Report of parachute fabrication

By
Logadhasan s/o suwedan
(3 skmt )

Overview
This project was completed by my team that consists of 6 members. I were assigned as the
project leader for this project as well and contributed mainly on designing of parachute,
fabrication as well as researching the current available models of parachute to prepare the
scaled version of test parachute. The other members of the team contributed to complete the
design, fabrication and prepare the formal report of this project. This particular project
managed to earn me an A for the subject.

ABSTRACT
A parachute is basically a soft fabric device used to slow the motion of an object through an
atmosphere by creating drag. Parachutes are generally used to slow down the descent of a person or
object to Earth or another celestial body with an atmosphere. The main objective of this project is to
develop a scale model parachute. The models tested in low altitude and low sped airdrop operation.
Research was done on the specification and configuration of several parachutes to gain a suitable
design that is capable to perform its duties. The suitable system is identified and detailed research
was done in respect to its measurements, the amount of materials used and the calculations
involved, and its fabrication method. For fabrication process, the materials used are nylon fabric.
The final models are tested at various heights to gather the data of time decent, distance after
dropping, stabilization and oscillation for each model. The data were used to calculate velocity and
drag coefficient to compare with the theory. As a result from the experiment, the best parachute
was chosen based on the criteria that have been decided.

CONTENTS
TITLE
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 OBJECTIVE
1.3 SCOPE
CHAPTER 2
PROJECT METHODOLOGY
FLOW CHART
CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 HISTORY OF PARACHUTE
3.2 PARACHUTE SHAPE
3.3 THEORY IN CALCULATION
3.3.1 PARACHUTE AERODYNAMIC
CHAPTER 4
FABRICATION PROCESS
4.1 PROCEDURE OF FABRICATION PROCESS
4.1.1 MODEL 1
4.1.2 MODEL 2
4.1.3 MODEL 3
CHAPTER 5
PARACHUTE TESTING
5.1 TEST METHOD

5.2 PROCEDURS
5.3 HEIGHT OF DROP TESTING
CHAPTER 6
PARACHUTE CALCULATION
6.1 EXPERIMENT CALCULATION
6.1.1 TERMINAL VELOCITY
6.1.2 DRAG
6.1.3 CANOPY SURFACE AREA
6.1.4 DRAG COEFFICIENT
6.2 THEORY
CHAPTER 7
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
7.1 RESULT OF TIME
7.2 RESULT OF TERMINAL VELOCITY
7.3 DRAG COEFFICIENT
7.4 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED
7.4.1 PROBLEM DURING FABRICATION
7.4.2 PROBLEM DURING TESTING
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
APPENDIX
REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

The word parachute comes from the French words para to protect or shield, and chute
to fall. Thus, the parachute literary means to protect from a fall1
A parachute is basically a soft fabric device used to slow the motion of an object through an
atmosphere by creating drag. Parachutes are generally used to slow the descent of a person or
object to Earth or another celestial body with an atmosphere.
Parachutes are used as emergency life saving devices, to transport and deploy supplies,
equipment and people to assist in slowing down an object for landing. Food and medical
supplies are dropped by parachute to disaster struck areas. Parachutes are used to drop very
heavy equipment onto land and life rafts and other survival equipment in air-sea rescue
operations. Dome high speed airplanes use parachutes to slow down during landing.

1.2 OBJECTIVE

To study the effect parachute shape on inflation time and flight dynamics at low speed airdrop
operation.

1.3 SCOPE

There are four scopes to accomplish this project:

Study the existing shape of parachute

Fabricate all the shape with and identical scale model

Drop the parachute with an identical scale model and equivalent weight from four
storey building

Analysis the data

www.fact-index.com/p/pa/parachute.html

CHAPTER 2
PROJECT METHODOLOGY
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

The existing shapes of parachute are study and the calculation related to them are defined and
also the shapes of parachute are chosen to fabricate.

2.2 DESIGN THE PARACHUTE

The processes of fabrication are including measuring, cutting and sewing

2.3 TESTING

After the models are fabricated, the models are drop at various heights. The data collected are
time; distance after touch the ground from straight line of dropping point, stabilization and
oscillation for each model.

2.4 MODEL

After all the data are collected, analyses are done by using some calculation.

