Topic

Motivation and
Job Satisfaction

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.

Explain the concepts and principles of motivation and job

satisfaction;

2.

Describe the theories of motivation and job satisfaction; and

3.

Discuss the importance of motivation and job satisfaction.

X" INTRODUCTION
If I ask you why you choose to work, you will probably show me a strange face
or give me a blunt reaction. That is not surprising. Most people work because
they do not have a choice! Most people work because they have bills to pay and
to put food on table to survive. Some people are fortunate enough to love what
they do (at work!), and most people work only to get the pay cheque by the end
of the month.
But what motivates people to work other than a pay cheque? Can it be more than
just monetary? How about a sense of satisfaction at work? Most importantly so,
how do organisations motivate their people to increase their commitment to the
organisation? All these questions are more prevalent in the modern workplace
especially when workers are now better aware of their rights and are paying
more attention to work-life balance.
Motivation is a major issue in organisations. I-O psychologists have conducted a
lot of research on issues of workers motivation, job satisfaction, organisational
commitment or loyalty and job involvement. As a result of these studies,
numerous motivational theories have been proposed. In general terms,
motivational theories are categorised into:

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(a)"

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Content theories of motivation; and

(b)" Process theories of motivation.

In the following section, we will discuss some common motivational theories in
greater detail.

ACTIVITY 6.1
Like most people, do you work because you have to or because you
want to? If given a choice, how would you make your working life more
enjoyable?

6.1

CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Content theories of motivation are concerned with the importance of work, the
challenges, growth opportunities and responsibilities work provides for
employees (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). This theory emphasises the specific needs
necessary in the job that motivate and direct human behaviour. These theories
include:
(a)"

Achievement motivation theory;

(b)" Needs hierarchy theory;

(c)"

Motivator-hygiene (two factor) theory; and

(d)" Job-characteristics theory.

We will discuss each theory in detail in the following sections.

6.1.1

Achievement Motivation Theory

The need for achievement is what drives a successful executive. The area of
achievement motivation has been subject to intense research by David
McClelland and his colleague in the 1950s (Atkinson & Feather, 1966). According
to this theory, workers who have high needs for achievement tend to get great
satisfaction from accomplishing certain goals at work and they are usually
motivated to excel in whatever task they undertake (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).

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As a result of McClellands research, three major characteristics of people who

have high needs for achievement have been identified:
(a)"

They enjoy a work environment where they can assume responsibility for
solving problems;

(b)" They take calculated risks and set moderate and achievable goals; and
(c)"

They need continuous recognition and feedback on their progress so they

know how well or poor they are doing.

Numerous research findings have positively linked high needs for achievement
and worker success (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). In a study conducted by Chen
(2008), a research programme involving 200 employees in Taiwan found three
main factors important in achievement motivation, namely, perseverance,
competition and level of control at task. Overall, achievement-motivation theory
provides a thorough explanation for the motivation of some workers and is
considered to be one of the most widely applied motivational theories in the
workplace (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
Figure 6.1 depicts a motivational quote about achievement.

Figure 6.1: Motivational quote on achievement

Source: http://www.despair.com/achievement.html

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6.1.2

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Needs Hierarchy Theory

Popularised and created by Abraham Maslow, his hierarchy of needs theory

suggests that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy based on its level of
importance (Maslow, 1970). According to Maslow, people always want what
they do not already have. As a result of that, the needs already satisfied no longer
provide any motivation for that person. Figure 6.2 depicts Maslows hierarchy of
needs in detail.

Figure 6.2: Maslows hierarchy of needs

Source: Tims Printable (2013)

Maslows hierarchy of needs outlines five levels of needs in humans, namely:

(a)"

Physiological Needs
Refers to basic human needs including food, water, air, sleep and the drives
of sex and activity.

(b)" Safety Needs

Refers to the needs for physical shelter and psychological stability.

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(c)"

Needs for Love or Belonging

Refers to the social needs for love, affection, friendships, affiliation and
acceptance by people.

