Art of Problem Solving

WOOT 201112
Multiplicative
Number Theory
1

Introduction

The purpose of this document is to introduce students to basic results in multiplicative number theory.
Multiplicative number theory can provide quick proofs of certain number theoretic identities, as well as give
us a better understanding of arithmetic functions involving prime factorization, such as (n), the number of
divisors of n, and (n), the sum of the divisors of n. Multiplicative number theory leads to deeper results
as well, such as the prime number theorem, and Dirichlets theorem on prime numbers.

Definitions

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A function f is called arithmetic if it takes the set of positive integers to the set of complex numbers C,
although all the arithmetic functions we will discuss will be integer-valued.
An arithmetic function f is multiplicative if f (1) 6= 0 and f (mn) = f (m)f (n) for all relatively prime positive
integers m and n. Taking m = n = 1, we get f (1) = [f (1)]2 , so f (1) = 1 for any multiplicative function f .
For example, the function (n) is multiplicative. (We will prove this later in the handout, using the machinery
that we will build.) But there are some other simpler examples of multiplicative functions.
Example. The function f such that f (n) = n for all positive integers n is multiplicative. We will denote
this function by id (for identity), so id(n) = n for all n.
Example. The function f such that f (n) = 1 for all positive integers n is multiplicative. We will denote
this function by 1, so 1(n) = 1 for all n. (It may look strange to use a number to denote a function, but this
is the convention, and it will be clear from the context that we are referring to the function.)
Example. The function f such that f (1) = 1 and f (n) = 0 for all positive integers n > 1 is multiplicative.
We will denote this function by 1 , so

1 if n = 1,
1 (n) =
0 if n > 1.
Given a positive integer n > 1, let the prime factorization of n be
n = pe11 pe22 pekk .

Th

Then for any multiplicative function f ,

f (n) = f (pe11 pe22 pekk ) = f (pe11 )f (pe22 ) f (pekk ).

Thus, a multiplicative function is uniquely determined by its values at the powers of primes.

An arithmetic function f is completely multiplicative if f (1) 6= 0 and f (mn) = f (m)f (n) for all positive
integers m and n (m and n need not be relatively prime). A completely multiplicative function is uniquely
determined by its values at the primes: If n = pe11 pe22 pekk , then
f (n) = [f (p1 )]e1 [f (p2 )]e2 [f (pk )]ek .

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Art of Problem Solving

WOOT 201112
Multiplicative
Number Theory
For example, the functions id(n), 1(n), and 1 (n) are all completely multiplicative. However, (2) (2) =
2 2 = 4 and (4) = 3, so the function (n) is not completely multiplicative. Only a few arithmetic functions
of interest are completely multiplicative.

Convolution

If we take two polynomials, say a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + and b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + , then their product is

(a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + )(b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + )

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= a0 b0 + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x + (a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )x2 + .

If we set cn to be the coefficient of xn in this product, then

cn =

n
X

ai bni .

i=0

We can also write this sum as

cn =

ai bj ,

i+j=n

where the sum is taken over all ordered pairs of nonnegative integers (i, j) such that i + j = n. The sequence
(cn ) is called the convolution of the sequences (an ) and (bn ).
In number theory, we have a similar version of convolution. Given arithmetic functions f and g, the convolution of f and g (which is another arithmetic function), denoted by f g, is defined by
n
X
.
(f g)(n) =
f (d)g
d
d|n

For example, for n = 6,

(f g)(6) = f (1)g(6) + f (2)g(3) + f (3)g(2) + f (6)g(1).

Th

The convolution of f and g can also be written in the symmetric form

X
(f g)(n) =
f (a)g(b),
ab=n

where the sum is taken over all ordered pairs of positive integers (a, b) such that ab = n. This convolution
formula may look strange, but as we will see, many well-known arithmetic functions can be expressed
naturally in terms of convolution.

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Art of Problem Solving

WOOT 201112
Multiplicative
Number Theory
Convolution satisfies the following properties: For any arithmetic functions f , g, and h,
(1) f g = g f (convolution is commutative)
(2) f 1 = 1 f = f (1 is the identity with respect to convolution)
(3) (f g) h = f (g h) (convolution is associative)
Proof. (1) This is clear from the symmetric form of convolution.
(2) For any positive integer n,
X

f (d)1

n

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(f 1 )(n) =

d|n

Recall that 1 (1) = 1 and 1 (n) = 0 if n > 1. In particular, in the sum above, 1 ( nd ) = 0 if d < n, so the
only term that is left is the term that corresponds to d = n. Thus, the sum simplifies to
(f 1 )(n) = f (n)1 (1) = f (n).

