2
4 N
Power is,
Here 1+ cos
P =
1
2N +1
| x(n)|2
n=- N
pn
pn
= 2 cos 2 , hence above equation becomes,
2
4
P =
1
9
2 cos 2
n =- 4
pn 2
4
= 9
4
cos 4
n =- 4
pn
4
3p
p
p
4 4
+ cos 4- + cos 4-
cos (- p)+ cos 49
4
2
p
p
3p
+1+ cos 4 + cos 4 + cos 4 + cos 4 (- p )
4
2
4
p
p
4
3p
+ 2 cos 4 + 2 cos 4
1+ 2 cos 4 (p )+ 2 cos 4
9
4
2
4
4
1
1 16
1+ 2+ + 0+ =
9
2
2 9
TM
1 - 10
Introduction to DSP
Example 1.7.3
Solution : i) x(3n - 1)
This waveform is obtained by precedence rule of time shifting and scaling. Fig. 1.6 (a)
shows the sketch of x(n).
Shifting : First x(n) is shifted/delayed by '1' sample to obtain x(n-1). This signal is
shown in the Fig. 1.6 (b).
Scaling : The time shifted signal x(n-1) of the Fig. 1.6 (a) is time scaled by 3 samples.
This means it is compressed by 3 samples. This signal gives x( 3n- 1). It is shown in the
Fig. 1.6 (c).
ii) y(1 - n)
Fig. 1.6 (d) shows y(n) and (e) shows y(-n). Then y(1- n) = y[-(n- 1)] is obtained by
delaying y(-n) by '1' sample. It is shown in the Fig. 1.6 (f).
3
x(n)
2
3 2 1
(d)
y (n)
(a)
1
2
3 2 1
1
2
x (n1)
3
2
2
1
2 1 0 1
y (n)
2
(b)
(e)
1
1
2
3 2 1
3
2
1
x (3n1)
3
y (1n)
2
(c)
1
2 1
(f)
0 1
2 1
1
1
2
3
1 - 11
Introduction to DSP
x (2n)
2
(a)
y (n4)
(b)
1
1
3
4
1
2
3
3
x (2n) + y (n4)
2
1
1
2
(c)
2
3
2
3
Example 1.8.4
Solution :
i) The system is memoryless, since y(n) depends upon x(n) i.e. present sample value
only.
ii) Since sine function is multivalued, it is not invertible. Hence system is noninvertible.
iii) System is causal, since y(n) depend on x(n) only.
sin 0
=1
0
Hence it is stable system.
by L'Hospital's rule.
TM
1 - 12
Introduction to DSP
= T
{x 2 (n)} =
sin [ x 2 (n)]
... (1)
... (2)
x 2 (n)
... (3)
... (4)
As long as x(n) is bounded, its magnitude will also be bounded. Hence the system is
stable.
Example 1.8.6
Solution : i) Dynamic system, since output depend upon previous inputs.
ii) Causal system, since output depends upon present and past inputs.
iii) Stable system, since y(n) is bounded as long as x(n) is bounded.
iv) Time invariant, since y(n) is not direct function of time 'n'.
TM
1 - 13
Introduction to DSP
Example 1.8.7
Solution :
i)
ii) Stability : Value of cosine function is between (1, 1). Hence y(n) is bounded as
long as x(n) is bounded. Hence the system is stable.
iii) Causality : The system is noncausal since x(n+1) requires future input.
iv) Linearity : Presence of 'cosine' function makes the system nonlinear.
v) Time invariance : System is time invariant, since there is no time index
manipulation.
Example 1.8.8
Solution : i) y( t ) = sin [ x( t +2)]
This system is not memoryless, noncausal, stable.
y1 (t) = sin [x1 (t + 2)]
y 2 (t) = sin [x 2 (t + 2)]
Linear combination of two outputs,
y 3 (t) = a 1 y 1 (t) + a 2 y 2 (t) = a 1 sin [x 1 (t + 2)]+ a 2 sin [x 2 (t + 2)]
Response to linear combination of inputs,
y3 (t) = f [a 1 x 1 (t) + a 2 x 2 (t)] = sin [a 1 x 1 (t + 2) + a 2 x 2 (t + 2)]
1 - 14
Introduction to DSP
Example 1.10.9
Solution : i) y ( n) = b n u ( n) * u ( n - 3)
y(n) =
h ( k) x (n- k) =
k =-
Here
u (k - 3)
bn-k u (n- k)
k =-
u ( k - 3) u (n- k) = 1 for 3 k n.
