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METALLURGICA

Vol. 18, pp. 429-435, 1984

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VIEWPOINT

SET NO.

FLOW LOCALIZATION IN STRAIN HARDENING CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

R. J . A s a r o and A. N e e d l e m a n
Division of Engineering
Brown University, Providence9 Rhode Island

(Received

I.

February

21,

02912

1984)

Introduction

Plastic
d e f o r m a t i o n i n m e t a l s i s an i n h e r e n t l y
nonuniform process; whenever dislocation
s l i p o r t w i n n i n g o c c u r s t h e r e i s a s i z e s c a l e b e l o w w h i c h t h e d e f o r m a t i o n i s h e t e r o g e n e o u s and
discontinuous.
Hence, any reference to the uniformity of plastic
f l o w i m p l i e s some s c a l e o f
observation.
H o w e v e r , on a s i z e s c a l e o f t e n s o f m i c r o n s , e n c o m p a s s i n g s e v e r a l g r a i n s i n
polycrystals,
t h e d e f o r m a t i o n may a p p e a r u n i f o r m e v e n t h o u g h t h e m i c r o m e c h a n i c a l d e f o r m a t i o n
processes are nonuniform.
Localized microstructural
m o d e s c a n be o p e r a t i v e a t t h i s s i z e s c a l e
a s w e l l ; e x a m p l e s i n c l u d e m i c r o t w i n n i n g and t h e ' ~ i c r o b a n d s "
that Halin and Hatherly (1) have
shown t o g i v e r i s e t o t h e " s l i p b a n d s " commonly o b s e r v e d i n h i g h s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y
materials.
E v e n when t h e s e d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e s o c c u r , on a m a c r o s c o p i c l e v e l o f a t e n t h o f a
millimeter
or more, plastic
deformation can again appear uniform.
When s u f f i c i e n t
plastic
deformation has occurred, all such macroscopically
h o m o g e n e o u s d e f o r m a t i o n p a t t e r n s b r e a k down,
perhaps inevitably,
as Asaro (2) has remarked, into ones involving localized deformation in the
form of shear bands.
On t h e g r a i n s i z e s c a l e i t h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d t h a t s h e a r b a n d s c a n become t h e d o m i n a n t
deformation mechanism (3).
As s u c h t h e y d e t e r m i n e m a t e r i a l
s t r e n g t h and d e f o r m a t i o n k i n e m a t i c s ,
thereby contributing
directly
t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t e x t u r e and m a t e r i a l a n i s o t r o p y .
I n some
cases these shear bands lead to fracture
and thus serve as failure modes.
On a more m a c r o s c o p i c
level, shear bands often play an important role in limiting ductility
(4,5).
Once a m a c r o scopic shear band forms, very little
additional
overall straining
takes place while large
strains
accumulate in the ban~leading
to fracture.
In view of the dual significance
of shear
b a n d s i n d e t e r m i n i n g d e f o r m a t i o n p a t t e r n s and a s a p r e c u r s o r to f r a c t u r e ,
i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o be
able to predict their initiation
and d e s c r i b e t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t .
H e r e , we d e s c r i b e some r e c e n t
p r o g r e s s i n d o c u m e n t i n g and a n a l y z i n g s h e a r b a n d s and i n d i c a t e ,
w h a t seem t o u s , some f r u i t f u l
areas for future investigation.
2.

A Framework f o r A n a l y z i n g

Localization

Although the initiation

of shear bands is frequently associated with softening,
for isothermal deformations there is little
evidence for material strain softening occurring prior to
localized
shearing except, perhaps, in special cases, e.g. radiation
damaged a l l o y s .
Indeed,
there are numerous reports indicating
that material within shear bands continues to harden, at
least until microfracture
occurs.
T h i s d o e s n o t r u l e o u t some s o r t o f s o f t e n i n g m e c h a n i s m f r o m
playing a role in precipitating
shear bands.
A particularly
interesting
s u g g e s t i o n , made b y
D i l l a m o r e e t a l . ( 6 ) , Chang a n d A s a r o ( 7 ) , and M o r i i and Nakayama ( 3 , 8 ) , i s t h a t " t e x t u r a l "
or
" g e o m e t r i c " s o f t e n i n g due t o l a t t i c e
reorlentation
during deformation leads to textures that are
"soft" with respect to shear bands.
On a m o r e m a c r o s c o p i c s c a l e t h e i n i t i a t i o n
and g r o w t h o f
v o i d s may l e a d t o a n e f f e c t i v e
softening although the surrounding matrix continues to strainharden.
These effects,
along with the path dependence of strain-hardening
c a n be a n a l y z e d w i t h i n a
framework that regards localization as a "material instability," where a material element is
considered to be subject to prescribed all around displacements that are consistent with a
homogeneous deformation.
Deformations in a localized band are permitted provided the velocity
field remains continuous and continuing equilibrium at the band interface is satisfied (9,10).
Bifurcation and imperfection analyses within this framework have proved useful in revealing the
influence of constitutive features and stress and strain state on localization (I0~11).