(d)" Esteem Needs

Refers to the needs for admiration and respect from others.
(e)"

Needs for Self-actualisation

Refers to the needs for self-fulfilment, to achieve full potential and realising
full capacities.

According to Maslow, these needs should be fulfilled from lowest to highest and
not everyone will be able to achieve all these needs in their lifetime. Maslows
theory, although popular, has received little scientific support. Its complexities
make it difficult to test scientifically. However, his concept of self-actualisation is
popular with managers and executives (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).

6.1.3

Motivator-Hygiene Theory

Also known as the two-factor theory of motivation, this theory deals with both
motivation and job satisfaction. This theory, proposed by Frederick Herzberg
(see Figure 6.3), has inspired organisations to re-look their existing jobs to
increase workers motivation (Herzberg, 1974).

Figure 6.3: Frederick Irving Herzberg (1923-2000)

Source: Mukhtar Usmani (2010)

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According to his theory, there are two types of needs: motivator needs and
hygiene needs. Motivator needs create job satisfaction whereas hygiene needs
create job dissatisfaction. Motivator needs which are high level needs motivate
workers to high performance. They are internal to the work itself and include
nature of the individual work tasks, level of responsibilities, achievement,
recognition, advancement opportunity, career development and growth.
Motivator needs are similar to Maslows concept of self-actualisation (Schultz &
Schultz, 2010).
Hygiene needs, or lower level needs, produce job dissatisfaction. Opposite to
motivator needs, hygiene needs are external to the work itself and include
features of the work environment such as organisational policy, supervision,
working condition, salary and benefits, interpersonal relationships, and so on. If
these needs are not satisfied, job dissatisfaction can occur. However, if these
needs are satisfied, it may not necessarily result in job satisfaction. Hygiene
needs are similar to Maslows concept of physiological, safety and belonging
needs (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
As a result of this theory, Herzberg believed in order to motivate workers,
attention should be given to the internal job factors (as discussed before). If an
existing job position does not provide enough opportunity for workers to be
most effective, the existing job should be re-designed. This effort is called job
enrichment; where the job is expanded to provide more autonomy for the
workers to plan, perform and evaluate their work (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
Herzberg suggests the following four ways to enrich a job in organisations:
(a)"

Remove some management control over workers and increase their

accountability and responsibility hence increasing their autonomy.

(b)" Create complete or natural work units whenever possible allow workers
to complete one unit of work rather than half of it.
(c)"

Provide regular feedback on productivity and performance directly to

workers rather than to their supervisors.

(d)" Encourage workers to take on new and more challenging projects and to
become good in a particular task.
These four suggestions not only aim to increase the workers autonomy but also
aim to expand their level or knowledge and skills needed to perform a particular
job (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).

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Job Characteristics Theory

Greg R. Oldham

Richard Hackman

Figure 6.4: Oldham and Hackman

Sources: http://www.business.illinois.edu/faculty/oldham.html
http://www.bkconnection.com/users/j-richardhackman

Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham (see Figure 6.4) developed the job
characteristics theory of motivation after the job enrichment movement which
resulted from Herzbergs research. According to Hackman and Oldham (1976),
there are certain job factors that influence worker satisfaction and attendance.
However, these job factors do not influence every worker the same way, for
example, in term of individual needs for growth. It is found that workers with
higher needs for growth are more affected by job characteristics (than workers
with lower needs for growth).
In addition, the presence of certain job characteristics causes workers to feel
positively when they perform well at their job. Under this condition, they are
motivated to continue to perform well (because it will lead to good feelings)
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
As a result of numerous studies, Hackman and Oldham identified five core job
characteristics (refer to Figure 6.5):

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Figure 6.5: Five job characteristics by Hackman and Oldham (1976)

Now, let us discuss the characteristics one by one.

(a)"

Skill Variety
Refers to the extent to which workers use their skills on the job. The more
challenging the job, the more meaningful it will be.

