Measurement and Errors

Chapter 1: Measurement and Errors
Contents
1.1 Principles of Measurement
1.2 SI Systems
1.3 Accuracy of Measurements
1.4 Reading Resolution
1.5 Errors in Measurements
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2
Principles of Measurement
Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an
accepted standard quantity.
It involves connecting a measuring instrument into the system under
consideration and observing the resulting response on the instrument.
The term measurement can also be used to refer to a specific result
obtained from the measurement process.
Measurand (Unknown
quantity to be measured)
Standard
(known quantity)
Process of
comparison
(measurement)
Result

3
(Read out)
Measurand
A quantity intended to be measured. (engineering) An object being
measured.
The physical quantity or the characteristic condition which is the object of
measurement in an instrumentation system.
Also called
i. Measurement variable
ii. Instrumentation variable
iii. Process variable
The measurand may be:
Fundamental quantity, e.g. length, mass, and time;
Derived quantity, e.g. speed, velocity, acceleration.
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Process of Measurement
1. Before measurement we have to ensure:
Methods/procedures of measurement.
Characteristics of the parameter.
Quality: time and cost, instrument capabilities, knowledge of measurement,
acceptable result.
What instrument to use.

5
Cont
2.During the measurements we have to ensure:
Quality- best instrument chosen, suitable position when taking the data,
etc..
Safety- electric shock, overloaded, instrument limits, read instruction
manual.
Sampling observe parameter changing, taking enough sample.
3. After measurement:
Analyse the data mathematically/statistically.
Full result must be reported completely and accurately.
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What is Instrument?
Device that communicates, denotes, detects, indicates, measures,
observes, records, or signals a quantity or phenomenon, or controls or
manipulates another device.
A tool or device used for a particular purpose; especially : a tool or device
designed to do careful and exact work.

7
Instrumentation
The technology of using instruments to measure and control the physical
and chemical properties of materials is called instrumentation.
When the instruments are used for the measurement and control of
industrial manufacturing, conversion or treatment process, the term
process instrumentation is used.
When the measurement and control instruments are combined so that
measurements provide impulse for remote automatic action, the result is
called a Control system.

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Basic Requirements for Getting Meaningful Result of

Measurement
1. The standard employed for comparison purpose may be accurately
defined and should be commonly acceptable.
2. The standard must be of the same character as the measurand and usually
but not always, is prescribed and defined by a legal or recognised
organisation, e.g. the International Organisation of Standards (ISO).
3. The apparatus used and method adopted for the comparison purposes
must be provable.

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Significant of Measurements
The significance of measurement is discussed below:
1. Measurement plays a very significant role in every branch of scientific research
and engineering processes which include the following:
Control systems;
Process instrumentation
Data reduction.
2. The whole area of automation or automatic control is based on measurements.
The very concept of control is based on the comparison of the actual condition
and the desired performance. The exactness of error depends on the precision
and accuracy of measurement made.
Electrical Measurement (BEF 23903)
10
10
Cont
3. The measurements confirm the validity of a hypothesis and also add to its
understanding. This eventually leads to new discoveries that require new
and sophisticated measuring techniques.
4. Through measurements a product can be designed or a process be
operated with maximum efficiency, minimum cost, and with desired
degree of reliability and maintainability.

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SI Systems
International system of units (S.I) are divided into three classes:
S.I Unit
Base units

12
Derived units
Supplementary
units
S.I Base Units

Base Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Electric Current
Thermodynamic
Temperature
Amount of substance
Luminous Intensity
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Base Unit
Name
Meter
Kilogram
Second
Ampere
Kelvin
Symbol
m
Kg
s
A
K
Mole
mol
Candela
cd
Derived Unit
Derived Quantities are formed by combining two or more of the

fundamental quantities.
Examples:
Area = length x width
Volume = length x width x height
Speed = distance/time
Density = mass/volume
Most of the units in the International System are derived units, that is units
defined in terms of base units and supplementary units. Derived units can
be divided into two groups - those that have a special name and symbol,
and those that do not.

14
Cont
Without Names and Symbols
Measure of
acceleration
angular acceleration
angular velocity
density
electric field strength
magnetic field strength
velocity
15
Derivation
m/s2
rad/s2
rad/s
kg/m3
V/m
A/m
m/s
Cont
With Names and Symbols
Unit
Measure of
Symbol
Derivation
coulomb
electric charge
As
farad
electric capacitance
As/V
henry
inductance
Vs/A
hertz
frequency
Hz
cycles/s
joule
quantity of energy
Nm
ohm
electric resistance
V/A
tesla
magnetic flux density
Wb/m2
volt
voltage
W/A
watt
power
J/s
weber
magnetic flux
Wb
Vs

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Supplementary Units
Third class of S.I units

Supplementary units may be regarded either as base units or as derived units
Quantity
Plane angle
Solid angle
Name
radian
steradian
Symbol
rad
sr
Example of S.I derived units formed by using supplementary units

- Angular velocity ( rad / s )
- Angular acceleration ( rad / s 2 )

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S.I Units
Instruments Performance Characteristic

Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show the performance
of an instrument.
Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for a specific measuring
jobs.
Two basic characteristics :
1. Static
The numerical different between the true value and its value obtained by
measurement.
2. Dynamic
Instrument rarely respond instantaneously to the changes in the measured
variables (such as speed of respond/time delay).
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Static Characteristic
1.
Accuracy the degree of exactness (closeness) of measurement compared to

the expected (desired) value.
2.
Resolution the smallest change in a measurement variable to which an
instrument will respond.