FLOW CHART
The flow chart below, Figure 2.1 shows the process and steps undertaken to finish this project.
Search the information about
parachute at internet or books.

Choose some model to design

Fabricate the models

Testing

Function

Not function

Analysis

Repair

Report

CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

The existing shapes of parachute are study and the calculation related to them are defined and
also the shapes of parachute are chosen to fabricate.
Credit for the invention of the first practical parachute goes to Sebastien Lenormand who
demonstrated the parachute principle in 1783. However, parachutes had been imagined and
sketched by Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) centuries earlier.
In 1797 (October 22), Andrew Garnerin was the first person recorded to jump with a parachute
without a rigid frame. Garnerin jumped from hot air balloons as high as 8,000 feet in the air.
Garnerin also designed the first air vent in a parachute intended to reduce oscillations. When
opened, the Andrew Garnerin parachute resembled a huge umbrella about thirty feet in
diameter. It was made of canvas and was attached to a hydrogen balloon.
In 1837, Robert Cocking became the first person to die from a parachute accident and in 1887,
Captain Thomas Baldwin invented the first parachute harness. Paul Letteman and Kathchen
Paulus invented the method of folding or packing the parachute in a knapsack to be worn on the
back before its release on 1890. Kathchen Paulus was also the investor of the intentional
breakaway, which is when one small parachute opens first and pulls open the main parachute.
Parachute jumping as a sport began in the 1960s when new "sport parachutes" were first
designed. The parachute above drive slots for greater stability and horizontal speed.

3.2 PARACHUTE DESIGN

Model 1
Skydiving is the most common form of parachuting; involving acrobatic performance during free
fall, followed by the use of a parachute to land safely. Skydiving was not officially declared
skydiving until the mid-1950s. Before that, everyone simply referred to skydiving as parachuting.
Skydiving became an international sport in 1951 and first skydiving schools started to appear in
late 1950s.
Today, skydiving is a sport as well as a popular recreational activity. A lot of people make their
first jump with an experienced instructor who is trained for such jumps; this kind of skydiving is
called tandem skydive. In this case, the instructor is in charge of the jump and responsible for
any emergencies in the unlikely event that something will go wrong.
The question of safety of skydiving is often being discussed. Despite the probabilities of danger,
serious accidents are rare, as in most countries, skydivers are required to carry two parachutes.

Model 2

The MC1 Troop Back Parachute provides a capability to safely deliver an airborne soldier, and
individual equipment, from an aircraft in flight, for a vertical assault on the enemy. The MC1-1B
manoeuvrable parachute assembly is used primarily for a premeditated jump when a precision
landing in a small target area is necessary. The basic canopy is the same as the T-10B assembly,
except that there are orifices or cut-out areas in 11 of the 30 gores, creating a gliding type
descent. The canopy has two control lines, each extending from an outboard orifice to toggles
which may be manipulated in such a way as to make 360 turns.

Model 3

The G-11 Cargo Parachute provides air delivery of vehicular and bulk-type platform loads. It may
be used singly or in clusters of two or more. The G-11 100-feet cargo parachute assembly was
developed primarily for platform airdrops and continues to be the only cargo parachute of this
size which is readily available for military use. The G-11 can be used singularly or in clusters of
two or more, depending upon air delivery load weight, and can be dropped from minimum
altitudes ranging from 700 ft. AGL to 1,300 ft. AGL. In its basic configuration, the G-11 is capable
of supporting a 5,000-lbs pound payload and when in a cluster of eight, the assembly is capable
of supporting up to 42,000-lbs.

Capable of supporting up to 42,000-lbs, when in a cluster of eight.

Can be used singly or in clusters of two or more, depending upon air delivery load weight.

