Electrical Surveying (part A)

Dr. Laurent Marescot

Contact:
laurent@aug.ig.erdw.ethz.ch

Introduction
Electrical surveying
Resistivity method
Induced polarization method (IP)
Self-potential (SP) method
Higher frequency methods (electromagnetic surveys):
Electromagnetic induction methods
Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
2

Resistivity method
The resistivity method is used in the study of horizontal
and vertical discontinuities in the electrical properties
(resistivity) of the subsurface

Application

Exploration of bulk mineral deposit (sand, gravel)

Exploration of underground water supplies
Engineering/construction site investigation
Waste sites and pollutant investigations
Cavity, karst detection
Glaciology, permafrost
Geology
Archaeological investigations

Structure of the lecture

Resistivity of rocks
Equations in resistivity surveying
Survey strategies and interpretation
Conclusions

1. Resistivity of rocks

Resistivity and units

L
R =
A
A
=R
L

=1/

resistivity in ohm.m (m)

conductivity in Siemens per meter (S/m)

Resistivity is the physical property which determines the aptitude of

this material to be opposed to the passage of the electrical current

Electrolytic conductibility
The current is carried by ions. The electrical resistivity of
rocks bearing water is controlled mainly by the water which
they contain.

Electrolytic conductibility
The resistivity of a rock will depend :

on quality of the electrolyte, i.e., on the resistivity of the natural pore

water and consequently the quantity of dissolved salts in the electrolyte
1g/liter=1000 ppm

on the mode of electrolyte distribution, porosity

on the quantity of electrolyte contained in the unit of rock volume

(saturation)

on the temperature

Quality of electrolyte
The water resistivity w depends on the quantity of
dissolved salts:

w = f ( c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 + ... + cn vn )

With

Cn
Vn

concentration in ion n
mobility of ion n

10

Porosity
Total porosity:

Total volume of voids

t =
Total volume of rock
Effective porosity:

Total volume of communicating voids

e =
Total volume of rock
11

Saturation

Volume of saturated voids

Sw =
Total volume of voids

12

Effect of temperature
t =

18

1 + 0.025(t 18)

A rock totally frozen is infinitely resistant and it is

impossible to implement resitivity methods (use EM
methods)
13

Archies Law
= w a m S n

S
a

resistivity of the rock

resistivity of the fluid (water)
porosity
saturation in water
factor which depends of the lithology (varies between
0.6 and 2)
cementation factor (depends of the pores shape, of the
compaction and varies between 1.3 for unconsolidated sands to
2.2 for cimented limestone
about 2 for majority of the formations with normal porosities
containing water between 20 and 100 %.
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Formation factor F
= w a m S n
= w F S n
For sand and sandstones: F 0.62/2.15
For well cemented rocks: F 1/2

15

Permeability
There is no direct
relationship between
resistivity and
permeability.
This table shows also the
problem in identifying
rocks due to overlapping
resistivity values (no
contrast)

16

Resistivity of rocks and minerals

Air, gas or oil: infinite or very high resistivity!

Liquid materials from landfills are generally conductive (<10 ohm.m)

17

Effect of clay
Clay has a high ionic exchange capacity, therefore the
conductivity of the pore fluid largely increases
Archies Law is not valid if clay is present!

18

Summary
The conductivity of a rock increases if

The quantity of water increases

The salinity increases (quantity of ions)
The quantity of clay increases
The temperature increases

19

2. Equations in resistivity surveying

20

Current flow in the ground

21

Potential from a single electrode

r

I
V=
2r
22

Two current electrodes

23

Potential difference
Vp1 is the sum of the
potential contribution
from the current
electrodes C1 and C2

1 1
VP1 = I / 2r1 + ( I / 2r2 ) = (I / 2 )
r1 r2

24

Potential field between

two current electrodes
A and B

Note the fast decrease

near A and B (contact
resistance)
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Current penetration
2 1 2 z
I f = tan

AB

z
AB
If

depth
distance between current electrodes
fraction of current penetrating below a depth z
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 2 1 2 z
I f = tan

AB

27

Principle of reciprocity

28

Current distribution

29

Current distribution

This has an influence on the depth of investigation!

30

Current distribution

31

Heterogeneous Earth

32

Effect of topography

33

3. Survey strategies and interpretation

34

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Two potential electrodes

I
VM =
2
I
VN =
2
VMN

1
1

AM MB
1
1

AN NB

I
= VM VN =
2

a =

1
1
1
1

AM MB AN NB

2VMN 1
1
1
1

I
AM MB AN NB

36

Apparent resistivity
In a heterogeneous medium, the measured resistivity is an
apparent resistivity, which is a function of the form of the
inhomogeneity and of the electrode spacing and surface
location.