3.
Precision a measure of consistency or repeatability of measurement, i.e

successive reading do not differ.
4.
Sensitivity ratio of change in the output (response) of instrument to a change of
input or measured variable.

5.
Error the deviation of the true value from the desired value

19

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Errors in Measurement
Various types of errors in measurement:
i. Absolute error
ii. Gross Errors
iii. Systematic Error
iv. Random Error
v. Limiting Error
Static error of a measuring instrument The numerical difference between

the true value of a quantity and its value as obtained by measurement (i.e.
repeated measurement of the same quantity gives different indications).

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i. Absolute error
Error - The difference between the expected value of the variable and the
measured value of the variable:
e Yn X n
where:
e = absolute error
Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value
Percentage Error:
Yn X n
100%
% error =
Yn

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Relative accuracy (A):
Yn X n
A 1
Yn
Precision:
P 1
Xn Xn
Xn
Where
% Accuracy:
a = 100% - % error
=
A 100%
X n value of the nth measurement
X n average set of measurement
A numerical indication of the closeness of a

repeated set of measurements with the
average set of measurements
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS (BEF 23903)
Accuracy vs Precision
Mean
high accuracy
but low precision;
25
low accuracy
but high precision
high accuracy
and high precision
Example 1.1
Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V. The measurement is
79V. Calculate,
1.
2.
3.
4.
The absolute error

The % of error
The relative accuracy
The % of accuracy

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Solution 1.1
Given that , expected value = 80V
measurement value = 79V
i. Absolute error:
ii.
e Yn X n 80 79 1V
Y Xn
80 79
% error n
100
100% 1.25%
Yn
80
iii. Relative accuracy:
Yn X n
A 1
0.9875
Yn
iv. % accuracy (a):
a A 100% 0.9875 100% 98.75%
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Example 1.2
From the value in table below, calculate the precision of 6th measurement?

28
No
Xn
98
101
102
97
101
100
103
98
106
10
99
Solution 1.2
The average of measurement value
98 101 .... 99 1005
Xn
100 .5
10
10
Precision of the
6th
Xn Xn
P 1
Xn
reading:
100 100 .5
1
100 .5
0.995

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No
Xn
98
101
102
97
101
100
103
98
106
10
99
Solution 1.2
The average of measurement value
Xn
Precision of the
6th
98 101 .... 99 1005
100 .5
10
10
reading:
X n X n 1 100 100 .5
P 1
100 .5
Xn
0.995
30
No
Xn
98
101
102
97
101
100
103
98
106
10
99
ii) Gross Error

Due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or error in
recording observations.
Example: incorrect reading, incorrect recording, improper use of
instruments, etc.
To minimize:
Take at least 3 separate reading.
Take proper care in reading & recording.

31
iii) Systematic Error

Due to shortcoming of the instruments or environmental effects or
observational errors.
example
defective or worn parts
ageing
parallax error
wrong estimation reading scale

32
Types of Systematic Errors

a) Instrumental errors :
Due to friction in the bearings of the meter movement, incorrect spring
tension, improper calibration, or faulty instruments.
Can be reduced by proper maintenance, use, and handling of instruments.
b) Environmental errors :
Due to external condition of the measuring device.
Example: effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure,
electrostatic fields etc.
Can be avoided by: air conditioning, hermetically sealing certain
components in the instrument and using magnetic shields.
33
Cont
c) Observational errors :
Errors that introduced by the observer.
The two most common observational errors are probably the parallax error
introduced in reading a meter scale and the error of estimation when
obtaining a reading from a meter scale.

34
Example 1.3 (a)

A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1 k/V is connected across an unknown
resistance in series with a milliammeter reading 80 V on 150 V scale. When the
milliammeter reads 10 mA, calculate the
i. apparent resistance of the unknown resistance,
ii. actual resistance of the unknown resistance, and
iii. error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.

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Solution 1.3(a)

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Solution 1.3(a)
How to reduce the percentage error?

37
Example 1.3 (b)

Referring to example 1.3 (a), if the milliammeter reads 600 mA and the
voltmeter reads 30 V on a 150 V scale, calculate the following:
i. Apparent, resistance of the unknown resistance,
ii. Actual resistance of the unknown resistance,
iii. Error due to loading effect of the voltmeter.
Comment on the loading effect due to the voltmeter for both Examples 1.3
(a) and (b). (Voltmeter sensitivity given 1000 /V.)