Hence, f 1 = f . By symmetry, 1 f = f .
(3) The proof is left as an exercise.

Remember that only certain arithmetic functions are multiplicative, so when we take the convolution of two
multiplicative functions, do we get another multiplicative function? We return to the example
(f g)(6) = f (1)g(6) + f (2)g(3) + f (3)g(2) + f (6)g(1).

If f g is multiplicative, then in particular, f g must satisfy the equation

(f g)(6) = (f g)(2) (f g)(3).

By the definition of convolution,

(f g)(2) = f (1)g(2) + f (2)g(1),

(f g)(3) = f (1)g(3) + f (3)g(1),

Th

so

(f g)(2) (f g)(3) = [f (1)g(2) + f (2)g(1)] [f (1)g(3) + f (3)g(1)]

= f (1)f (1)g(2)g(3) + f (1)f (2)g(1)g(3) + f (1)f (3)g(1)g(2) + f (2)f (3)g(1)g(1).

This looks a lot like our expression for (f g)(6) above, so lets see if they are equal. First, since f and g
are multiplicative, f (1) = g(1) = 1, so
(f g)(2) (f g)(3) = f (1)g(2)g(3) + f (2)g(3) + f (3)g(2) + f (2)f (3)g(1).

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Art of Problem Solving

WOOT 201112
Multiplicative
Number Theory
Next, since f and g are multiplicative, f (6) = f (2)f (3) and g(6) = g(2)g(3), so
(f g)(2) (f g)(3) = f (1)g(6) + f (2)g(3) + f (3)g(2) + f (6)g(1),
which is our expression for (f g)(6) above. Therefore,
(f g)(6) = (f g)(2) (f g)(3).
This example suggests that the convolution of two multiplicative functions is also multiplicative. We can
prove this as follows.

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Theorem 1. If f and g are multiplicative, then f g is also multiplicative.

Proof. Let f and g be multiplicative functions, and let m and n be relatively prime positive integers. We
want to show that
(f g)(mn) = (f g)(m) (f g)(n).
By definition,

(f g)(mn) =

f (d)g

 mn 

d|mn

Let d be a divisor of mn. Since m and n are relatively prime, we should be able to express d in the form
ab, where a is a divisor of m and b is a divisor of n. To isolate these factors a and b, we can use prime
factorization, but instead, we will use the gcd function. Using prime factorization may seem easier, but it
goes against the general philosophy of multiplicative number theory.
Resorting to prime factorization in multiplicative number theory is like resorting to coordinates
in geometry: Prime factorization can work, but native functions, like gcd, tend to reflect, and
therefore give a better sense of the main concepts underlying multiplicative number theory, especially
in more complicated proofs. This is why we should try to find coordinate-free proofs that do not
use prime factorization.
Let a = gcd(d, m) and b = gcd(d, n). Then a | m and b | n, and m and n are relatively prime, so a and b
are also relatively prime. Also, a | d and b | d, so ab | d. We want to prove that d = ab, so we consider the
d
integer ab
.

Th

We know that gcd(d, m) = a. Since ab divides d and a divides m, we can write



m
d
gcd
ab,
a = a.
ab
a
Taking out a factor of a, we get

gcd

It follows that

d
ab

and

m
a

d
m
b,
ab
a

are relatively prime.

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= 1.

Art of Problem Solving

WOOT 201112
Multiplicative
Number Theory
Similarly, gcd(d, m) = b, so

gcd
Then

n
d
ab, b
ab
b


gcd
It follows that

d
ab

and

n
b

d
n
a,
ab
b

are relatively prime. Hence,

But d is a divisor of mn, so

d
ab

is a divisor of

mn
ab .

d
ab


= b.


= 1.

and

Therefore,

m
a
d
ab

n
b

mn
ab

are relatively prime.

= 1, or d = ab.

