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Adjustable
Speed Drive
REFERENCE GUIDE
4th Edition
ASD cover
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Page 3
Revised by:
Richard Okrasa, P.Eng.
Ontario Hydro
Printed in Canada
Copyright 1997 Ontario Hydro
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ADJUSTABLE SPEED
DRIVE
Reference Guide
4th Edition
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TA B L E
Page i
OF
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
Latest Improvements .................................................................................2
CHAPTER 1: CLASSIFICATIONS ......................................................................... 3
Classification of Motors .......................................................................... 3
Classification of Drives ............................................................................ 3
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL APPEARANCE ................................................................. 5
CHAPTER 3: PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ............................................................ 7
Conventional Fixed-speed AC Systems .................................................. 7
DC Drives ................................................................................................ 8
AC Drives ................................................................................................ 8
Eddy Current Clutches ............................................................................. 8
Switched Reluctance Drives ...................................................................... 9
Vector Drive .......................................................................................... 10
Wound-rotor Motor Controllers ............................................................... 10
Variable Voltage Controllers .................................................................... 11
Variable Frequency Drives ..................................................................... 11
Components .......................................................................................... 12
Types of Inverters .................................................................................. 13
Waveforms ............................................................................................ 14
Switching Devices (Power Electronics) ........................................................14
Medium Voltage Drives...........................................................................14
Recommended Specifications .....................................................................15
CHAPTER 4: COMPARISON OF ASDS ............................................................. 17
AC Drives .............................................................................................. 17
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CONTENTS
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TA B L E
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CONTENTS
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TA B L E
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CONTENTS
iv
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LIST
Page v
FIGURES
OF
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LIST
OF
Page vi
FIGURES
vi
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LIST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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OF
TA B L E S
vii
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Page 1
INTRODUCTION
Continuous
Speed
Discrete
Operation
Introduction
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L ATEST I MPROVEMENTS
Microprocessor-based controllers eliminate analogue,
potentiometer-based adjustments.
Digital control capability.
Built-in Power Factor correction.
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) filters.
Short Circuit Protection (automatic shutdown).
Advanced circuitry to detect motor rotor position by sampling
power at terminals, ASD and motor circuitry combined to keep
power waveforms sinusoidal, minimizing power losses.
Motor Control Centers (MCC) coupled with the ASD using
real-time monitors to trace motor-drive system performance.
Higher starting torques at low speeds (up to 150% running
torque) up to 500 MP, in voltage source drives.
Load-commutated Inverters coupled with synchronous motors.
(precise speed control in constant torque applications.
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CHAPTER 1
CLASSIFICATIONS
C LASSIFICATION
OF
M OTORS
C LASSIFICATION
OF
D RIVES
Adjustable speed drives are the most efficient (98% at full load)
types of drives. They are used to control the speeds of both AC
and DC motors. They include variable frequency/voltage AC
motor controllers for squirrel-cage motors, DC motor
controllers for DC motors, eddy current clutches for AC motors
(less efficient), wound-rotor motor controllers for wound-rotor
AC motors (less efficient) and cycloconverters (less efficient).
Chapter 1: Classifications
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CHAPTER 2
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
LOAD
Feedback
Loop
(Optional)
Tachometer
Can be
hundreds of
metres away
Motor
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CHAPTER 3
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
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DC D RIVES
The DC motor is the simplest to which electronic speed control
can be applied because its speed is proportional to the armature
voltage.
The DC voltage can be controlled through a phase-controlled
rectifier or by a DC-DC converter if the input power is DC.
This is usually accomplished by a separate motor-generator set
producing a DC output.
The speed of a DC motor can be adjusted over a very wide
range by control of the armature current and/or field currents
(brushless DC drives, vector controlled DC drives).
AC D RIVES
E DDY C URRENT C LUTCHES
Eddy current clutches can be used to control standard AC
squirrel-cage induction motors. However, they are low
efficiency compared to ASDs and have limited applications.
An eddy current clutch has essentially three major components:
a steel drum directly driven by an AC motor, a rotor with poles
and a wound coil that provides the variable flux required for
speed control.
Efficiency is significantly lower than ASDs.
A voltage is applied to the coil of wire, which is normally
mounted on the rotor of the clutch to establish a flux, and thus
relative motion occurs between the drum and its output rotor.
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V ECTOR D RIVE
Vector drive control of AC motors is similar to DC drive
performance in speed, torque and horsepower.