Designed for deceleration and stabilization of vehicular and bulk-type platform air delivery
cargo loads

3.3 THEORY IN CALCULATION

Newtons Second Law states that2:

Force = Mass x Acceleration

What is mass? Mass is the amount of material an object has. In general, the mass of an object
does not change. What is acceleration? Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. For
example, Cars speedometer. If someone is driving steadily at 30 km/h then they are not
accelerating (speeding up) or decelerating (slowing down). If we start to speed the car up to 50
km/h, then we were changing the velocity and we are accelerating: if we apply the brakes to
slow down, then we are decelerating.

www.physicsclassroom.com

This same principle applies in decelerating device like parachute and parafoils. The parachute
decelerates or slows down the fall of the object. The speed as it reaches the ground is slow
enough so that the parachutists (or cargo) is not hurt or damaged.
In aeronautical engineering, different forces act on different types of air vehicles and devices.
The forces of lift, drag, weight, and thrust act on an airplane in flight. These different forces all
act on the airplane at the same time. Lift created by the wings keeps the airplane aloft. The
thrust of the engine pushes the airplane forward. The drag caused by the air resistance tries to
hold the airplane forward. The drag caused by the air resistance tries to hold the airplane back:
drag acts in a direction opposite to the flight path. The weight of the airplane pulls it toward the
ground.
Because parachutes do not have an engine, there is no thrust. Parachutes also do not create lift.
Parachutes have two forces acting on them: drag and weight. The weight pushes the parachutist
down, while the drag acts opposite the direction of flight. Even the gravity acts on an object at a
rate of 9.81 m/s2, if we do not account for the drag acting in the opposite direction, we will not
calculate the forces acting on the parachute correctly.
It turns out that in a free fall stable position, a parachutist reaches a terminal velocity of about
53 m/s. (This is before the parachute is opened). This terminal parachute is reached within 12
seconds of jumping and the parachutists does not fall any faster. Once the parachute is opened,
the parachutist begins slowing down. Although it will vary, ideally, the parachutist will land at
about 6.3 m/s.
What is terminal velocity? When an object falls through a gas or liquid, it will increase velocity
only up to a point, and then continue to fall at a constant velocity. Terminal velocity is the speed
reached by an object falling in an atmosphere when atmospheric drag equals the objects
weight, which halts acceleration and causes speed to remain constant.
As the object keeps on accelerating downwards, the drag produced is increased. At a particular
speed, the drag force produce will be equal to the downward force, mostly the weight of the
object. Eventually, it plummets at a constant speed called terminal velocity.
Terminal velocity varies directly with the ratio of drag to mass. More drag means slower terminal
velocity. Increased mass means higher terminal velocity. An object moving towards at greater
than terminal velocity (because it was affected by a force downward or fell from a thinner part
of atmosphere or it changed shape) will slow until it reaches terminal velocity.
Mathematically, terminal velocity:

Where:
= terminal velocity

= mass of the falling object

= gravitational acceleration at the Earths surface
= drag coefficient
= density of the fluid the object is falling through

A = objects cross sectional area

Hence, the terminal velocity of an object changes due to the properties of the fluid, mass and
the cross sectional area of the object. This equation is derived from the drag equation by setting
drag equal to
, the gravitational force on the object.
The main part of the parachute is canopy the fabric which inflates. Strong lines attach the
canopy to the harness which the parachutist wears.
3.3.1

Basic Parachute Aerodynamics

The descent rate of any body equipped with a parachute is depend upon the drag force that
the parachute develops, to counteract the gravitation force resulting from the payloads
mass. The drag force is depending upon3:

1. The dynamic pressure created by moving air striking the parachute canopy (and which
keeps the parachute inflated)
2. The diameter of the parachute, which determines the areas over which the dynamic
pressure acts
3. The drag coefficient

of the parachute

Dynamic pressure is a function of velocity and air density, which in turn in depend upon
altitude and temperature. The vertical descent rate provided by a parachute in a stable
descent is given by equation terminal velocity
The drag coefficient of parachute is depending on several factors. These include:
3.3.1.1 The surface area of the canopy
3.3.1.2 Gliding characteristics
3.3.1.3 Air flow pattern around the canopy
3.3.1.4 Shape of the canopy

https://wikileaks.org/w/images/2/2b/Jp1_02.pdf

3.3.1.5 The permeability of the fabric (tightness of wave)

3.3.1.6 Descent velocity
3.3.1.7 Length of shroud lines
These factors are covered in detail below.4
3.3.1.1 The Surface Area
The drag coefficient of any body is usually obtained by testing (such as in a wind tunnel or
drop test) and is determined by measuring the drag force at a certain velocity. The equation
employed is:

or to determine

from the measured drag force,

Where:
= drag force
A = CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE BODY
= is the dynamic pressure acting upon the body
The reference area used to calculate the drag coefficient of a parachute is the canopy
surface area. This choice of reference area although convenient is less meaningful and
makes
somewhat flawed measure of the effectiveness of a parachute.
3.3.1.2 Gliding Characteristics
The gliding nature of parachute is another reason that using

as a measure of the

effectiveness of a parachute can be misleading. When a parachute descends, it may have

both a downward component of velocity as well as a horizontal component (in other words,
rather than descending straight down, it will descend at an angle). Therefore, the drag
coefficient measured from free fall drop tests may indicate a significantly higher , as a
result of this gliding phenomenon.