(b)" Task Identity

Refers to the unity of a job in which workers are involved in making a
whole unit of work or product rather than doing only parts of the work or
part of the product (imagine the production of an iPhone).
(c)"

Task Significance
Refers to the importance of the job or task to the workers and consumers
well-being (the work of an aircraft engineer affects the lives of more people
than a postal clerk).

(d)" Autonomy
Refers to the amount of authority, freedom or independence given to
workers in scheduling and organising their work.
(e)"

Feedback
Refers to the amount of information workers receive about their job
performance.

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In general, the focus of these five areas is to grant workers greater responsibility
(and accountability). This theory (similar to the others) postulates that by
providing greater responsibility to workers through job-redesign and jobenrichment, greater job satisfaction and motivation to workers can be provided
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
Table 6.1 summarises the content theories of motivation.
Table 6.1: Summary of Content Theories of Motivation
Content Theories of
Motivation
Achievement motivation
theory

Needs hierarchy theory

Motivator-hygiene theory

Job-characteristic theory

Description
x"

The needs for achievement drives or motivates

workers to be successful

x"

The pioneer of motivational research is David

McClelland

x"

Workers are motivated to satisfy needs in order of

hierarchy

x"

Once the lower level needs are satisfied, there will be

no more motivation to pursue the same needs

x"

Theory was created by Abraham Maslow

x"

Also known as the two-factor theory

x"

Propose job-enrichment as a result of the study

x"

Theory was proposed by Frederick Herzberg

x"

Hackman and Oldham led the movement of jobenrichment

x"

By giving workers more responsibility (and more

accountability), they will be motivated to work and
achieve more

Source: Schultz and Schultz (2010)

6.2

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Unlike content theories of motivation, process theories of motivation focuses on

the cognitive (thinking) processes that are part of decision making. Under these
models, there are three theories, namely valence-instrumentality-expectancy
theory, equity theory and goal-setting theory. In the following section, we will
discuss each theory in detail.

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6.2.1

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87

Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE)
Theory

Victor H. Vroom (see Figure 6.6), creator of the VIE theory, suggests that people
make decisions based on the expectancy that certain rewards will follow if they
behave in a certain manner (Vroom, 1964). Vroom argues that workers will work
hard if they know their behaviour will lead to greater pay offs or benefits. They
will be motivated to work hard if they expect this behaviour to lead to positive
outcome such as a pay increase or promotion in the workplace (Schultz &
Schultz, 2010).

Figure 6.6: Victor H. Vroom

Source: http://www.avt.dk/faculty/faculty-members/victor-h-vroom/

In addition, the psychological value or valence of the reward or benefit varies

with the individual. In other words, how much a person values the reward or
benefit will determine the strength of the motivation (to achieve the reward or
benefit) (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). To further explain the theory, the three facets
of VIE theory can be broken down as follows:
(a)"

Workers must decide whether or not a certain behaviour will have a high
probability of leading to a particular outcome (for example, good
attendance) expectancy.

(b)" Workers must determine whether or not the outcome will lead to another
outcome (for example, will good attendance lead to better bonus pay-out)
instrumentality.
(c)"

Workers must decide whether or not those outcomes are sufficient enough
to motivate them to behave in certain ways valence.

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The VIE theory received a lot of research support as it agrees with common sense
and personal experience. It is likely we will work hard for the reward if we
assume the reward to be something valuable to us (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).

6.2.2

Equity Theory

Adams (1965) suggests that worker motivation is driven by their perception of

how fairly they have been treated. He argues that workers, in general,
(unconsciously) calculate the ratio of outcome to input and compare it with their
colleagues. If workers believe they have been receiving less than they are entitled
to, the resulting feeling of inequity will motivate them to take action to bring
about a state of equity (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
In addition to Adams research, other psychologists extended the theory and
suggest three behavioural response patterns to situations of perceived equity or
inequity (ONeil & Mone, 1998), namely:
(a)"

Benevolent People
Satisfied when under-rewarded, and feel guilty when being equally
rewarded or over-rewarded.