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Furthermore, when we write d = ab, the factors a and b are unique. Let a1 , a2 , b1 , and b2 be positive integers
such that a1 | m, a2 | m, b1 | n, b2 | n, and d = a1 b1 = a2 b2 . Since m and n are relatively prime, a1 and b2
are relatively prime. Therefore, a1 divides a2 . But by the same reasoning, a2 and b1 are relatively prime, so
a2 divides a1 . Hence, a1 = a2 , and b1 = b2 .
Since we can write any factor d of mn uniquely in the form ab, where a divides m and b divides n, we can
write the sum above as
 mn 
 mn  X X
X
=
f (ab)g
.
(f g)(mn) =
f (d)g
d
ab
a|m b|n

d|mn

Since f is multiplicative, and a and b are relatively prime, f (ab) = f (a)f (b). Similarly, g is multiplicative,
n
mn
m
n
and m
a and b are relatively prime, so g( ab ) = g( a )g( b ). Hence,
 mn  X X
m n
XX
f (ab)g
=
f (a)f (b)g
g
ab
a
b
a|m b|n
a|m b|n

n
m
X
X

f (b)g
=
f (a)g
a
b
b|n

a|m

= (f g)(m) (f g)(n).

We conclude that f g is multiplicative.

Comment. If f and g are completely multiplicative, f g is not necessarily completely multiplicative.

Th

Corollary. If f is multiplicative, then the function F defined by

X
F (n) =
f (d)
d|n

is also multiplicative.

Proof. The given formula for F (n) looks a lot like convolution. In fact, since 1(n) = 1 for all positive
integers n, we can write the sum as
n
X
F (n) =
f (d)1
.
d
d|n

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Art of Problem Solving

WOOT 201112
Multiplicative
Number Theory
We recognize this sum as the convolution of the functions f (n) and 1(n). Hence, F = f 1. We are given that
the function f (n) is multiplicative, and the function 1(n) is multiplicative, so by Theorem 1, the function
F (n) is also multiplicative.

We can also prove a converse of Theorem 1.
Theorem 2. If g and f g are multiplicative, then f is also multiplicative.
Proof. We want to prove that
f (mn) = f (m)f (n)

()

for all relatively prime positive integers m and n. We prove this by strong induction on mn.

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Since g and f g are multiplicative, g(1) = 1 and (f g)(1) = 1. But (f g)(1) = f (1)g(1), so f (1) = 1.
Hence, () holds for the base case mn = 1.
Assume that () holds for all relatively prime positive integers m and n such that 1 mn k, for some
positive integer k.
Let m and n be relatively prime positive integers such that mn = k + 1. Then
 mn 
X
(f g)(mn) =
f (d)g
d
d|mn
 mn 
X
f (d)g
= f (mn) +
.
d
d|mn,
d<mn

If d is a divisor of mn, then d can be written uniquely in the form d = ab, where a | m and b | n, so
 mn 
X
(f g)(mn) = f (mn) +
f (ab)g
.
ab
a|m,b|n,
ab<mn

Th

By the induction hypothesis, f (a)f (b) = f (ab) for all relatively prime positive integers a and b where
m
n
ab < mn. Also, we know that g is multiplicative, so g( mn
ab ) = g( a )g( b ). Hence,
m n
X
g
(f g)(mn) = f (mn) +
f (a)f (b)g
a
b
a|m,b|n,
ab<mn

= f (mn) +

 m i h
 n i
X h
f (a)g
f (b)g
.
a
b

a|m,b|n,
ab<mn

This sum is taken over all pairs of positive integers (a, b) such that a | m, b | n, and ab < mn, so the pair

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Art of Problem Solving

WOOT 201112
Multiplicative
Number Theory
(a, b) = (m, n) is omitted. Thus, we can write the sum as

n
m
X
X

f (m)f (n)
f (b)g
(f g)(mn) = f (mn) +
f (a)g
a
b
b|n

a|m

= f (mn) + (f g)(m) (f g)(n) f (m)f (n).

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Finally, since f g is multiplicative, (f g)(mn) = (f g)(m) (f g)(n). It follows that f (mn) = f (m)f (n).
Therefore, () holds for mn = k + 1, completing the induction. We conclude that f is multiplicative.


Inverses

We saw that for any arithmetic function f , f 1 = 1 f = f , where


1 if n = 1,
1 (n) =
0 if n > 1.
In other words, 1 is the identity with respect to convolution.