http://www.nakka-rocketry.net/paracon.html

3.3.1.3 Air Flow Pattern around the Canopy5

Table 3.3.1.3 Descent velocity for the typical full size

Descent velocity

Descent mode

7 m/s

Restrained

1.26

6 m/s

Oscillating

1.60

5 m/s

gliding

2.40

The air flow around and over the canopy of parachute may produce an oscillating (spiralling)
or coning, pattern to state of motion of the descending parachutes, as flow separation and
suction forces alternate in direction. Therefore, a parachute may be considered to be a
capable of descending in either a gliding mode, or an oscillating mode, or a combination of
both. Gliding tends to prevail at lower descent rates and oscillating at intermediate rates of
descent. The resulting
can vary significantly, depending on the mode of descent, as
indicated by the following data for a typical full sized parachute. (Table 3.3.1.3)
3.3.1.4 The Shape of Canopy
The shape does not have a significant effect upon the drag coefficient. Rather the significant
difference in these shapes relates to the aerodynamic efficiency, that is the drag
coefficient based upon developed canopy area.
Table 3.3.1.4 Differential between Drag Coefficient and the Shape of Parachute6
TYPE

CD

DEGREE OF OSCILLATION

Circle

1.1

10 40

Degradation

Cone

1.8

10 30

Degradation

Extended Skirt 10%

1.4

10 15

Degradation

Hemispherical

1.5

10 15

Degradation

Control Surfaces

1.2

02

Stabilization parachute

Semi ellipticals

1.5

03

Deceleration

http://www.nakka-rocketry.net/paracon.html

http://www.nakka-rocketry.net/paracon.html

EFFECTIVENESS

The main part of the parachute is the canopy the fabric which inflates. Strong lines attach
the canopy to the harness which the parachutist wears.
3.3.1.5 Permeability
This quantifies the speed of air flowing through the canopy material, is depend on the
porosity of the fabric. The porosity is largely determined by the tightness of the fabric
weave. The drag coefficient is not greatly influenced by the permeability, however as long as
the porosity is not excessive. Any fabric that has a reasonably tight weave would therefore
be suitable, from this perspective.
3.3.1.6 Descent Velocity
The

of a parachute is depend on its velocity to a weak extent. At higher velocities, the

deceases. This may be a result of increased porosity of the fabric due to increased tension
loading in the canopy. This may also be due to the influence of Reynolds number, as the flow
of air through the fabric pores is a function of such. As well, at higher velocities, the tension
in the shroud lines increases, affecting the shape, and therefore effective area of the
canopy.
3.3.1.7 Length of Shroud Lines
The inflated diameter and shape of canopy are both influenced by the length of the shroud
lines (L) in relation to the canopy diameter (D). As the length of the lines are increased, the
increases. This effect is more pronounced, when the line are particularly short (i.e. L/D <
0.5), but becomes less significant when L/D > 1.

CHAPTER 4
FABRICATION PROCESS
The 3 models of parachute have been decided to fabricate. These models were referred to the
parachute shape in previous chapter. The models are:
1) Sport Parachute (semi elliptical) MODEL 1
2) Military parachute (hemisphere) MODEL 2
3) Emergency (two hemisphere) MODEL 3
The materials and equipment were used on the fabrication are fabric nylon, Kernmantle rope,
scissors, sewing machine, thin strings, pencil, hook and ruler.

4.1 PROCEDURE OF FABRICATION MODELS

Width the radius at a point is proportional to the width of the gore. That is if the width, then the
radius or diameter at that point in the final will also be half of the maximum. The width of gore at
the mouth (which calls L) is

. The height of the gore will be 1.5r.