(b)" Equity-sensitive People

Feel everyone should be equally rewarded. They feel distressed when
under-rewarded and guilty when over-rewarded.
(c)"

Entitled People
Satisfied only when over-rewarded. They feel everything they receive is
due and they feel distressed when equally rewarded or under-rewarded.

Overall, not all research supports the equity theory (refer to Figure 6.7). There is
some research that links perceived inequity with heightened sense of resentment,
absenteeism, turnover and burnout (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).

Figure 6.7: Adams equity theory

Source: Sinicki (2014)

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6.2.3

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Goal Setting Theory

Edwin Locke, the founder of goal setting theory suggests that workers primary
motivation to work is defined by their desire to achieve certain goals (Locke,
1968). These goals represent what we intend to achieve in the near future
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010). For example, you may set a goal that in three years
time you wish to graduate with first class honours. Setting challenging and
specific goals can drive and motivate people to perform in more effective ways
(Schultz & Schultz, 2006).
Research has shown having goals leads to better work performance than not
having any and having specific goals are more motivating than having general
goals. It is also worth noting that goals that are too difficult to achieve may be
worse than not having goals at all (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
An important aspect in goal setting theory is individual goal commitment
defined as the strength of a persons determination to achieve the goals (Schultz
& Schultz, 2010). There are three factors that influence goal commitment:
(a)"

External factors Refers to authority, peer influence and external rewards.

(b)" Interactive factors Refers to competition and opportunity to participate in

goal setting.
(c)"

Internal factors Refers to cognitive (thinking) factors such as selfadministered rewards and expectations of success.

In general, goal setting theory has received considerably positive support from
research and has been shown to be one of the most practical theories of
motivation (Locke & Latham, 2002).
Figure 6.8 depicts the SMART model commonly used in goal setting.

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Figure 6.8: SMART model in goal setting

Source: Hart (2012)

Table 6.2 summarises the process theories of motivation.

Table 6.2: Summary of Process Theories of Motivation
Process Theories of
Motivation
Valenceinstrumentalityexpectancy theory

Description
x"
x"
x"

Equity theory

x"

x"
x"
Goal-setting theory

x"
x"
x"

Describes that motivation is a result of workers perception

of what is important (and the outcome of it)
The three facets in VIE theory is expectancy, instrumentality
and valence
Proposed by Victor H. Vroom
Workers are naturally and unconsciously comparing the
amount of work they put in with the reward they obtain
with their colleagues
Workers who are treated fairly are more likely to be
motivated to perform more
Proposed by J. Stacy Adams
Workers who set hard but attainable goals are more likely to
be motivated to achieve the goals
Setting difficult and unattainable goals is worse than not
having a goal at all
Developed by Edwin Locke
Source: Schultz and Schultz (2010)

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6.3

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JOB SATISFACTION

Imagine job satisfaction as the quality of life at work. A lot of times people work
not because of satisfaction, but because they do not have a choice. Job satisfaction
refers to the positive or negative feelings a person has towards his or her job
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010). It is one of the most researched areas in the field of I-O
psychology.
There are numerous factors that can influence job satisfaction, ranging from an
assigned or personalised parking space to work overload and the sense of
fulfilment at work (Schultz & Schultz, 2006). In addition, personal factors such as
age, health, length of job experience, emotional stability, social status, leisure
activities and so on can also affect job satisfaction. A research by Wang (2007)
found that job satisfaction affects the well-being of individuals even after they
have retired from work. According to Wang (2007), those who reported high
levels of job satisfaction also reported greater health before and after retirement.
Interestingly, based on studies on twins, I-O psychologists suggested work
attitude and satisfaction may have an underlying genetic basis (Schultz &
Schultz, 2010). With that, it is generally accepted that life satisfaction is positively
correlated with job satisfaction. However, it is not clear which one causes the
other.
As a result of that, I-O psychologists began to undercover some interesting facts
about job satisfaction by researching personal characteristics and on-the-job
behaviour. In the following section, we will discuss each characteristic in detail.