It can produce full torque from start to full speed. (The motor
needs to control heat at full torque and low speed.)
It requires complex electronics (digital signal processors, or
DSPs) to calculate servomotor phase currents.
Magnitude and direction of armature current together are a
vector quantity which must be regulated to adjust torque.
Slip speed and motor speed are tracked by an encoder.
Synchronous motors can be controlled by vector drives by
eliminating magnetizing current and slip values.
Speed
Regulator
2 Phase
to
3 Phase
Encoder
Current
Regulator
Motor
Flux
Command
Controller
Position
Signal
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Feedback
Signal
Page 12
Speed
Reference
from Process
TACHOMETER
REGULATOR
(Controls)
Motor
RECTIFIER
Constant
Frequency
Constant Voltage
AC Power
Supply
LOAD
INVERTER
(Switching
Section)
Fixed or
Variable
DC Voltage
Variable
Frequency
Variable Voltage
AC Power
Output
C OMPONENTS
A variable frequency drive has two stages of power conversion,
a rectifier and an inverter. (Inverter is also used to refer to the
entire drive.)
The system functions this way:
- 60 Hz power, usually 3-phase, is supplied to the rectifier.
The input voltage level is usually standard 208V, 230V, 460V,
600V, 4,160V, etc. (Higher than 600V requires step-down
transformers.)
- The rectifier is a circuit which converts fixed voltage AC
power to either fixed or adjustable voltage DC.
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OF I NVERTERS
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W AVEFORMS
The voltage and current waveforms produced by inverter
systems approximate, to varying degrees, the pure sine wave.
S WITCHING D EVICES
Advances in Power Electronic technology have greatly
enhanced performance range and reliability of ASDs.
New switching devices are faster, produce less heat, and less
harmonics into the motor circuit. Some types are:
- SCR (silicon - controlled rectifier).
- Diode.
- GTO (gate turnoff thyristor).
- IGBT (insulated gate bi-thermal thyristor).
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0C to 40C.
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CHAPTER 4
COMPARISON OF ASDS
AC D RIVES
VARIABLE V OLTAGE I NVERTER (VVI)
DC Link
DC to AC
Inverter
Constant
Voltage
Voltage
Smoothing
Variable Voltage/
Frequency Control
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Voltage
(Line to
Neutral)
Current
(Line)
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6 Step
Time
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AC to DC
Rectifier
Page 19
DC to AC
Inverter
DC Link
Variable
Voltage
Control
Current
Smoothing
Variable
Frequency
Control
Current
(Line)
0
Time
AC/DC
Converter
Filter
Inverter
Motor
Current
Regulator
Frequency
Control
Speed
Speed or
Voltage
Control
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AC to DC
Converter
Page 21
DC Link
DC to AC
Inverter
Variable
Voltage
Control
Voltage
Smoothing
Variable
Frequency
Control
Voltage
(Line to
Neutral)
0
Current
(Line)
0
AC
Line
Diode
Bridge
Rectifier
Filter
Inverter
Motor
Speed
Reference
Voltage &
Frequency
Control
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Power Factor
1.0
PWM &
Vector Drive
.75
VVI
.50
CSI
.25
0
450
900
1350
1800
Speed (RPM)
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PWM drives have near unity power factor throughout the speed
range, due to the diode rectifier and constant voltage DC bus.
Note that true Root-Mean-Square (RMS) meters will determine
the real power factor on three-phase systems. It may be less
than the displacement power factor (kW/kVA) which appears
on single-phase meters.
DC D RIVES
DC drives are a simpler, more mature technology than AC
drives, and they continue to have applications where larger
horsepower is required due to high voltage capacity.
Armature voltage-controlled DC drives are constant torque
drives capable of rated motor torque at any speed up to rated
motor base speed.
% of Rated Power
100
Armature Voltage
Control
Field Current
Control
Constant Field
Current
Constant Armature
Voltage
Constant
Torque
Constant
Power
100
% of Base Speed
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Drum
Motor
Load
SR TR
TD SD
Magnetic Rotor
TD = Drum Torque
SD = Drum Speed
TR = Rotor Torque
SR = Rotor Speed
C YCLOCONVERTER
Mainly used in large synchronous motor drives in low
frequency applications:
- Steel rolling mill end tables.
- Cement mill furnaces.
- Mine hoists.
- Ship propulsion drives.
Limitation: wave forms become distorted above 40% of input
frequency (i.e., 20Hz from 50Hz supply).