n
y(n) =
bn-k =
k= 3
bn b- k = bn
k= 3
=
1-
1
b
1
b
1 k
k= 3
1 3 1 n+1
-
b b
n
= b
since
1
1
bn-3 -
N2
k= N1
ak =
a N 1 - a N 2 +1
1- a
bn-2 - 1
b- 1
TM
1 - 15
Introduction to DSP
d ( n- 4 p)
ii) y ( n) = u ( n) *
p=0
y(n) = u (n) *
d (n- 4 p)
p=0
u (n) * d (n- 4 p)
p=0
y(n) =
u (n- 4 p)
p= 0
Example 1.10.10
Solution :
x(n) * y(n) =
x (k) y (n- k)
k =-
Here
nxl = 2
nyl = -1
and
and
similarly
nxh = 1
nyh = 2
The index of summation will be,
( 2 1) n (1 + 2)
i.e. 3 n 3
x(n) * y(n) =
x ( k) y(n- k)
and - 3 n 3
k =-
The value of n is varied from 0 to 3 in Fig. 1.8 (c) (d) (e) and (f) respectively. The
corresponding output is shown in Fig. 1.8 (j), (k), (l) and (m). For n 4, there is no overlap
between x(k) and y (n k) Hence convolution becomes zero.
The index is varied from n = 1 to 3 in Fig. 1.8 (g), (h) and (i) respectively. The
corresponding output is shown in Fig. 1.8 (n) (o) and (p). For n 4, there is no overlap
between x(h) and y (n k). Hence convolution becomes zero.
Thus the convolution of two sequences becomes, x(n) * y(n) = {1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1}
TM
1 - 16
Introduction to DSP
x(k)
(a)
0
2 1
y(k)
(b)
1
1 0
y(k)
n=0
2 1
2 1
y(1k)
n=1
1
x(k) y(2k)
1
0
k
x(k) y(3k)
(f)
(m)
x(k) y(1k)
y(1k)
(n)
(g)
0
3 2
(h)
4 3
(o)
k
2 1
S x(k)y(2k)
= 0 + 0 + 1+ 1 + 0 + 0
=2
S x(k)y(3k)
= 0 + 0 + 0+ 1 + 0 + 0 + 0
=1
4 3 2 1
x(k) y(3k)
y(3k)
n = 3
S x(k)y(1k)
= 0 1 +1 + 1 + 0
=1
x(k) y(2k)
y(2k)
n = 2
S x(k)y(3k)
=0+0+01+0+0+0
k = 1
3
n = 1
S x(k)y(2k)
= 0 + 0 1 1 + 0 + 0
= 2
(l)
k
y(3k)
0
S x(k)y(1k)
= 0 1 1 + 1 + 0
= 1
(e)
n=3
(k)
y(2k)
n=2
x(k) y(1k)
(d)
S x(k)y(k)
= 1 1 + 1 + 1
=0
x(k) y(k)
(j)
(c)
(p)
(i)
5 4
3 2 1 0
5 4 3 2 1
Example 1.12.5
Solution : i) Stability
Here
h(n) = ( 0.99)n u(n+ 3) = ( 0.99)n for n-3
Consider
|h(k)|
k = -
( 0.99) k
k= -3
TM
1 - 17
Introduction to DSP
ak
k= 0
1
1- a
= 103 <
since
1
, since
1- 0.99
k = -
ii) Causality
This system is non causal since h(n) 0 for n < 0.
Example 1.12.6
Solution : i) Causality : Since u(-n) is present, h(n) 0 for n < 0. Hence this system is
noncausal.