6.3.1

Personal Characteristics and Job Satisfaction

Many personal characteristics influence job satisfaction. By re-designing and

enriching existing jobs, organisations can easily increase workers job satisfaction
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010). Several characteristics are found to be related to job
satisfaction, as shown in Figure 6.9:

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Figure 6.9: Personal characteristics related to job satisfaction

We will now examine each characteristic in detail.

(a)"

Age
In general, the level of job satisfaction increases with age. In other words,
the older you get, the more likely you are to feel satisfied with your job
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010). Most of the dissatisfaction is reported by younger
workers. A study conducted by Westerman and Yamamora (2007) found
that Baby Boomers (born between 1946 and 1964) reported a higher level of
job satisfaction than the Gen X and Gen Y (born in 1970 onwards).

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Many young people feel disappointed with their first job because they do
not have sufficient challenges and responsibilities (Schultz & Schultz, 2006).
However, how does age increase relate to increase in job satisfaction?
Researchers argue it can be due to three possibilities:
(i)"

In the surveys conducted, the more dissatisfied younger workers may

have quit their jobs, so the remaining participants of the survey are
the older, satisfied workers.

(ii)" A sense of dissatisfaction may grow in older workers, but due to the
age factor they may be less likely to quit their jobs in search of more
satisfaction. As a result of that, less dissatisfaction is reported from
the surveys.
(iii)" Older workers may have greater opportunities to find fulfilment on
the job than younger workers. With years of experience under their
belt, it may usually bring a greater sense of accomplishment with
increased confidence, competence, self-esteem and responsibility.
Figure 6.10 outlines job satisfaction and the aged worker from a newspaper
excerpt.

Figure 6.10: Newspaper excerpt about job satisfaction

Source: http://www.patspapers.com/story_stack/item/older_workers_report_
higher_job_satisfaction/

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(b)" Gender
Research in this area yields inconsistent and contradictory results. In other
words, there is no clear indication that gender differences influence job
satisfaction (Schulz & Schultz, 2010). Detailed research yields, however,
that it may not be gender that influences job satisfaction. For example,
females are typically paid lesser than males. In order to gain better pay or
higher promotion, females may have to work harder than males to gain
comparable rewards (Schultz & Schultz, 2006). These factors can obviously
influence ones satisfaction at work.
Figure 6.11 shows the increasing number of female employees at work who
are potentially victims of glass ceiling.

Figure 6.11: Female and glass ceiling

Source: Bell (2012)

(c)"

Race
In the American context, more Caucasian than non-Caucasian workers
report satisfaction at work. Although a large number of non-Caucasian
workers (African-American especially) are thriving middle class people,
there is also a large number of people who are unemployed, employed
irregularly or too discouraged to seek employment (Schultz & Schultz,
2010). Under such circumstances, the primary concern for workers is not
satisfaction but finding a job that pays decently.
In the Malaysian context, surveys conducted by Ranstad in 2012 found that
62 per cent of workers in Malaysia considered good salary as more
important than job satisfaction. Therefore, the link between race and job
satisfaction is poorly established and receives little or no empirical support.

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(d)" Cognitive Ability

Research does not draw a direct link between cognitive ability and job
satisfaction, but it is related to the type of work a person chooses (Schultz &
Schultz, 2010). People who are highly intelligent may find certain work to
be less challenging, therefore leading to job dissatisfaction and boredom. In
other words, people whose job is not challenging enough for their level of
intelligence report higher job dissatisfaction.
Another factor related to intelligence is the level of education. Research has
found that the higher the level of education a person possesses, the more
likely he or she is to be dissatisfied with his or her work. One possible
explanation is that people who are more educated tend to have higher
expectations of their job. Many jobs, however, do not satisfy this
expectation (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
(e)"

Job Experience
In the early years of your career, you may feel satisfied with your job as the
challenges and environment are new. As the years pass, satisfaction may
slowly wane off if no regular feedback about your work is provided. Such
situation may tend to escalate into job dissatisfaction.
Research, however, shows that job satisfaction appears to increase after a
number of years of experience (similar to age, as previously discussed).