Advantage: high power factor using synchronous motors.
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A.C. Supply
Bridge
A
Load
Bridge
B
A.C. Supply
27
ASD tables
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Variable Voltage
Inverter (VVI)
Current Source
Inverter (CSI)
MOTOR COMPATIBILITY
Squirrel-cage induction
or synchronous
Can handle motors
smaller than inverter
rating
Squirrel-cage induction
or synchronous
Can handle motors
smaller than inverter
rating (at reduced rating)
Squirrel-cage induction
or synchronous
Can handle motors
smaller than inverter rating
1 1,000
50 5,000
SPEED REDUCTION
(typical) =
Maximum Speed
10:1
10:1
5%
5%
ADAPTABILITY OF MOTOR
TO HOSTILE
ENVIRONMENTS
Good
Good
EFFICIENCY RANGE
for system: drive & motor
88 - 93%
88 - 93%
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
DC Drive
Eddy Current
Coupling (ECC)
Commutated DC
Squirrel-cage induction
0 10,000
400 20,000
1 1,000
5:1
0.1 - 5%
depending upon feedback
methods
2 - 5%
3 - 5%
Medium
Good
90 - 94%
92 - 96%
0 - 70%
Rotor current
Field winding
5 5,000
30:1
Minimum Speed
5%
Good
85 - 95%
TORQUE hp
Constant
Variable
Control Method
Yes
Yes
Yes
Field voltage, armature
voltage or both
600
VOLTAGE RANGE
29
ASD tables
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Variable Voltage
Inverter (VVI)
Current Source
Inverter (CSI)
DC Drive
MULTIPLE MOTOR
CAPABILITY (e.g., two
200 hp motors on a single
400 hp drive)
No
SOFT STARTING
Yes
Yes
(*2)
Worst
OUTPUT SYSTEMS
HARMONICS
(dependent on leakage
reactance)
COMPLEXITY OF:
POWER CIRCUIT
CONTROL CIRCUIT
PRINCIPLE
Eddy Current
Coupling (ECC)
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
(*2)
Good
Least
Yes
Yes
No
Simple
Simple
Simple
Semi-complex
Simple
Complex
Simple
Simple
N/A
Simple
Simple
Speed is adjusted by
changing field voltage
and/or armature voltage.
ASD tables
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Variable Voltage
Inverter (VVI)
Current Source
Inverter (CSI)
DC Drive
Eddy Current
Coupling (ECC)
CIRCUIT PROTECTION
Inverter Open Circuit
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
CONTROL VARIABLE
Rotor current
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
Standard
Option
Option
No
No
REVERSE CAPABILITY
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Poor
RIDE-THROUGH
CAPABILITY
Difficult
Difficult
No
No
Intermediate
Large
Small
Intermediate
Small
MAIN ADVANTAGES
Simple system
Wide speed range
Soft start
Low costs
Simple compact control
Wide constant torque
speed range
MAIN DISADVANTAGES
Harmonics increase
losses in motor
Standard inverter cannot
operate in a regenerative
mode
Maintenance of brushes
is high
May pose problems in
hazardous environments
Relatively low power
factor
Limited speed range
Regenerative braking n/a
ASD tables
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Variable Voltage
Inverter (VVI)
Current Source
Inverter (CSI)
MAIN DISADVANTAGES
(contd)
APPLICATIONS
General
Specific
(*1)
(*2)
Conveyors
Machine tools
Pumps
Fans
Pumps
Fans
Compressors
Blowers
Eddy Current
Coupling (ECC)
DC Drive
Extruders
Machine tools
Mine hoists
Cranes
Elevators
Rotary kilns
Rubber mills
Printing presses
Shakers (foundry or car)
Winches
Public transportation
A totally enclosed motor is usually required because the ECC is normally used in close proximity to the driven machine (e.g., machine tools).
The VVI, CSI and DC drives have power factors that decrease with speed. For the AC inverters, this can be corrected by implementing a diode and chopper control.
This will slightly increase acoustical noise and slightly reduce efficiency.