k = -
k = -
1 k
1 k
|h(k)| = 2 u(-k) = 2
k= 0
1 -k
k= 0
1 -k
Since = ( 2-1 ) -k = 2 k
2
2k
k= 0
y(n) =
h(k)
k = -
1 k
2 u(-k)
k = -
Here u(-k) is equal to '1' from - to 0. Hence two cases will be possible in above
equation. If n > 0, upper limit of 'k' will be '0'. If n < 0, upper limit of 'k' will be 'n'
0
1 k
k=
-k
k= 0
2k
k= 0
TM
1 - 18
Introduction to DSP
1 k
k = -
1 -k
k = -n
2k
k = -n
qqq
TM
y (n) =
h ( k) x (n- k)
k =-
H ( w) =
h ( k) e -jwk
k =-
This is Fourier transform of unit sample response and it is called transfer function. Putting
for h ( 0) and h (1),
H ( w) = h ( 0) e -jw 0 + h (1) e -jw 1
1 1 -jw
1
=
+ e
(1 + e -jw ) = 12 (1 + cos w - j sin w)
2 2
2
1
(1 + cos w) - j 12 sin w
=
2
1
w
\ Real part of H( w) H R ( w) = (1 + cos w) = cos 2
2
2
=
Imaginary part of H( w) H I ( w) =\
Magnitude of H( w) H( w) =
1
w
w
sin w = - sin cos
2
2
2
H R2 ( w) + H I2 ( w)
(2 - 1)
TM
... (2)
2-2
w
w
w 2
+- sin cos =
2
2
2
cos 4
w
w
w
cos 2 + sin 2 =
2
2
2
H ( w)
Phase of H ( w) = H( w) = tan-1 I
H R ( w)
=
-1
cos 4
w
w
w
+ sin 2 cos 2
2
2
2
w
w
= cos
2
2
... (3)
w
w
- sin 2 cos 2
w
-1 - tan w
=
= tan
2
2
2 w
cos
... (4)
cos 2
= tan
cos 2
Table 2.1 shows the calculations of magnitude and phase of H ( w) for few values of w .
Magnitude
w
H( w) = cos
2
-p
p
2
2p
3
0.5
p
3
p
2
1
2
p
4
p
3
3
2
p
6
p
3
3
2
p
6
p
2
1
2
p
4
2p
3
0.5
p
3
p
2
Phase H( w) =-
w
2
Fig. 2.1 (a) shows the magnitude and Fig. 2.1 (b) shows the phase plot of transfer function
based on calculations in above table.
Here note that transfer function H ( w ) is the continuous function of ' w' in the range of
-p w p . Hence magnitude and phase plots in this figure are continuous.
TM
2-3
|H(w)|
1
(a) Magnitude plot
of the transfer
function
H(w)
p
2
p
(b) Phase plot
of the transfer
function
p
2
1
(1+ e- jw)
2
H ( w) = H (- w)
... (5)
and
H (-w) = - H ( w )
3. The magnitude and phase plots are periodic with period 2p . Readers can verify this
statement by actually calculating magnitude and phase transfer functions of the
preceding example.
Example 2.2.8
Solution : To obtain DFT
X4 = [W4 ] x 4
1
1
1 1 2
1
X( 0)
1 -j -1
X(1)
j 1 1- j
=
=
1 -1 1 -10 0
X( 2)
j -1 -j 0 1+ j
1
X( 3)
TM
2-4
To obtain IDFT
xN =
\
x4 =
1
[WN* ] XN
N
1
[W * ] X4
4 4
1 2
4 1
4 1
- j 1- j
= 1 =
4 0 0
-1 0
j 1+ j
0 0
1
1
1
x( 0)
1
x(1)
j -1
= 1
4 1 -1
x( 2)
1
1 - j -1
x( 3)
8000
N
It is given that N = 2
Thus,
or
m
8000
= 160 samples.
50
m = log 2 N =
log 10 N
log 10 160
=
= 7. 322
log 10 2
log 10 2
N = 2m = 2 8 = 256
samples.
256
= 32 msec.
8000
TM
2-5
Example 2.4.8
Solution : X(0) = 0.25
X(1) = 0.125 j 0.3018
X(2) = 0
X(3) = 0.125 j 0.0518
X(4) = 0
For real valued sequence, X(N k) = X * ( k)
\
\
X( 8- k) = X* ( k)
X(5) = X( 8- 3) = X *( 3) = 0.125 + j 0.0518
X(6) = X( 8- 2) = X *( 2) = 0
X(7) = X( 8- 1) = X *( 1) = 0.125 + j 0.3018
Example 2.5.3
Solution : Here, h(n) =
{2,
2, 1}
i.e.