429
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C o p y r i g h t (c) 1984 P e r g a m o n Press

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430

FLOW

LOCALIZATION

IN C R Y S T A L L I N E

SOLIDS

Vol.

18,

No.

M a t h e m a t i c a l l y , a s h e a r band b i f u r c a t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h l o s s o f e l l i p t i c i t y
of the
g o v e r n i n g i n c r e m e n t s 1 e q u a t i o n s , H i l l ( 9 ) , Rice ( 1 0 ) ; t h e g o v e r n i n g e q u a t i o n s become e i t h e r
p a r a b o l i c or h y p e r b o l i c i n c h a r a c t e r and v e r y d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o r s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e two
possibilities.
Rice's (I0) three dimensional generalization of the imperfection analysis of
Marciniak and Kuczynskl (12), is important since, for example, a localization bifurcation is
ruled out for rate dependent materials but it can occur when there are very small
i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s . Q u i t e g e n e r a l l y , l o c a l i z a t i o n i n v o l v e s a change i n l o a d i n g d i r e c t i o n so t h a t
i n a s s e s s i n g t h e r o l e o f m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s , such as t e x t u r a l s o f t e n i n g on l o c a l i z a t i o n ,
i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e v a l u a t e e f f e c t s on t h e s t i f f n e s s g o v e r n i n g t h e r e s p o n s e t o a change i n
loading path.
There are however l i m i t a t i o n s to t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f l o c a l i z a t i o n .
For example, l o c a l i z a t i o n o c c u r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h i n t h e band so t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s i s i n c a p a b l e o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e
p r o p a g a t i o n o f a r e g i o n o f l o c a l i z a t i o n from some l o c a l s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t o r .
A l s o , no l e n g t h
s c a l e e n t e r s t h e a n a l y s i s u n l e s s i t i s e x p l i c i t l y p u t t h e r e by b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
constitutive relation.
I t should be emphasized t h a t t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s are n o t i n h e r e n t t o t h e
continuum d e s c r i p t i o n b u t a r e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o ( p i e c e w i s e ) homogeneous and
homogeneously deformed m a t e r i a l e l e m e n t s . When t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s a r e r e l a x e d , by c a r r y i n g out
a f u l l s o l u t i o n t o t h e r e l e v a n t boundary v a l u e problem, r e g i o n s o f l o c a l i z a t i o n p r o p a g a t e , q u i t e
t y p i c a l l y , from s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and t h e d e f o r m a t i o n f i e l d g r a d i e n t s i n t r o d u c e an i m p l i c i t
l e n g t h . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s t h e n p o s s i b l e to e x p l i c i t l y i n c l u d e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f
m a t e r i a l inhemogeneitles into the a n a l y s i s .
In t h e s e more g e n e r a l c i r c , - , s t a n c e s , t h e o n s e t o f
l o c a l i z a t i o n and i t s i n i t i a l d i r e c t i o n o f p r o p a g a t i o n a r e r a t h e r w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d by a m a t e r i a l
i n s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s , a l t h o u g h t h e s u b s e q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t i s g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by g r a d i e n t s i n
the surrounding field.
Not a l l c i r c u m s t a n c e s where s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t e s i n t o a more o r l e s s w e l l d e f i n e d band
c o r r e s p o n d to whet i s meant h e r e by l o c a l i z a t i o n .
F i g u r e 1, t a k e n from LeMonds (13) shows two
s t a g e s o f d e f o r m a t i o n i n a c a l c u l a t i o n o f a p l a n a r b i - c r y s t a l model s u b j e c t t o p l a n e s t r a i n
t e n s i o n . A c r o s s t h e c e n t e r o f t h e b i - c r y s t a l t h e r e i s an i n i t i a l l a t t i c e m i s o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t
t r i g g e r s inhomogeneous d e f o r m a t i o n . In F i g u r e l a , t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e band o f i n c r e a s e d
s t r a i n i s s e t by t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s .
At a s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r s t r a i n , F i g u r e l b , t h e d e f o r m a t i o n p a t t e r n has s h i f t e d to one where t h e band o r i e n t a t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e m a t e r i a l ,
which i s i n e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h t h a t g i v e n by a b i f u r c a t i o n a n a l y s i s .
Figure la corresponds to a g e o m e t r i c a l l y i n d u c e d s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n ; F i g u r e l b i l l u s t r a t e s
localization.
LeMonds' a n a l y s i s (13) may a l s o p r o v i d e a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a n a l y z i n g t h e model p r o p o s e d by
Morii and Nakayama (3) f o r m i c r o - s h e a r band i n i t i a t i o n a t t w i n c l u s t e r s as d i s c u s s e d a g a i n i n
Section 3.
Figure 1