Fans
Pumps
Blowers
Fluid propulsion systems
Driving extruders
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CHAPTER 5
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ASD Optional
Features
Overvoltage
Soft start
Undervoltage
Overload protection
Overcurrent
Torque limit
Power outage
ride-through
Across-the-line start
Line-to-line shorts
on output
Line-to-ground shorts
on output
Brake stop
Coast stop
Bypass
Continuous overload
Motor slip
compensation
Locked rotor
Electronic reversing
34
New Power
Electronic Devices
Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS)
controlled thyristors
(inverter switches)
Insulated-gate bi
thyristors (IGBT are
more capable of rapid
energizing)
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CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES
S PEED C ONTROL
ASDs are used to control production speed in conveyor
systems in the food, paper, automotive, and consumer goods
industries. In mining, ASDs are used in crushers, grinding mills,
rotary kilns, presses, rolling mills, and textile machinery.
Chapter 6: Advantages
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P OSITION C ONTROL
ASDs are used for machine tools.
T ORQUE C ONTROL
ASDs are used for tensioning (winders).
H IGH E NERGY S AVINGS P OTENTIAL
Applications with highest energy savings potential are
centrifugal pumps and fans (power is proportional to speed
cubed), pumping applications (municipal water systems,
centrifugal chillers, chemical/petrochemical industries, pulp and
paper plants and food industries) and replacing damper controls
in air handling and ventilation applications.
S OFT S TARTING /R EGENERATIVE B RAKING
When a constant speed drive starts up, the surge of inrush
current that moves the motor out of its stationary position is
about six times the ordinary current, thus producing much
stress on the equipment, especially the windings.
With adjustable frequency drives, acceleration times can be
adjusted from instantaneous up to several minutes, thus
providing soft starting capabilities.
Regenerative braking is used when the rapid reduction of motor
speed in a controlled manner is needed for production or safety
reasons. It is a form of dynamic braking in which the kinetic
energy of the motor and driven machinery is returned to the
power supply system. The motor becomes a generator when
the driven load is applying torque in the reverse direction.
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IN
H ARSH E NVIRONMENTS
OR
B ACK - UP O PERATION
Chapter 6: Advantages
37
R EDUCTION
IN
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N OISE L EVEL
Vibration and noise level are reduced when the operating speed
of the equipment is lowered and because valves or vanes are
eliminated.
R E - ACCELERATION C APABILITY
Some adjustable frequency drives continue to have power
supply during power losses of short duration, whereas fixed
speed devices would trip out.
T IPS
AND
C AUTIONS
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CHAPTER 7
APPLICATION
CONSIDERATIONS
H OW
TO
S ELECT
AN
ASD
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S OFTWARE
F INANCIAL E VALUATION
Software is available from several ASD suppliers, including
some utilities. Be careful to include lower part-load efficiencies
when inputting performance data.
L OAD C HARACTERISTICS
Varying Duty Cycle
The load profile or duty cycle will also indicate the potential
suitability of an ASD for an application. The duty cycle shows
the typical speeds and corresponding time intervals for which a
motor operates annually. From an energy standpoint, the
ingredients of a good ASD application are high percent throttling
(changing load) and high annual operating hours.
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% Flow
100
Good
Application
Time
% Flow
100
Poor
Application
Time
A PPLICATION T YPES
BY
L OAD
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Torque
hp
20
0
50
Percent Speed
100
100
80
60
hp
40
20
0
50
Percent Speed
100
Torque
40
20
0
50
Percent Speed
100
45
T IPS
AND
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C AUTIONS
ASD Control
Pressure
Unstable
Area
Performance
System
Inlet Guide
Vane Control
Flow
Flow
Pump
Valve Control
ASD Control
System
Perf
nce
Performance
System
Static
Pressure
Dynamic
orma
Flow
Flow
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Power Required
Damper
Control
Saving
ASD
Control
Speed
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Motor Type
Your choice of available drives depends to a large extent on the
motor used. Although DC systems were largely used in the
past, AC motors are much more popular now due to their
relatively low cost, low maintenance requirements and better
reliability. For most low- and medium-speed applications,
squirrel-cage AC induction motors are now used.
Variable Speed Brushless DC Electronically Commutated
motors are available in 600 horsepower sizes.
Horsepower Rating
Induction motors are best suited for power levels up to
approximately 500 horsepower (325 kW), although they can
be used for higher power levels. Above 1,000 horsepower,
synchronous motors are often used and are usually driven by
current source inverters or by load-commutated inverters or
cycloconverters. These high-powered systems are very
expensive to purchase for use in the lower end of their operating
ranges. Medium Voltage AC induction motors are now available
under ASD control.
It is important to determine the maximum horsepower
requirements of the driven load and how the required power
varies with speed.