M= 3
x 1 (n) = 3, 0, - 2, 0, 2, 1,
0, 0
{
3
14442444
M -1 zeros
' L'samples of x( n)
Thesetwozeros
are appered
678
0 , 0 ,
x 2 (n) = 0, - 2, - 1, 0,
3
144444244444
' L'samples of x( n)
And
0, 0
123
M -1 zeros
h(n) = 2, 2, 1 , 0, 0, 0, 0, 0
424
3 1442443
1
L-1 zeros
' M'samples
h (n)
y 2 (n) = x 2 (n) 8
h (n)
TM
2-6
0
0
1
2
0 -2 0 2 6
y 1 (0)
3
( )
0
3
0
0
1
2
0 -22 6
y
1
1
y 1 (2)
-2 0
3
0
0
1
2
0 1 -1
( )
3
0
0
1
2 0 -4
y 1 3 = 0 -2 0
=
y 1 (4)
2
0 -2 0
3
0
0
1 0 2
2
0 -2 0
3
0
0 0 6
y 1 (5)
1
y (6)
0
1
2
0 -2 0
3
0 0 4
1
0
1
2
0 -2 0
3 0 1
0
y 1 (7 )
Similarly,
y 2 (n) = { 0, 2, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 } 8
=
{ 0,
{ 2,
2, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }
4, 6, 4, 1, 0, 0, 0 }
y 2 (n)
y (n)
Actually y (n) should contain samples of x (n) + samples of h (n) 1 = 12. The last two zero
in above y (n) are obtained due to two zeros appended in x 2 (n). Hence last two zeros can
be discarded.
Thus the output will be,
y (n) = 6, 6, 1, 4, 2, 6, 4, 3, 6, 4, 1, 0
qqq
TM
z-Transform
Example 3.1.7
Example 3.1.8
1 n
Solution : i) y [n ]= u [n ]
2
1
or
1 az 1
, z > a
1 n
z
u (n)
2
1
1 1
1 z
2
Y(z) =
1
1
, z >
1 1
2
1 z
2
1
, z >
2
ii) y [n ]= n x [n ]
z2
We have x (n)
z 2 16
, z <4
z
n x (n) z
dz z 2 16
d
X(z)
dz
du
dv
32 z
d u v dx u dx
, Here =
z .
dxv
2 16 2
v2
)
(z
z
or
Y(z) =
32 z 2
(z 2 16) 2
32 z 2
(z 2 16) 2
, z <4
(3 - 1)
TM
3-2
z-Transform
Example 3.2.9
1 n
1 -n
Solution : x(n) = - u(n) + 5 u(-n - 1 )
5
2
Rearranging the given x(n),
-n
1 n
1
x(n) = - u(n) + 5(2-1 ) u( - n- 1) , Here = 2-1
2
5
= (- 0.2) n u(n) + 5(2) n u (-n- 1)
= (- 0.2) n u(n) - 5[-2n u(-n- 1)]
By using standard z-transform pairs,
X(z) =
1
1+ 0.2 z-1
1- 2 z-1
We know that H(z)= h(n)z-n , comparing above equation with this H(z) we get,
n=0
h(n) =
{1,
-1, 0, 0, 0, 0, -1, 1}
Example 3.3.10
Solution : Step 1 : Converting X(z) to its positive powers,
X(z) =
\
Where
z 2 - z+ 0 . 5
z (z+1)
z 2 - z+ 0 . 5
X(z)
z+1
= 2
z
z - z+ 0 . 5
=
Step 2 :
z 2 (1+z-1 )
X(z)
=
z
z+1
1
1 1
1
z- - j z- + j
2
2
2
2
A1
A2
+
1
1
1
1
z- - j
z- + j
2
2
2
2
1
1 X(z)
A1 = z- - j
1
1
2
2 z
z= + j
2
TM
3-3
z+1
1
3
= -j
2
2
1
1
z- + j
2
2 z= 1 + j 1
2
A2
and
1
1 X(z)
= z- + j
2 z
2
1
1
z= - j
2
2
z+1
1
3
= +j
2
2
1
1
z- - j
2
2 z= 1 - j 1
2
Key Point
z-Transform
sufficient to determine A 2 .