37

Geometric factor
For a half-space and electrodes on the surface, a general
definition for the geometric factor K can be written:

VMN
1
1
1
1
2

+
a =

I
AM MB AN NB

VMN
a =
K
I
38

Resistivity survey equipment

39

Device
Current source: batteries in series
Voltmeter and ammeter (resistivimeter)
Electrodes: metallic stakes
current electrodes: stainless steel
potential electrodes: stainless steel or
nonpolarizing electrodes
Polarization occurs at the contact electrode/ground: this
creates an additional potential difference.
40

To decrease the contact resistance

Add electrodes in parallel

Increase the current intensity
Increase the diameter of the current electrodes
Put electrode deeper into the ground
Add water (with salt) near the electrodes

About 90% of the contact resistance contribution comes

from a portion of the ground around the electrode that is
equal to 10 times the diameter of the electrode
41

Origine of noise
Telluric currents
Man-made currents
Metallic conductors in the ground (short-circuits)
Solutions:
Use of alternating current
Stacking operations
Rejection filters (16-20 Hz, 50-60 Hz)

42

Survey strategies
Resistivity mapping, constant separation traversing (CST):
used to determine lateral variations of resistivity. The
current and potential electrodes are maintained at a fixed
separation and moved along profiles
Vertical electrical sounding (VES):
used in the study of near-horizontal interfaces. The
electrode spread is progressively expanded about a central
point
Resistivity tomography (ERT):
is a mix between CST and VES. Also named electrical
imaging
43

Constant separation traversing (CST)

44

Constant separation traversing (CST)

45

Constant separation traversing (CST)

46

Constant separation traversing (CST)

47

Constant separation traversing (CST)

Demo during the lecture

48

Electrode spreads

49

Electrode spreads
V
a = 2a
I

V
a = n( n + 1)a
I
V
a = n(n + 1)(n + 2)a
I

Wenner array

Schlumberger array

dipole-dipole array

50

Penetration depth

51

Sensitivity

52

Interpretation of CST

53

Cylindrical structure

54

Vertical plane structure

55

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Pontis Nappe

SiviezMischabel
Nappe

Unstable
area

Water
infiltration
61

Multiple twin probes

RM15 resistance meter with

multiplexer

62

Sanctuary of Poseidon (island of Poros, Greece)

Papadopoulos et al., 2006. Archeological Prospection, 13, 75-90

63

Ancient Royal Site of Rathcroghan, Ireland

Barton & Fenwick, 2005. Archeological Prospection, 12, 3-18

64

Peristyle villa Gallo-romaine Yvonand (Vaud)

AB=4m

wall

fountain?

65

Manually dragged systems

Dabas et al., 2000, Archeological Prospection, 7, 107-118

66

Roman city, Wroxester (UK)

Dabas et al., 2000, Archeological Prospection, 7, 107-118

67

Mobile arrays with vehicle

Source: Geocarta, Paris

100 data points/seconde

1 data point each 20cm

68

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Mobile arrays

Source: Geocarta, Paris

Vineyards investigations

70

Mobile arrays

Current injection

M1
Resistivity measurement
(three investigation depths)

M2
M3

B
N1
N2
N371

Source: Geocarta, Paris

Mapping example with mobile array (spacing 2m)

Surface: 155 hectares

Apparent resistivity
30 ohm.m

160 ohm.m

72
Source: Geocarta, Paris

Mapping example with mobile array

(spacing 2m)
Surface: 140 hectares

Apparent resistivity

15 ohm.m

150 ohm.m

73
Source: Geocarta, Paris

Profile spacing 6m

Profile spacing 12m

Profile spacing 24m

Apparent resistivity

10 ohm.m

90 ohm.m

74
Source: Geocarta, Paris

Ecartement 0.5m

Ecartement 1m

Ecartement 2m

Apparent resistivity
10 ohm.m

60 ohm.m

75
Source: Geocarta, Paris

Inaccuracy in location

76

Electrostatic mobile arrays

77

XVII and XVIII centuries structures (La Rochelle, France)

Panissod et al., 1998, Archeological Prospection, 5, 239-251

78

Vertical electrical sounding (VES)

79

Vertical electrical sounding (VES)

80

Vertical electrical sounding (VES)

81

Vertical electrical sounding (VES)

Demo during the lecture

82

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One layer and two layers

84

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Three layers and more

87

Equivalence

R = h

R=

88

Parametric sounding
A parametric sounding is a VES carried out on an outcrop
or near a borehole to precisely determine the resistivity of
a geological formation.
A precise determination of resistivity reduce the problem
of equivalence

89

Suppression

90

Interpretation
Field data

Model

Calculated data (response of model B)

Comparison between data

A and C and modification
of model B
91

Interpretation of VES

Demo during the lecture

92

Interpretation of VES

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