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Voltage Requirements
These are the size ranges usually available for AC variable
frequency drives:
Horsepower Range
Voltages Available
<50
50-200
200-1,000
1,000-2,500
*2,500-10,000
*>10,000
(usually DC, or wound rotor)
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Speed Range
Percent (%) of 60 Hz Torque Rating
100
z
0-60 H
2:1 3
z
0-6 0 H
3:1 2 0 Hz
6
5
1
4:1
0 Hz
1 0-6
6:1
0 Hz
6
5
.
7
8:1
0
-6 H z
1 0:1 6
90
80
70
60
Induction Motor:
Constant Torque Load,
USEM 4-P TEFC 460 V
30 60 Hz Motor With
Boost At Low Frequency.
50
2 0 : 1 3-6 0
40
Hz
Source Data:
EIC Program Based on
Constant Temp. Method
30
0
1
20
40 50
75
100
125 150
200
Motor Horsepower 60 Hz Rated
250
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VVI
CSI
PWM
X
X
X
X
X
* These motors are very undesirable for adjustable frequency control, due to
high harmonic losses.
NEMA design B squirrel-cage induction motors are commonly
used in industry.
Energy efficient motors have lower losses than standard motors
and therefore provide wider torque capability when used with
variable frequency drives.
Chapter 7: Application Considerations
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O THER C ONSIDERATIONS
The next step in the decision process is to evaluate the relative
importance of each of the remaining factors to be considered.
One of these factors may exclude one drive system. For
example, if the system is to be used in an explosive
environment, commutators and brushes cannot be used
because of the sparks that would be generated.
These are some other selection considerations: economics,
process requirements and load characteristics, performance
required (speed regulation/control accuracy, efficiency and
reliability), starting and stopping characteristics (load inertia),
torque (breakaway torque, accelerating time and torque and
decelerating time and torque), environment, weight and space,
maintenance, programmability needed, lead time for delivery,
line power factor and mechanical considerations.
Process requirements and load characteristics were discussed at
the beginning of this chapter. Although initially used as
indicators, the importance of these factors should now be
compared with all other considerations.
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E FFICIENCY
At full speed and full load, VVI, CSI and PWM drives are all
about 95% efficient. Efficiency drops at approximately a square
rate with speed, as commutation losses (thyristor closing) vary
with torque and current.
4.0
3.5
PWM
3.0
2.5
2.0
VVI
1.5
CSI
1.0
.5
450
900
1350
1800
Speed (RPM)
100%
Percent Efficiency
75% Load
100% Load
94%
90%
50% Load
86%
25% Load
82%
78%
74%
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent Speed
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OF
ASD S
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Efficiency
System efficiency = mechanical power output from motor shaft
electrical power input to drive
The efficiency of a motor/drive system depends on
characteristics of the connected motor (power factor, efficiency),
speed range and duty cycle, load, measurement method and
instrument accuracy, inverter size and horsepower rating, input
power tie voltage variation and manufacturing variations.
(Sometimes, its better to use a high efficiency motor.)
The motor design and specific operating points are the largest
contributors to efficiency differences.
High efficiency motors are more susceptible to tripping due to
heat, voltage or current drops.
Multi-speed motors (i.e., pole changing motors) offer fixed
speed combinations (two to four is typical) that are a much
cheaper alternative to ASDs if continuous speed adjustment is
not needed.
A more important consideration is:
Energy Lost = Output Power Input Power
Higher horsepower drives tend to have higher efficiencies.
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AND
S TOPPING C HARACTERISTICS
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AND
S PACE
Extended
Speed Range
150
High Eff. Motors
100
80
Torque
hp
hp
1.15 SF Motors
50
Torque
hp
0
6 15
30
60
Frequency (Hertz)
90
120
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Percent Torque
300
200
100
10
20
30
40
Frequency (Hertz)
50
60
Percent
Torque 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent Speed
Synchronous
Speed
Operating Speed
A CCESSORIES
Accessories include auto transformers (for voltage overload
protection), regenerative braking circuits (overhauling loads in
constant torque such as cranes), bypass loop (for operating the
motor directly bypassing the drive), filters and the line chokes
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AND
M AINTENANCE
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T IPS
AND
C AUTIONS
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CHAPTER 8
ECONOMICS
Chapter 8: Economics
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Capital Costs
Capital
Savings
Drive
Control valves
Motor
Gear box
Power
conditioning
equipment
Fluid coupling/
mechanical
speed
changing
equipment
Installation
Electrical
system
upgrade
Reducedvoltage starters
Torsional
analysis
Space
requirements
Cooling
70
Operational
Costs and
Savings
Energy (total
energy
consumed,
peak demand
charge)
Maintenance/
useful life/
downtime
Overspeed
capability
Other
Salvage value
Tax
implications
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Evaluate the cost/savings of the factors in Table 4 for each option you are
considering (for example, purchasing an ASD, purchasing a mechanical
drive system, not purchasing a variable speed drive). Capital costs will be
expressed in total dollars; operating expenses will be expressed in terms of
time.