1
3
1
3
-j
+j
2
2 + 2
2
1
1
1
1
z- - j
z- + j
2
2
2
2
X(z)
=
z
Step 3 :
1
3
1
3
-j
+j
2
2
2
2
X(z) =
+
1
1
1
1
1- + j z-1 1- - j z-1
2
2
2
2
Step 4 : Here causal sequences are assumed. Taking inverse z-transform of above equation,
3 1
1 n
3 1
1 n
1
1
x(n) = - j + j u (n) + + j - j u (n)
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
Simplification of above equations : Convert all the term to their polar form. It can be
converted with the help of P-R function on calculator. i.e.,
x(n) = (1.58 71.56) (0.707 45)n u(n) + (1.58 71.56) (0.707 45)n u(n)
= 1 . 58 e - j 71.56 ( 0 . 707 e j 45 ) n u (n) +1 . 58 e j 71.56 ( 0 . 707 e - j 45 ) n u (n)
= [1 . 58 e - j 71.56 ( 0 . 707) n e j 45n +1 . 58 e j 71.56 ( 0 . 707) n e - j 45n ] u (n)
= 1 . 58 ( 0 . 707) n [e j ( 45n-71.56 ) + e -j ( 45 n -71.56 ) ] u (n)
= 1 . 58 ( 0 . 707) n 2 cos ( 45 n- 71 . 56) u (n) By Euler's identity
= 3 . 16 ( 0 . 707) n cos ( 45 n- 71 . 56 ) u (n)
Example 3.5.14
Solution : i) y( n) = y( n - 1) - 0. 5y( n - 2) + x( n) + x( n - 1)
\
H(z) =
Y(z)
1+z-1
=
X(z) 1- z-1 + 0 . 5z-2
TM
z-Transform
z 2 +z
Im(z)
z 2 - z+ 0 . 5
z(z+1)
p1
(z- 0 . 5- j0 . 5)(z- 0 . 5+ j0 . 5)
Zeros : z 1 = 0,
Poles :
3-4
z 2 =-1
p 1 = 0 . 5+ j0 . 5,
z2
z1
p 2 = 0 . 5- j0 . 5
0.5
Re(z)
p2
H(z) =
=
Zeros : z 1 =
1
,
2
Poles : p 1 = 0 . 5,
Y(z)
2- z-2
=
X(z) 1- 0.7z-1 + 0.1z-2
2 z2 -1
z 2 - 0.7z+ 0.1
z 2 - 0.7z+ 0.1
1
1
z+
z
2
2
1
2
y(z) = z X(z)
{3 ,
2, 1, 0, 1, 2,
3}
Re (z)
1
0.2 0.5 2
p2 = 0 . 2
Example 3.5.15
x(n) =
1
2
p 2 p 1 z1
z2
z 2 =-
Im(z)
1
2 z 2 -
2
{3 ,
2, 1, 0, 1, 2,
3}
TM
3-5
z-Transform
Example 3.5.16
Solution : First let us convert powers of z in H (z) to positive values. i.e.,
H (z) =
=
\
z2
z2
3 - 4 z-1
1 - 3.5 z-1 + 1.5 z-2
z ( 3z - 4)
z2
- 3.5 z + 1.5
H (z)
3z - 4
= 2
z
z - 3.5 z + 1.5
... (1)
The denominator polynomial is quadratic (i.e. second order). Hence it will have two roots.
They are given as,
-b b 2 - 4 ac
2a
Here b =- 3.5, c = 1.5 and a = 1.
p1 , p2 =
p1 , p2
= 3, 0.5
Thus p 1 = 3 and p 2 = 0 . 5. Hence we can write equation (1) as,
H (z)
3z- 4
=
\
z
(z- 3) (z- 0.5)
A1
A2
+
z- 3 z- 0.5
A1 and A2 can be obtained as follows :
H (z)
A1 = (z- 3)
z z= 3
=
=
and
3z- 4
z- 0.5
z= 3
A2 = (z- 0.5)
=
=2
H (z)
z
z = 0.5
3z- 4
=1
z- 3 z = 0.5
H (z) =
=
3-6
z-Transform
2z
z
+
z- 3 z- 0.5
2
1- 3 z
-1
... (2)
1 - 0.5 z-1
1
= ( 0.5) n u (n)
for ROC :||
IZT
z > 0.5
1
1 - 0.5 z
Similarly since ||
z < 3, the first term of equation (2) will correspond to anticausal part of
h (n). Hence,
1
= - ( 3) n u (-n- 1) for ROC :||
IZT
z<3
1
1
3
z
Hence the unit sample response can be obtained as inverse z-transform of H (z) of
equation (2). i.e.,
h (n) = IZT {H (z)}
= -2 ( 3) n u (-n- 1) + ( 0.5) n u (n)
This is required unit sample response for stable system.
ii) Causal system :
The poles of this system are at p 1 = 3 and p 2 = 0.5. For the causal system the ROC is the
exterior of the circle. The ROC should not contain any poles. Hence ROC will be ||
z > 3.