Angle The end of the chutes comes to a point which is flat at the end, and then the entire angle at
the ends must add up to
. As such for an 8 pieces gore pattern, the top of the gore must equal
to

angles (flat at tope of chute)7

1) The 8 pieces of nylon were cut and leaving a 0.5 cm hem allowance around all the border of
gore.
2) The hem line were marked out with using a small plastic wheel while the pen in the centre of
the wheel was put and then the pen was run around the edge of cardboard pattern.
3) The each pieces of fabric with the curved edge were sewing with 2 gores front (outside) to
front (inside).
4) The straight stiches were sewing along the gore boundary.
5) Hem along the outside rim of parachute fold the hem over one or twice and using zigzag
when all the gore have been sew together.
6) The chute lines were added at the same length as the gores zigzag stitched at the places
where the gores were sewn together.
7) The 8 lines were tied together in 2 groups of 4, L distance from the parachutes shown in
8) Two lines in each group were cut and heat sealed below the knot.
9) The strings are tie at the free edge of rim and all the strings are tie up at the rings.

http://www.nakka-rocketry.net/paracon.html

Inside of parachute

Model 2

Final product of parachute (model 1)

Model 3

CHAPTER 5
PARCHUTE TESTING
5.1 TEST METHOD

All the model were tested to get the time of jump and distance after its jump either they were
going down straight or descent far away from straight line. This experiment also find out either
the models were oscillations and stable or not during descent.
The equipment that are used for this experiment are timer (stopwatch), tape measurement,
mass (as parachutist, 55 gram), camera/video and person to drop the parachutes.

5.2 PROCEDURES

1) The height of the drop test is measured before testing are carry out
2) The mass was draped at the ring of parachute
3) All the models were checked before drop testing
4) The person who hold stopwatch had to count time when the parachute was dropped
one by one.
5) The data of time, distance, stability and oscillations are gather when the parachute on
the ground.

5.3 HEIGHT OF DROP TESTING

Figure shows the height if building that the parachutes were dropped. The altitudes of height
are measured before drop testing.
These experiments are divided into 2 parts depends on the height of building that the models
were dropped:
1) Experiment 1 (Height of point dropping the model = 5.10m)
2) Experiment 2 (Height of point dropping the model = 9.60m)

For each experiment, the time and distance are collect for 5 times of dropping test for each
model. The tables in appendix A (Table A1 A4) show the data.

Models after drop

Measure the distance

Drop Testing

CHAPTER 6
PARACHUTE CALCULATION
The calculations are done after all the data were collected. From the data as shown in Appendix A,
the value of terminal velocity and drag coefficient were obtained. The value of drag coefficient was
compare with the value of the theory drag coefficient.8

6.1 EXPRIMENT CALCULATIONS

From the table at Appendix A, all the data are collected at various heights. The reason is to find
out the terminal velocity by choosing the highest value of velocity.9
6.1.1

Terminal Velocity
V = length / time (m/s)
The tables below show the value after the data has been calculated.
Table 6.1.1a: Time of dropping of each model at selected height
Time (s)

Height (m)
Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

5.10

1.29

1.32

1.74

9.60

2.56

2.64

2.65

Table 6.1.1b: The velocity of each model at selected height

Velocity (m/s)

Height (m)
Model 1
5.10

3.953

http://www.nakka-rocketry.net/paracon.html

http://www.nakka-rocketry.net/paracon.html

Model 2
3.864

Model 3
2.931

3.750

9.60

3.636

3.622

The velocity at 9.60m was chosen to assume as a terminal velocity. So, for this method,
terminal velocity is:
Table 6.1.1c: Terminal velocity for each model
Model
Velocity (m/s)

6.1.2

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

3.750

3.636

3.622

Drag
Drag = Mass x Acceleration

To calculate total weight

weight mass (

of parachute, combine all the weight of parachute

and

that we assumed as parachutist or cargo.