lo.o,ilT:::

T M

I o~0,06
o,

%~//// ~
~///

o ~6

'/~> .>/

016

0.4~

o"

0.70

%'
(o)
(b)

'

Contours o f c o n s t a n t
maximum p r i n c l p l e
logarithmic strain in
a bl-crystal subject to
plane strain tension.
There i s an i n i t i a l
lattice mlsorlentation
o f 10 a c r o s s t h e c e n t e r
of the bi-crystal.
(a) at an extension of 0.12,
before shear bands
(b) at an extension of 0.15,
after shear bands.
From LeMonds (13).

Vol.

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18,

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LOCALIZATION

IN C R Y S T A L L I N E

SOLIDS

431

Localization in Single Crystals

Within the continuum sllp framework for crystal plasticity, Asaro (2) carried out a
bifurcation analysis for a two dimensional model crystal oriented for symmetric double slip,
drawing on Hill and Hutchinson's (14) general analysis of bifurcation in plane strain tension.
Asaro's (2) analysis points out the vital role of geometrical softening in shear band initiation
in single crystals, as is also brought out by the experimental studies of Saimoto et al. (6),
Chang and Asaro (7) and Morii and Nakayama (3,8). Three essentially different types of bifurcation mode occur: (i) a shear band bifurcation mode which involves continued double slipping in
the shear band and which is such as to induce a lattice rotation that causes the dominant slip
system to undergo geometrical softening; (ii) a localization mode where shearing occurs parallel
to the tensile axis and the shearing mode itself leads to unloading on one of the currently
active slip systems - as discussed by Peirce et al. (15,16) it is this mode that leads to
'patchy' slip; and (iii) a mode that involves an excess of conjugate slip in a band that is most
closely aligned with the primary slip system. Although there is an initial geometrical
softening accompanying this latter mode, eventually the conjugate system geometrically hardens
(as does the primary system) so that very large strains do not accumulate in the band (16).
Which of these phenomenologies develops depends on the crystal geometry and material
hardening properties. Latent hardening plays a particularly important role in this regard.
For
a geometry representative of an f.c.c, crystal oriented for symmetric double slip, and when the
latent hardening ratio does not exceed Taylor's isotropic hardening, shear band formation is the
preferred localization mode. Pelrce et al. (15) carried out a full finite element analysis of
shear band development based on the planar double slipping model of Asaro (2) and using a small
geometric imperfection to initiate diffuse necking. When using material parameter values representative of Chang and Asaro's (7) hard, lightly hardening aluminum-copper alloy crystals, the
computed lattice rotations are in close correspondence with the experimental measurements.
Also, consistent with the observations, the shear bands form abruptly after very little diffuse

necking and a r e s h a r p l y d e l i n e a t e d .

In the c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r s o f t e r , h i g h e r h a r d e n i n g c r y s t a l s