Given an arithmetic function f , we say that g is an inverse of f if f g = 1 . When does an inverse of f

exist? We can try building the inverse one value at a time.
We want (f g)(n) = 1 (n) for all n. Taking n = 1, we get f (1)g(1) = 1 (1) = 1, so we can set
g(1) =

1
,
f (1)

as long as f (1) 6= 0. Hence, for f to have an inverse, it is necessary that f (1) 6= 0.

Taking n = 2, we get f (1)g(2) + f (2)g(1) = 1 (2) = 0, so we can set
g(2) =

f (2)g(1)
.
f (1)

Th

Taking n = 3, we get f (1)g(3) + f (3)g(1) = 1 (3) = 0, so we can set

g(3) =

f (3)g(1)
.
f (1)

Taking n = 4, we get f (1)g(4) + f (2)g(2) + f (4)g(1) = 1 (4) = 0, so we can set

g(4) =

1
[f (2)g(2) + f (4)g(1)].
f (1)

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Art of Problem Solving

WOOT 201112
Multiplicative
Number Theory
Thus, we can define the inverse inductively, as follows: We set
g(1) =

1
.
f (1)

Assume that we have defined g(1), g(2), . . . , g(n) for some positive integer n. We want to set g(n + 1) so
that (f g)(n + 1) = 1 (n + 1) = 0. We can write this equation as


X
n+1
f (1)g(n + 1) +
f (d)g
= 0,
d
d|(n+1),
d>1

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so we can set

g(n + 1) =

1
f (1)

f (d)g

d|(n+1),
d>1

n+1
d

Therefore, an inverse of f exists if and only if f (1) 6= 0. Furthermore, it is clear from our construction that
the inverse of f is unique. We denote the inverse of f by f 1 .
Theorem 3. If f is multiplicative, then f has an inverse f 1 which is also multiplicative.

Proof. Since f is multiplicative, f (1) = 1 6= 0, so f 1 exists. We have that f f 1 = 1 . Both f and 1 are
multiplicative, so by Theorem 2, f 1 is also multiplicative.


Deriving (n)

The function (n) denotes the number of divisors of n. There is a simple counting argument that gives the
formula for (n), using the prime factorization of n. However, in the spirit of multiplicative number theory,
we will give a derivation for the formula for (n) that avoids using prime factorization (at least, until the
very end).
First, we can write (n) as

(n) =

1,

d|n

Th

because this sum adds 1 for each divisor d of n. This sum looks like convolution. In fact, since 1(n) = 1 for
all positive integers n, we can write
n
X
(n) =
1(d)1
.
d
d|n

Hence, = 1 1.

The function 1(n) is multiplicative, so by Theorem 1, is also multiplicative. Since is multiplicative, we

can compute (n) for a general positive integer n by computing the value of at the powers of primes.

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Art of Problem Solving

WOOT 201112
Multiplicative
Number Theory
Let p be a prime, and let e be a nonnegative integer. Then pe has e + 1 factors, namely 1, p, p2 , . . . , pe , so
(pe ) = e + 1.
Let the prime factorization of n > 1 be pe11 pe22 pekk . Since is multiplicative,
(n) = (pe11 pe22 pekk )
= (pe11 ) (pe22 ) (pekk )
= (e1 + 1)(e2 + 1) (ek + 1).

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You are probably already familiar with this formula. The main point of this example is to show how
multiplicative number theory can be used to derive formulas. In class, we will demonstrate how multiplicative
number theory can provide quick proofs of other, more interesting formulas and identities.

Exercises

1. Prove that for any arithmetic functions f , g, and h,

(f g) h = f (g h).

2. Prove that if f is multiplicative, then f (a)f (b) = f (gcd(a, b))f (lcm(a, b)) for all positive integers a and
b.
3. Prove that for any positive integers a and b,

ab = gcd(a, b)lcm(a, b),

without using prime factorization.

4. Show that for any function f , there exists a function g such that
n
X

f (gcd(k, n)) = (f g)(n)

k=1

for all positive integers n.

Th

5. Let f and g be two multiplicative functions. Show that the function defined by
X
h(n) =
f (a)g(b),
lcm(a,b)=n

where the sum is taken over all ordered pairs of positive integers (a, b) such that lcm(a, b) = n, is a
multiplicative function.

6. Let f be an arithmetic function such that f (1) 6= 0. Show that (f f )(n) = (n)f (n) for all positive
integers n if and only if f is completely multiplicative. (American Mathematical Monthly, E2268)

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