(f)"

Use of Skills
Overall, workers are happy and satisfied if they have the opportunities to
exercise their skills (Schultz & Schulz, 2010). One of the most common
complaints of graduates is the lack of opportunity to use the skills they
acquired during college training.

(g)" Job Congruence

Job congruence refers to the match between workers abilities and the
demand of the job. Research shows that the higher the job congruence, the
higher the job satisfaction of the workers (Schultz & Schultz, 2006). The
inverse relation between job congruence and job satisfaction is also evident.
In other words, if a mismatch between workers ability and demand of job
occurs, workers are more likely to report lower job satisfaction as they are
not able to perform their job effectively.
(h)" Organisational Justice
Organisational justice refers to workers perception of how fairly they are
treated by their organisation (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). When workers
perceive low organisational justice, their job satisfaction, job performance

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and organisational loyalty are likely to decrease. Under such situations,

workers are likely to report higher level of stress and grievances and may
seek other jobs.
In addition, workers who work under authoritarian leaders are likely to
have low perceived organisational justice. Research shows that
organisational justice can be increased through getting workers involved in
decision making which, in turn, also increases job satisfaction and
organisational loyalty (Mayer, Nishii, Schneider, & Goldstein, 2007). In
Figure 6.12, the goddess of justice is blindfolded (to indicate that justice is
blind).

Figure 6.12: The goddess of justice is blindfolded

Source: Peterson (2014)

(i)"

Personality
Research shows people with higher emotional stability are more satisfied
with their work. In addition, happier people rate themselves higher in job
satisfaction, show higher level of work performance and earn higher pay
than those who are less happy (Boehm & Lyubomirsky, 2008).
Alienation and locus of control are two facets of personality found to be
linked to job satisfaction. In detail, workers who reported lower levels of
alienation and a higher locus of control are more likely to feel satisfied with
their work than those who are alienated at work. In addition, two
dimensions of Type A personality are linked to job satisfaction, namely:
(i)

Achievement striving positively related to job satisfaction

x" Refers to the extent to which people work hard and take work
seriously.

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Impatience or irritability negatively related to job satisfaction

x" Refers to intolerance, anger and hostility.

(j)"

Job control
Numerous researches support the notion that the greater control workers
have at work, the greater the job satisfaction (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). In a
study of 3,125 workers in Japan, those who reported low levels of control at
work have four times the risk of committing suicide. A similar study
conducted in England yielded similar results, where workers with higher
control of their work reported better health and higher levels of job
performance and job satisfaction (Bond & Bunce, 2003).

(k)" Occupational level

The higher the occupational status, the higher the level of job satisfaction
expressed by the workers. One possible explanation is that higher positions
offer greater autonomy (which is directly related to job satisfaction),
challenge and responsibility (in line with Maslows hierarchy of needs).
Job satisfaction varies with job category. Self-employed persons, technical
workers, professionals and managers report higher satisfaction than
workers in manufacturing, service, wholesale and retail industries.

6.3.2

Job Satisfaction and On-the-Job Behaviour

Various factors such as productivity, pro-social and counterproductive

behaviour, absenteeism and turnover are related to job satisfaction. In the
following section, we will examine each factor in detail.
(a)"

Productivity
Extensive research conducted in looking at job performance and job
satisfaction found a significant relationship between the two factors. In
other words, the higher the reported job satisfaction, the higher the job
performance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono & Patton, 2001).
Most research in this area was conducted in terms of the individual worker.
In contrast, I-O psychologists also conducted similar research in terms of
work teams or department and found similar results.