diffuse necking is found to induce lattice rotations which promote geometric softening, as
suggested by Saimoto et al. (17), and the bands form gradually and are rather broad (15). This
is most likely a case where the shear band thickness is set by gradients in the surrounding
field, although the possibility of some numerical mesh induced shear band broadening cannot be
ruled out. By way of contrast, there is nothing in the continuum analysis to set a minimum
width for shear bands so that the fineness of the calculated shear bands in the stronger, low
hardening crystals is undoubtedly limited by the mesh.
Peirce et al. (16) also found that latent hardening rates sufficiently greater than self
hardening rates led to the development of "patchy" slip. However, for somewhat greater latent
hardening ratios, but still within the range 1.0 - 1.4 found by Kocks (18) to encompass much of
the available data, the incremental equilibrium equations become parabolic in character and the
numerical procedure of Peirce et al. (15) could not obtain a unique solution. Interestingly,
the critical condition for parabolic behavior occurs only slightly before failure of the condition for slip mode uniqueness under prescribed stress rates. This behavior is not an artifact
of the planar double slipping model as Peirce (19) found that this type of instability also
occurred in an actual three dimensional f.c.c, geometry. Indeed, it appears that this loss of
constitutive uniqueness, and the associated inability to obtain solutions to boundary value
problems, is inherent to the rate independent idealization of crystal plastihity for a significant range of material properties. There is a related, long appreciated lack of uniqueness in
the choice of active slip systems in multi-slip modes. This behavior of the rate independent
idealization apparently precludes a unique, consistent prediction of lattice rotations and hence
of finite strain polycrystalline response from single crystal properties. Rate dependent
plasticity formulations do, however, lead to uniquely determinedslipping rates on each system-Pan and Rice (20) and Peirce et al. (16)--so that even for materials with no perceptible rate
dependence over the full range of quasi-static strain rates the inherent rate dependence of
plasticity plays an essential role. It is worth noting in this regard that, although a rate
dependent plasticity formulation appears essential for the calculation of macroscopic properties, rate independent phenumenological theories of plasticity, suitable for use in localization
analyses, can be formulated which do not suffer the constitutive nonuniqueness of rate independent crystalline plasticity formulations (although the effect of material rate sensitivity on
localization is itself an important issue (35,36)).

432

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The rate dependent constitutive formulation of Peirce et al. (16) did permit a calculation
of all three modes of localization noted above. One particularly interesting phenomenology that
developed in these calculations was that the lattice rotations associated with patchy slip could
act as a kinematic barrier to shear band propagation and, hence, patchy slip could tend to
increase the crystal's ductility. The role of lattice misorientations, either within a grain or
at grain boundaries, in inhibiting shear band propagation appears to merit further attention.
Figure I is from an initial study of shear bend propagation across such e boundary.
2.2

Phenomenological Models for Shear Band Development in Polycrystalline Solids

Much of the effort in theoretical analyses of localization in polycrystalline metals has

aimed at identifying the constitutive features triggering the observed localization. For
example, observations of void nucleation and growth within shear bands are not uncommon. One
possibility is that an inherent instability of the plastic flow process initiates shear banding
and the large strains that accumulate in the band then lead to the initiation of ductile
rupture. Another possibility is that the weakening induced by void nucleation end growth itself
triggers the observed localization; as remarked in (ll),which of these possibilities occurs can
be stress state dependent for a given material. Significant recent progress has been made, for
example by Tvergaard (21-23), Fisher and Gurland (24), Hancock, MacKenzie and Brown (25,26) and
Saje et al. (27), in developing a quantitative description of microvoid induced shear band
localization.
It has also been shown (28) how void induced shear band localization coupled with
the kinematic constraint of axisymmetry naturally gives rise to the familiar cup-cone fracture
in simple tension.
When microrupture effects are absent and when the material response is appropriately
idealized as rate independent, the key feature of plastic material response for localization is
the vertex yield surface structure implied by the discrete nature of crystallographic slip. A
yield surface vertex results in a much reduced stiffness to a change in loading path and, as
noted above, it is this stiffness that plays a primary role in the onset of localization (for
rate dependent solids there is also a vertex llke reduction in this overall stiffness but its
characterization is more complex (20,42)).
The phenomenological corner theory of plasticity
introduced by Christoffersen and Hutchinson (29) embodies this feature and another aspect of
p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e p l a s t i c r e s p o n s e t h a t g r e a t l y a f f e c t s s u b s e q u e n t s h e a r band d e v e l o p m e n t ; w i t h
increasing shearing in the shear band, the shear stiffness increases, modeling the effect of
some inltially active slip systems unloading as the deformation path shifts from the prelocalization one. This mechanism strongly influences the spatial distribution of shear bands as
illustrated in the numerical calculations of Tvergaard et al. (30); a manifestation of this
vertex stiffening being that initially formed shear bands saturate, giving increased straining
in a nearby region which results in further shear band initiation.
Such phenomenological continuum analyses give a picture of macroscopic shear band development at least qualitatively in accord with observation (30,31).
However, quite typically localization initiates locally around some local strain concentrator or in some favorably oriented
grains, Clausing (32), Hahn and Rosenfield (33), Anand and Spitzig (34). These bands ultimately
can lead to a band extending across the entire specimen when some macro-banding condition is
met. The details of this transition are not fully explained and are important in particular in
relation to the role of localization in setting fracture toughness.
A quantitative comparison between macroscopic shear band predictions based on phenomenological corner theory and experiment is contained in the study of Larsson et al. (5) on internally pressurized copper and aluminum alloy tubes. The calculations gave good agreement for the
deformed shapes of the tubes and for the angle at which shear failure ultimately occurred.
Although the representation of the effective stress effective strain hardening properties was
based on measured uniaxial response for the tube materials, the additional corner properties
which quantify the response to a loading path change were chosen arbitrarily. Larsson et al.
(5) attribute, at least in part, quantitative discrepancies between their calculated and measured
pressure-radius values to different hardening rates under plane strain and axisym~etric conditions, i.e., to texture effects. Also, the use of corner theory presumes that the stability
against flow localization is limited by the plastic flow process itself with the initiation of
ductile rupture ensuing in the highly strained shear band. This appeared an appropriate conclusion for the aluminum allo~ but Larsson et al. (5) note that for the copper tubes the
weakening of void nucleation and growth could also play a role in precipitating the
localization.