2.
Determine the real discount rate that should be used for each timedependent and future-valued factor. For example, for energy savings
calculations:
x% per annum = nominal discount rate
y% per annum = rate at which electricity rates will rise
i% = {x/y 1}%
As another example, a salvage value n years from the present should be
discounted using the rate at which the interest rate is expected to rise
between now and n years.
3.
All factors for each option should be discounted to their present values,
using the appropriate discount rate. The number of years used for timedependent factors should be chosen as a reasonable payback period.
Present value tables and annuity tables are useful for the discounting
process.
4.
The net present value (NPV) of each option is found by summing the costs
and savings that have been calculated in present value terms for each
factor.
5.
6.
The option with the greatest positive value of NPV is the most profitable.
7.
8.
A comparison between two options could also be made by using the relative
difference between the option for each factor and finding one NPV.
NPV >0,
NPV <0,
NPV = 0,
Chapter 8: Economics
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E CONOMIC FACTORS
C APITAL C OSTS
Drive
The cost of this major item will vary greatly, depending on
the options required. The cost should include speed controls,
start/stop controls, engineering, cable, conduit, foundations,
spare parts and any related modifications. For example, a
battery back-up for the controls may be provided for auto restart or shut-down sequences.
Motor
The cost of a motor must be considered for a new system.
Power Conditioning Equipment
The cost of any power conditioning equipment, such as
harmonic filters, should be included. This includes filters for
incoming power to the motor as well as power conditioners
for harmonic voltages and currents sent back to the power
supply from the drive.
Installation
Installation, labour and commissioning charges for the drive and
motor and power conditioning apparatus should be determined.
Electrical System Upgrade
Upgrading of the electrical system may be necessary if higher
reliability is required than the present system can offer. Potential
upgrades include relay protective systems, supply transformer
redundancy, transfer switching/alternate feeders, maintenance and
emergency staff training and preventive maintenance programs.
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Torsional Analysis
A torsional analysis will define the vibration effects of inverter
harmonics in the drive train. It should be conducted for large
drive applications.
Space Requirements
This includes the cost of any indoor space requirements for
the drive and filters, as well as any outdoor space costs, such
as those associated with transformers, filters or reactors.
Cooling
Additional cooling may be required for drive installation. For
large applications, although HVAC equipment is often used,
water cooling may be a much more economical alternative.
C APITAL S AVINGS
Use of an ASD may avoid certain capital investments. Examples
are gear boxes, control valves, fluid coupling/mechanical speed
changing equipment and reduced voltage starters.
O PERATING C OSTS
AND
S AVINGS
Energy
There may be savings in terms of both energy consumed and
peak demand charge. The extent of these savings depends on
the local utilitys rate schedule. If an ASD is installed, the total
energy consumed will likely be reduced.
The other element of electrical power cost is the demand charge,
measured in kVA, which compensates the utility for the peak
current it must deliver during the month. The most significant
factor affecting KVA demand is the power required by the load,
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74
T IPS
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AND
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C AUTIONS
Chapter 8: Economics
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Controller
Valve
Eddy
Current
Coupling
Motor
Motor
Valve
Control
Slip
Control
Motor
Controller
Motor
DC
AC
Solid-state
Control
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CHAPTER 9
HARMONIC DISTORTION
H ARMONICS
There are two types or harmonics: electrical and mechanical.
The inverter (switching) section of an ASD generates
harmonics.
Electrical harmonics cause waveform distortion. They are
currents or voltages that oscillate at integer multiples of the
fundamental 60 Hz frequency, which is the main power
frequency. For example, a frequency five times the fundamental
frequency is called the fifth harmonic.
Chapter 9: Harmonic Distortion
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Bus Voltage
Line Current
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P RODUCTION
AND
T RANSMISSION
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O THER G UIDELINES
There are no current CSA standards specifically relating to
ASDs. CSA approval may be granted to many different drive
designs, many of which are imported.