All these 3 models have same mass. So, total mass weight of each parachute is:

= 75 g
= 0.075 kg
Drag,

= 0.735 N
6.1.3 Canopy surface area (A)
The calculations is only shows for model 1 and for another model (model 2 and model
3) can be seen at Table 6.2
Model 1
Surface area, S = 0.1156 m2
6.1.4 Drag Coefficient

Substitute S = 0.1156 m2 into equation below,

Where:
Drag (D) = 0.735 N (all model have same weight also same drag)

Ai density ( ) = 1.225 kg/m3

Canopy area (a) = Model 1: 0.1156 m2
Model 2: 0.11822 m2
Model 3: 0.2594 m2
Model 1

6.2 THEORY

6.2.1

Drag Coefficient
From Table 3.2 Differentials between Drag Coefficient and the Shape of Parachute by Theo
Knacke
Model 1: cd = 1.1 (semi elliptical)
Model 2: cd = 1.5 (hemisphere)
Model 3: cd =1.5 ( two hemisphere)
The table 6.2 below shows the result after the made calculation for each model.

Table 6.2: The result for each model after calculations

MODEL 1

MODEL 2

MODEL 3

Terminal Velocity (m/s)

3.750

3.636

3.622

Area (m2)

0.1156

0.11822

0.2594

Drag (N)

0.735

0.735

0.735

Total Weight (kg)

0.075

0.075

0.075

Drag Coefficient (Exp)

0.738

0.768

0.353

1.1

1.5

1.5

Drag Coefficient (Theory)

CHAPTER 7
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The result (Table 7.0) were including the value of terminal velocity and drag coefficient for three
models which were tested performed with 55 grams, with different height (altitude).
Table 7.0: The result for each model
MODEL 1

MODEL 2

MODEL 3

Terminal Velocity (m/s)

3.750

3.636

3.622

Area (m2)

0.1156

0.11822

0.2594

Drag (N)

0.735

0.735

0.735

Total Weight (kg)

0.075

0.075

0.075

Drag Coefficient (Exp)

0.738

0.768

0.353

1.1

1.5

1.5

Drag Coefficient (Theory)

7.1 RESULT OF TIME FOR EACH MODEL

1

Average

Model 1

4.20

3.83

3.75

3.95

4.02

3.95

Model 2

3.92

3.75

3.81

3.86

3.95

3.86

Model 3

2.63

2.74

3.49

3.09

2.88

2.97

Velocity

(m/s)
Model

From Figure 7.1a, for the model 1, the result show the time at each altitude (height). For height
5.1m, the time is and for height 9.60m, time is. This graph show the time increased along with
the increased height.
From Figue 7.1b, for the model 2, the result show the time at each altitude (height). For heght
5.1m, the time is and for height 9.60m, the time is. This graph show the time increased along
with the increased height.

7.2 RESULT OF VELOITY FOR EACH MODEL

Refer to Table 7.0 above the graphs are plotted as below:
From Figure 7.2a, for model 1, the results show the velocity at each altitude (height). For height
5.1m, the velocity is and for height 9.60m, the time is. This graph show the velocity increased
along with the increased height.

7.3 DRAG COEFFICIENT: COMPARE BETWEEN EXPERIMENT AND THEORY

The bar graph and graph above (Figure 7.3a and Figure 7.3b) shows the different between
experiment and theory of drag coefficient. The smooth colours are the value of experiment and
the other one if for theory. It shows the different between them are not too much. For model 1,
for experiment is 1.156 compare to theory 1.1. The different is about 5.09%. For model 2 and
3, the percentages of different are 5.45% and 0.83% respectively. Model 3 have the highest
percentage and model 2 have the lowest percentage of different between experiment and
theory.
It can be noticed that, Model 3 is the one with lowest speed during drop test. However, Model 4
also took long time to reach the ground. Model 4 becomes the lowest one because it is

rectangular shape and it is similar to the sport parachute. Sport parachute are used for
recreation activities and they are deisgned to be able to fly in the sky before they reach the
ground.

7.4 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED

This project has some problem that occurred during the fabrication process and also during the
parachute drop testing.
7.4.1

Problems Encountered during Fabrication Process

7.4.1.1 Materials source

The main problem when selecting the materials is fabric material. The nylon fabric is decided
to use as a fabric of parachute. The problem come because there so difficult to find the nylon
at market. After a week and the nylon are still did not found, an umbrella (nylon umbrella)
was bought and used the nylon fabric of umbrella to make a body of the parachutes model.
7.4.1.2 Sewing process
The sewing process have to do for this fabrication and this is needed some skills for it. There
is a little knowledge about how to sew because that was learned at secondary school for
long time ago and it was only a basic about the sewing process. So, the parachutes were
sending to skill persons to sew them. Even the sewing is not tidy like the parachute at
market, it can be accepted.
7.4.2