Vol.

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433

The examples of shear band analyses and observations described above illustrate the need
f o r a c c u r a t e m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and c o n s t i t u t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f s h e a r
b a n d s . This i s known t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n t h e c a s e o f h e a v i l y r o l l e d m e t a l s and a l l o y s
where s h e a r bands p l a y a v i t a l r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g d e f o r m a t i o n p a t t e r n s , t e x t u r e and u l t i m a t e l y
ductility.
The phenomenology o f s h e a r band f o r m a t i o n i n r o l l i n g has b e e n w e l l documented
experimentally and it is known that prexisting rolling textures themselves are important in
causing shear bands which then lead to texture changes. In closing, a brief description of the
reported phenomenology is given and we propose that an important topic for future study is the
theoretical analysis of shear bands in heavily rolled polycrystalline metals.

3.

Shear Bands in Rolled Metals and the Development of Texture

The texture of heavily rolled f.c.c, metals is generally described as the "pure metal" type
or "alloy" type as typified by copper and a-brass, respectively. In the pure metal texture the
orientations of the sheet normal and rolling direction are contained in a band extendin~__from
{110} <112> to the region on the <100> - <111> symmetry boundary lying between {211} <III> and
{311} <uvw>. This texture is predicted from simple slip theory assuming slip on the f.CoC, slip
systems {111} <110>. The alloy texture is characterized by a predominance of orientations of
the sheet plane near {110}; the texture component near the "ideal texture" {211} <111> is absent
and this is the most fundamental difference in the two textures. The reasons for these differences is reported to lie in the different mechanisms and deformation patterns that develop in
these materlals, vlz. twinning versus ~lip, the operation of shear bands and the different
mlcrostructures that result.
Figure 2
DEFORMATION

MODES

{111} SLiP

o
~o

30
i
I

>"
p-

506070
I
I
,
=
I

~,
=

,..~1

AT ROOM

TEMPERATURE

ROLLING

IN COPPER

80
,

SHEAR

: Ip~j ....
I TO ALLIGNED

TW,NS

REDUCTION, %

90
i
I
I
I BANOS

95
I

98
I

DEFORMATION MODES
~
IN ( 2 - BRASS

...... s . ~ , . / , . R o s

~
( HO}

2
{111)

I O
TRUE

2.0
ROLLING

30

"Inverse pole figure"

data of the d e n s i t y of
crystallographic planes
p a r a l l e l to t h e r o l l i n g
p l a n e o f s - b r a s s deformed
by p l a n e s t r a i n r o l l i n g
a t room t e m p e r a t u r e
( t a k e n .from Vuggan e t a l .
(37)). The p r e d o m i n a n t
micro-structural
d e f o r m a t i o n modes i n t h e
associated strain
i n t e r v a l s f o r c~-brass and
c o p p e r deformed a t room
t e m p e r a t u r e , deduced from
t h e work o f M o r l i and
Nakayama ( 3 , 8 ) and
Duggan et al. ( 3 7 ) ,
are indicated on the
figure.