Minimum guaranteed full load, full speed ASD efficiency of
95%, (including any supplied equipment: isolation transformers
and filters).
Harmonic Distortion: Latest recommended specification: IEEE
519-1992: total voltage harmonic distortion shall not exceed
5% at common coupling ASD to motor.
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APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A
Formulas for Calculating Applications
C ALCULATING H ORSEPOWER
Once the machine BHP (speed x torque) requirement is
determined, horsepower can be calculated using the formula:
rated motor hp = motor efficiency (%)
100
= available hp
BHP =
TxN
5,250
(required hp)
Where,
hp = horsepower, supplied by the motor
T = torque (lb-ft), force x radius
N = base speed of motor (rpm)
If the calculated horsepower falls between standard available motor
ratings, select the higher available horsepower rating. It is good
practice to allow some margin when selecting the motor
horsepower.
Appendix A
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hp (horizontal) =
F OR W EB T RANSPORT S YSTEMS
AND
S URFACE W INDERS
Note that the tension value used in this calculation is the actual
web tension for surface winder applications, but it is the tension
differential (downstream tension upstream tension) for
sectional drives.
C ENTRE W INDERS (A RMATURE C ONTROL O NLY )
hp =
84
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hp =
AND
B LOWERS
hp
x air density
(velocity*
1,096 )
Appendix A
85
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F OR P UMPS
hp =
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H ORSEPOWER R EQUIRED
hp = torque (lb-ft) x speed (RPM)
5,250
hp = torque (lb-in) x speed (RPM)
63,000
Torque (lb-ft) =
hp x 5,250
speed (RPM)
Where,
WK2 = inertia (lb-ft2) reflected to motor shaft
RPM = change in speed
t = time (seconds) to accelerate
t =
RPM =
FPM
.262 x diameter (inches)
Load RPM
( Motor
RPM )
I NERTIA (WK 2)
The factor WK2 is the weight (lb) of an object multiplied by the
square of the radius of gyration (k). The unit measurement of the
radius of gyration is expressed in feet.
Appendix A
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Hollow
D1
Solid
D2
D
88
=
=
=
=
=
.0924
.320
.260
.282
.0289
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WK 2tot = WK 1 = WK 2 = WK 3
FIGURE A-2. Calculating the Inertia of Complex,
Concentric Rotating Parts
WK 2
OF
R OTATING E LEMENTS
In practical mechanical systems, all the rotating parts do not operate at the same speed. The WK2 of all moving parts operating at
each speed must be reduced to an equivalent WK2 at the motor
shaft, so that they can all be added together and treated as a unit,
as follows:
Equivalent WK2 = WK2
( NN )
Where,
WK2 = inertia of the moving part
N
= speed of the moving part (RPM)
Nm = speed of the driving motor (RPM)
When using speed reducers, and the machine inertia is reflected
back to the motor shaft, the equivalent inertia is equal to the
machine inertia divided by the square of the drive reduction ratio.
Appendix A
89
WK 2
OF
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L INEAR M OTION
W (V)2
39.5 (Nm)2
Where,
W = weight of load (lb)
V = linear velocity of rack and load or conveyor and load
(FPM)
Nm = speed of the driving motor (RPM)
This equation can only be used where the linear speed bears a
continuous fixed relationship to the motor speed, such as a
conveyor.