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(b)" Pro-social and Counterproductive Behaviour

High job satisfaction is found to be related to pro-social behaviour at work
(or vice versa). Research has shown that workers who reported lower
satisfaction with work may resolve to anti-social behaviour at work as a
means to get back to the organisation because of real or imaginary
grievances (Schultz & Schultz, 2010).
(c)"

Absenteeism
Absenteeism is costly for organisations. In monetary terms, absenteeism
cost businesses $30 billion a year in America. In a research conducted in
Australia, workers who believe organisations that were not fulfilling their
obligation in terms of providing job security, promotion opportunity and
pay increase are likely to take additional days off (Deery, Iverson & Walsh,
2006).
One way to reduce absenteeism is through programme of rewards and
recognition for good attendance records. This has been reported from a
study conducted by Markham, Scott and McKee (2002) in a garment factory.

(d)" Turnover
Similar to absenteeism, turnover is also costly to organisations. Every time
someone quits, money has to be spent on recruitment and re-training.
Research has found a strong relationship between organisational loyalty
and turnover. The more loyal the worker is towards the organisation, the
less likely he or she will quit.
Interestingly, age does not predict turnover (although younger people are
likely to quit) (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). When there is low unemployment,
turnover is higher. One possible explanation for this is that good economy
is usually accompanied by low unemployment. In good economical times,
people may perceive that it is easier to find jobs in the hope of increasing
their job satisfaction.
In contrast when the economy is poor, involuntary turnover due to
redundancy or downsizing will have a negative impact not only on the
layoff workers, but also on the workers remaining in the organisation (it
might damage their morale or cause fear due to low job security).

ACTIVITY 6.2
In groups, discuss why you think absenteeism happens.

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SELF-CHECK 6.1
1.

Explain the impact of personal characteristics on job satisfaction.

2.

Name two on-the-job behaviours that are costly to the organisation.

Content theories of motivation deal with internal needs that influence

behaviours.

Content theories of motivation are concerned with:

" Importance of work;
" Challenges;
" Growth opportunities; and
" Responsibilities work provides for employees:

Achievement motivation theory workers who have high needs for

achievement tend to get great satisfaction from accomplishing certain goals
at work and they are usually motivated to excel in whatever task they
undertake.

Needs hierarchy theory created by Abraham Maslow and suggests human

needs are arranged in a hierarchy based on its level of importance.

Maslows hierarchy of needs outlines five levels of needs in humans:

" Physiological needs;
" Safety needs;
" Needs for love or belonging;
" Esteem needs; and
" Needs for self-actualisation.

Motivator-hygiene (two factor) theory deals with both motivation and job
satisfaction.

100 X TOPIC 6 MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION

Job-characteristics theory created by Hackman and Oldham (1976) and

found that there are certain job factors that influence workers satisfaction
and attendance.

Hackman and Oldham identified five core job characteristics, namely skill
variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback.

Process theories of motivation deal with external needs that influence

behaviours.

Process theories of motivation focuses on the cognitive (thinking) processes

that are part of decision making.

Under these models, there are three theories, namely valenceinstrumentality-expectancy theory, equity theory and goal-setting theory.

Job satisfaction refers to the positive or negative feelings a person has

towards his or her job.

Several characteristics which are related to job satisfaction are:

" Age;
" Gender;
" Race;
" Cognitive ability;
" Job experience;
" Use of skills;
" Job congruence;
" Organisational justice;
" Personality;
" Job control; and
" Occupational level.

Job satisfaction increases with age, and has no significant relationship with
gender.

Job satisfaction can result in pro-social behaviour and vice versa.

On-the-job behaviour such as absenteeism and turnover are very costly to the
organisation.

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MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION W 101

Achievement motivation theory

Maslows hierarchy of needs

Equity theory

Motivator-hygiene theory

Goal setting theory

Pro-social behaviours

Job characteristics theory

Two-factor theory

Job congruence

Valence-instrumentality-expectancy
theory

Job enrichment
Job satisfaction

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