Problems Encountered during Testing

7.4.2.1 Wind
There was a wind around when the models were dropped. The strong wind caused the
parachute drop in unstable condition. Thus, it needs to wait until the wind is slow and gone.
It takes much time to complete this project.
7.4.2.2 People
Insufficient source of manpower to run and drop test also make a problem. Thus, all the
people were doing more than one task. The people who drop the models need to go
downstairs to collect the model at ground after dropping and let the model upstairs to the
building at some height (altitude) to make another dropping test.

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
A parachute works to slow down someone or something from falling by creating drag. Drag is the
push on something from air or water. Because air is much thinner than water, it does not have much
drag. The bigger something, the larger its surface area, the more drag it creates. That is why a
parachute works so well it is very light and it has a very big surface area. It catches lots of air in it as
it falls, so it creates lots of drag which slows it down as it falls.
As a conclusion, this project of dropping test for the models of parachutes has reached the
objectives which were to design and fabricate the parachute models and to test in a low altitude and
low speed to get the time of descent and velocity. This project had covered all the scope from the
initial design to the conceptual and detail design, fabrication of the model, drop testing, and analysis
of the data to obtain the result of the models.
After compared the parametric study of drag coefficient between theory and testing, it could be
concluded that the project was successful and the results are close to the theory.

Appendix A
Parachute Drop Testing Data

7.1 RESULT VELOCITY OF MODELS

Velocity

Time 1

Time 2

Time 3

Time 4

Time 5

Average

(m/s2)
Model
Model 1

4.20

3.83

3.75

3.95

4.02

3.95

Model 2

3.92

3.75

3.81

3.86

3.95

3.86

Model 3

2.63

2.74

3.49

3.09

2.88

2.97

Distance 4

Distance 5

Velocity for Height 5.10m

Velocity

Distance 1

Distance 2

Distance 3

Average

Model 1

4.10

3.61

4.16

3.47

3.49

3.77

Model 2

4.10

3.36

3.33

3.56

3.93

3.66

Model 3

3.87

3.42

3.68

3.92

3.31

3.64

(m/s2)
Model

Velocity for Height 9.60m

A5 OSCILLATION
Average Testing
MODEL

OSCILLATION

MODEL 1

MODEL 2

MODEL 3

A5 Oscillation for each model

A6 STABILIZATION
Average Testing
MODEL

STABLE

MODEL 1

MODEL 2

MODEL 3

A6 Stabilization for each model

A7 VELOCITY FOR REAL PARACHUTE

Velocity (m/s2)

Shape of Parachute
Sport parachute (Model 1)

5.0 5.5

Military parachute (Model 2)

6.7 7.3

Emergency parachute (Model 3)

3.0 4.0
A7 Velocity for real parachute

A8 VELOCITY FOR EXPERIMENTAL PARACHUTE

Velocity (m/s2)

Shape of Parachute
Sport parachute (Model 1)

3.77 3.95

Military parachute (Model 2)

3.66 3.86

Emergency parachute (Model 3)

2.97 3.69

A8 Velocity for experimental parachute

COMMENT

From the experiment we have done, we found that the emergency parachute is the most
stable parachute among all the three models. This is because emergency parachute is deployed
during emergency cases or serve as a no-pilot-parachute. It normally used to transfer food and
goods to remote area during emergency situations. Therefore, it needs to be stable. From the
experiment, we can conclude that the usage of two canopies makes it very stable in the air. This is
shown when the distance away from centre point is the least among all parachutes. However, sport
parachute is the most unstable parachute. This is due to its square canopy that traps lesser air and
the fact that sky divers love excitement. On the other hand, sport parachute also has a pilot take will
control the parachute to make it more stable. Unfortunately, we cannot practice that in this
experiment.

From the table above, we can also see that emergency parachute has the slowest velocity.
This is also one of the factors that contribute to its stable characteristic. Theoretically , military
parachutes will have the fastest velocity .However in this experiment, the military parachute did not
perform as the theory says due to some design factors and environmental error such as
uncontrollable wind condition that make this experiment less accurate. The reasons were already
stated in the previous analysis.