Synchronous (RPM) motor speed =
% Slip =
synchronous RPM
Amperes =
volts
ohms
volts
amperes
no. of poles
O HMS L AW
Ohms =
Hz x 120
P OWER
IN
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10:09 AM
DC C IRCUITS
volts x amperes
Horsepower
Watts
= volts x amperes
Kilowatts
Kilowatt-hours
P OWER
IN
Page 91
746
volts x amperes
1,000
volts x amperes x hours
1,000
AC C IRCUITS
Kilovolt-amperes (kVA)
kVA (single-phase) =
kVA (three-phase) =
volts x amperes
1,000
volts x amperes x 1.73
1,000
Kilowatts (kW)
kW (single-phase) =
kW (three-phase)
Power factor
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3 x EFF x PF
746
Motor amps
Motor amps
Motor amps
Power factor
hp x 746
E x 3 x EFF x PF
kVA x 1,000
3xE
kW x 1,000
=
3 x E x PF
=
Kilowatt-hours =
kW x 1,000
ExIx 3
E x I x hours x
1,000
3 x PF
kW
kVa
Power (watts) = E x 1 x 3 x PF
EFF = mechanical efficiency
E = volts
I = amps
kVA
1 kW =
1 Ton=
1 hp =
=
=
=
92
56.88 BTU/min
200 BTU/min
0.7457 kW
550 lb-ft per sec
33,000 lb-ft per min
2,545 BTU per hour
kW
kVARi
kVARc
I
N
D
U
C
T
I
V
E
C
A
P
A
C
I
T
I
V
E
(AC
Added
motors) (to correct
KVARi) to
improve
PF
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Page 93
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B
Conversion Factors
Length
Torque
Rotation
Multiply
By
To Obtain
Metres
3.281
Feet
Metres
39.37
Inches
Inches
.0254
Metres
Feet
.3048
Metres
Millimetres
.0394
Inches
Newton-Metres
.7376
lb/ft
lb-ft
1.3558
Newton-Metre
lb-in
.0833
lb-ft
lb-ft
12.00
lb-in
RPM
6.00
Degrees/sec
RPM
.1047
Rad/sec
Degrees/sec
.1667
RPM
Rad/sec
9.549
RPC
Appendix B
93
Moment of
Inertia
Power
Temperature
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Multiply
By
To Obtain
Newton-Metres2
2.42
lb-ft2
oz-in2
.000434
lb-ft2
lb-in2
.00694
lb-ft2
Slug-ft2
32.17
lb-ft2
oz-in-sec2
.1675
lb-ft2
lb-in-sec2
2.68
lb-ft2
Watts
.00134
HP
lb-ft/min
.0000303
HP
hp
746.
Watts
hp
33000.
lb-ft/min
94
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A B B R E V I AT I O N S
ABBREVIATIONS
AC
ANSI
ASD
BHP
CSA
CSI
DC
DSP
ECC
GTO
HDF
IGBT
IEEE
LCI
NEMA
NPV
PAM
PLC
PWM
SCR
SR
V
VSI
VVI
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
alternating current
American National Standards Institute
adjustable speed drive
brakehorsepower
Canadian Standards Association
current source inverter
direct current
digital signal processor
eddy current coupling
gate turnoff (thyristor)
harmonic distortion factor
insulated gate bi-thermal thyristor
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
load-commutated inverter
National Electrical Manufacturers Association
net present value
pulse amplitude modulation
programmable logic controller
pulse width modulated (inverter)
silicon-controlled rectifier
switched reluctance
voltage
variable source inverter
variable voltage inverter
Abbreviations
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography
97
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98
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INDEX
Efficiency
comparison, 29
discussion, 57
Environment, 63
Harmonics
comparison, 29
definition, 77
effects, 78
guidelines, 81
losses, 55
production and
transmission, 79
Horsepower rating
comparison, 29
general, 50
Inverter (see also variable
frequency drive), 12
Maintenance, 65
Motors
classification, 3
motor/drive requirements, 49
NEMA motor designs, 55
Net present value, 70
Power conditioning
equipment, 72
Pulse width modulated
inverter (PWM), 13, 20, 25
Index
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Rectifier, 12
Regenerative braking
comparison, 31
description, 36
simple payback, 69
Regulator, 13
Softstarting
comparison, 30
description, 36
Speed
regulation, 53, 60
requirements, 29
Thermal considerations, 54
Torque
considerations, 62
requirements, 51
100
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ASD SUPPLIERS
IN
Page 101
O N TA R I O *
ABB
4410 Paletta Court
Burlington, Ontario L7L 5R2
Contact: Steve Seppanen
(905) 577-1986
Fax: (905) 681-2810
Rockwell Automation/Allen-Bradley
135 Dundas Street
Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5X1
Contact: (519) 623-1810
Cegelec Automation
5112 Timberlea Boulevard
Mississauga, Ontario L4W 2S5
Contact: Roger D. Coote
(905) 624-2026
Fax: (905) 629-8203
G.E. Canada Inc.
2300 Meadowvale Boulevard
Mississauga, Ontario L5N 5P9
Contact: Mike Marshall
(905) 858-5128
fax: (905) 858-5132
Suppliers
101
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Page 4
COMMENTS:
For any changes, additions and/or comments call or
write to:
Scott Rouse
Account Executive
Ontario Hydro
700 University Avenue, H10-F18
Toronto, Ontario
M5G 1X6
Telephone (416) 592-8044
Fax
(416) 592-4841
E-Mail
srouse@hydro.on.ca
ASD cover
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Page 1
Printed on
recycled papers
Ontario Hydro