38
Solution 1.3(b)
The total circuit resistance is given by
The voltmeter resistance Rv equals
Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of unknown

resistance = 50 .

39
What can you summarized from these two examples?

40
iv) Random Errors

Errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been substantially
reduced.
Are generally the accumulation of a large number of small effects.
May be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of
accuracy.
Such errors can only be analyzed statistically.
These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary
process of making measurements.

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iv) Limiting Errors

Most manufacturers of instruments state that an instrument is accurate
within a certain percentage of a full-scale reading.
Eg: a voltmeter is accurate within 2% at full-scale deflection (limiting
errors).
However, with reading less than full-scale, the limiting error will increase.
therefore, it is important to obtain measurements as close as possible to full
scale.

42
Example 1.4
A 300-V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within 2% at full scale.
Calculate the limiting error when the instrument is used to measure a 120-V
source?

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Solution 1.4
i. The magnitude of the limiting error is:
2/100 x 300 = 6V
Therefore, the limiting error at 120 V is:
6/120 x 100 = 5%
(reading < full scale, limiting error increased)

44
Example 1.5
A voltmeter reading 70 V on its 100 V range and an ammeter reading 80 mA
on its 150 mA range are used to determine the power dissipated in a resistor.
Both these instruments are guaranteed to be accurate within 1.5% at full
scale deflection. Determine the limiting error of the power.

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Solution 1.5
Therefore, the limiting error for the power calculation is the sum of the
individual limiting errors involved.
Therefore, limiting error = 2.143 % + 2.813 % = 4.956 %
46
Dynamic Characteristic
Dynamic measuring a varying process condition.

Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the measured variables
due to such things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid capacitance or electrical
capacitance.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are:

i. Speed of response
ii. Dynamic error
i.
The difference between the true and measured value with no static error.
iii. Lag response delay

iv. Fidelity the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the
measured variable without dynamic error (faithful reproduction).
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Statistical Analysis of Measurement Data

Important because it allows
uncertainty of the final result.
an
analytical
determination
A large number of measurements is usually required.
Can be divided into 4:

i
Arithmetic mean / Average
ii
Deviation
iii
Average deviation
iv
48
Standard deviation
of
the
i) Arithmetic mean/average:
The most probable value of measured variable.
The best approximation when the number of readings the same quantity is very
large.
n
x1 x 2 x 3 x n
xi
x
n
i 1 n
n = total number of reading

xn = nth reading taken
xi = set of number
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ii) Deviation:
The difference between each piece of data and arithmetic mean
d n xn x
d1 x1 x
d 2 x2 x
Algebraic sum of deviation,
d total d1 d 2 d n 0
50
iii) Average deviation (D):
Indication of the precision of a measuring instrument used in measuremnt
high D low precision
low D high precision
d1 d 2 d n
D
n

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iv) Standard Deviation

Also known as root mean square deviation.
The most important factor in statistical analysis.
Reduction means improvement in measurement.
d12 d 2 2 d32 .... d n 2

n 1
dn2
n 1

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Example 1.4
For the following data
Compute:
(a) The arithmetic mean.
(b) The deviation of each value.
(c) The algebraic sum of the deviation.
(d) The average deviation.
(e) The standard deviation.
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No.
49.7
50.1
50.2
49.6
49.7
Solution 1.4
(a) The arithmetic mean = 49.86
(b) The deviation of each value (-0.16, 0.24, 0.34, -0.26, - 0.16)
(c) The algebraic sum of the deviation = 0
(d) The average deviation = 0.232

(e) The standard deviation = 0.27

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Tutorial: Chapter 1

55
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Measurement and Errors

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Chapter 1: Measurement and Errors

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Basic Requirements for Getting Meaningful Result of

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

S.I Base Units

Derived Quantities are formed by combining two or more of the

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

magnetic flux density

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Third class of S.I units

Example of S.I derived units formed by using supplementary units

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Instruments Performance Characteristic

Accuracy the degree of exactness (closeness) of measurement compared to

Resolution the smallest change in a measurement variable to which an

instrument will respond.

Precision a measure of consistency or repeatability of measurement, i.e

Sensitivity ratio of change in the output (response) of instrument to a change of

input or measured variable.

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Static error of a measuring instrument The numerical difference between

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

Relative accuracy (A):

X n value of the nth measurement

X n average set of measurement

A numerical indication of the closeness of a

The absolute error

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iii. Relative accuracy:

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Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

98 101 .... 99 1005

ii) Gross Error

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iii) Systematic Error

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Types of Systematic Errors

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Example 1.3 (a)

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Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

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Example 1.3 (b)

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The total circuit resistance is given by

The voltmeter resistance Rv equals

Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of unknown

Transformasi Anda Bermula di SiniFKEE UTHM

What can you summarized from these two examples?

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iv) Random Errors

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iv) Limiting Errors

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