The unit sample response can be obtained by taking inverse z-transform of equation (2)
i.e.,
2
1
+ IZT
1- 0.5 z
Since ROC is ||
z > 3 and causal system we can obtain the inverse z-transform of above
equation as,
h (n) = 2 ( 3) n u (n) + ( 0.5) n u (n)
Here since ROC is ||
z > 3, it does not include unit circle of ||
z = 1. Hence this system is
unstable.
TM
3-7
z-Transform
2
1
+ IZT
1- 3 z
1- 0.5 z
1 -1
z
Y (z) = 2X (z)
2
H (z) =
Y (z)
X (z)
2
1 -1
1- z
2
1
n
= (p k ) u (n), hence we get,
Here we use IZT
1
1- p k z
=
1 n
h (n) = 2 u (n)
2
This is the unit sample response of the given difference equation.
qqq
TM
Example 4.3.5
Example 4.4.6
Solution :
i) y ( n) = 0. 5 (x(n) + x(n - 1 ) = 0. 5 x ( n) + 0. 5x ( n 1)
Fig. 4.1 (a) shows direct form - I and Fig. 4.1 (b) shows direct form - II structure. Here
b 0 = 0.5 and b 1 = 0.5
z 1
x(n)
x(n)
0.5
y(n)
z 1
0.5
+
b0 = 0.5
b1 = 0.5
y(n)
(b)
(a)
ii) 3y ( n) 2y ( n 1) +y ( n 2) = 4x ( n) 3x ( n 1) + 2x ( n 2)
\
\
2
Here a 1 = ,
3
2
1
4
2
y (n 1) y (n 2)+ x (n) x (n 1)+ x (n 2)
3
3
3
3
1
4
a2 = , b 0 = ,
3
3
2
b 1 = 1, b 2 = .
3
(4 - 1)
TM
4-2
4
b0 =
3
x(n)
z 1
b1 = 1
y(n)
z 1
1
a2 =
3
z 1
2
b2 =
3
z 1
2
a1 =
3
x(n)
4
b0 =
3
2
a1 =
3
1
a2 =
3
z 1
y(n)
b1 = 1
+
z 1
2
b2 =
3
iii) y (n ) 5y (n 1) = 7x (n )
\
y (n) = 5y (n 1)+7 x (n)
Fig. 4.3 shows direct form I and II.
x(n)
y(n)
x(n)
z 1
z 1
5
Example 4.4.7
Solution :
i) y( n) = 0.5 y( n 1) 0.25 y( n 2) + x( n) + 0.4 x( n 1)
TM
y(n)
4-3
x(n)
y(n)
z
0.4
0.5
Direct form - I
1
z
0.25
x(n)
y(n)
z
0.5
0.4
Direct form - II
z
0.25
x(n)
z
z
3.6
y(n)
0.1
Direct form - I
z
0.6
x(n)
0.2
+
z
+
y(n)
0.1
3.6
Direct form - II
0.6
0.2
TM
4-4
x(n)
y(n)
z
0.1
Direct form - I
z
0.252
x(n)
0.72
0.7
+
z
y(n)
0.1
Direct form - II
z
0.252
0.72
Example 4.4.8
Solution :
Direct form - I and II
Here b 0 = 0.7 , b 1 = 0, b 2 =- 0.2 and a 1 = 0.1, a 2 = 0.72
0.7
x (n)
y (n)
z1
z1
+
0.1
z1
z1
0.2
0.72
TM
4-5
0.7
y (n)
z1
+
0.1
z1
0.72
0.2
Cascade structure
Y(z) = - 0.1z-1Y(z)- 0 . 72 z-2 Y(z)+ 0 . 7X(z)- 0 . 2 z-2 X(z)
H(z)=
0.7(z 2 - 0.285)
0 . 7 - 0 . 2 z-2
Y(z)
0.7z 2 - 0.2
=
= 2
= 2
X(z)
1+ 0 . 1z-1 + 0. 72 z-2
z + 0.1 z+ 0.72
z + 0.1z+ 0.72
=
= 0.7
Here,
H 1 (z) = 0.7
1- 0 . 53z-1
1+ 0 . 1z-1 + 0 . 72 z-2
1- 0 . 53z-1
1
H 2 (z) = 1 + 0.53 z
0.7
z1
+
0.1
y (n)
z1
0.53
0.53
z1
0.72
qqq
TM