40

STRAIN

Figure 2 contains data, taken from Duggan et al. (37), on the development of texture in 7030 brass deformed by rolling at room temperature. The character of the deformation at various
stages of rolllng, as deduced from the recent work of Morli and Nakay,ma (3,8) and Duggan et al.
(37), is briefly discussed on the figure. During approximately the first 30 percent reduction
in thickness the texture that develops in brass is very similar to the pure metal texture, as
indicated by an increase in the {110} sheet plane component and rapid decrease in the {IIi}
component. The deformation mode in brass in this strain interval is octahedral slip of extended
dislocations (37). In pure copper, on the other hand, Malin and Hatherly (37) report that after
i0 percent reduction the primary deformation mode involves the formation of "microbands." In
brass the primary deformation mechanism in the strain interval between 30 and 50 percent reduction is twinning which occurs by the formation of fine microtwins, aligned at nearly 30 to the

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rolling plane preferentially in grains having the {211} <III> texture component. At 50 percent
reduction the rolling textures of copper and s-brass are quite similar except that the occurrence of twins contributes a {255} <5it> component in brass. Beyond 50 percent, as indicated in
Figure 2, the brass texture undergoes a transition characterized by a buildup of a {III} component of the sheet plane which is later transformed into a {II0} component. This transition is
characterized by the appearance of shear bands that become the dominant deformation mode.
Shear bands form at approximately 35 to the rolling plane, although as discussed by
Hatherly and Malin (38) they are observed to form within a range of angles near 35 . They are
between 0.I and 1 ~m wide and propagate across grain boundaries with little change in trajectory. The number of bands, and therefore their volume fraction, increases monotonically with
strain. Eventually, at near 90 percent reduction, they occupy as much as 90 percent of the
volume whereupon further deformation can again be described as occurring by {Iii} <Ii0> sllp.
Morii and Nakayama (3) have shown that the phenomenology in copper rolled at liquid nitrogen
temperatures is very similar to that found in e-brass. Shear bands develop very large strains;
in low SFE materials or in high SFE materials deformed at very low temperatures(the strains are
as large as 10),whereas in high SFE materials deformed at room temperature the strains are somewhat less. In low SFE materials, such as s-brass, shear bands account for nearly all the strain
between reductions of 50-90 percent; in high SFE materials deformation by {iii} sllp continues
to be important concomitant with the shear bands. In both high and low SFE materials the
observations suggest that one set of shear bands tend to dominate. In brass a conjugate set
forms at later strains.
Between 50 and 70 percent reduction in thickness the deformation in brass occurs essentially by slip along those {III} planes parallel to the microtwins and by shearing along the
"primary" set of shear bands. This leads to what has been described as an extreme form of
"overshooting" that causes the twins to reorient parallel to the rolling plane. An effect of
this is the texture transition {211} <III> M + {255} <5iI> T ~ {iii} <211> M + {III} <2ii->T where M
and T refer to matrix and twinned regions respectively. In copper, slip in the matrix between
shear bands offsets the rotation caused by the shear bands which stabilizes the {211} texture
component (3,41).
Until microfracture begins shear bands are observed to harden and so material strain
softening does not appear to be a cause. In brass, or in copper deformed at low temperatures,
shear bands are observed to initiate only in twinned regions. Morii and Nakayama (3) have
observed that shear bands initiate within twin lamella and have proposed that the critical
micromechanical events involve "local lattice rotatlon(s)" which cause a geometrical softening
of the slip systems responsible for the concentrated straining in the bands. In copper at
higher temperatures, they have proposed that similar local "lattice curvatures" can develop in
"tangled dislocation wall(s)." These ideas are a direct microscopic analog to the experimental
and detailed theoretical findings of Chang and Asaro (7), Asaro (2) and Peirce et al. (15,16)
for macroscopic shear bands. In these studies it has been shown that the kinematics of necking
in single crystals causes nonuniform lattice rotations and geometrical softening that, in turn,
promote localized shearing. Dillamore et al. (6) have suggested "textural softening" occurs in
heavily rolled materials and is responsible for the overall softening which drives the localized
shearing mode. This idea has been pursued very recently by Canova et al. (39), among others,
who, following Dillamore et al. (6), describe the effect in terms of the evolution of the
"Taylor factor." This is defined as the ratio of the cumulative glide strains on all operative
slip systems (in a grain) to the maximum principal strain.
If the Taylor factors decrease due
to the particular prevailing texture and strain state, this implies less strain hardening and a
less stiff response.
The concepts of geometrical and textural softening provide a unifying set of mechanisms for
explaining how shear bands develop in strain hardening materials. Lattice rotations within
individual grains as well as effects of texture and misorientations across grain boundaries in
polycrystals can be rigorously analyzed within a comprehensive mechanics framework, although to
date only a few solutions to complete boundary value problems for single crystals are available.
Theoretical study of shear bands in plane strain compression, or rolling, would be of great
value and would require two separate analyses. The first involves the propagation of shear
bands in textured polycrystals. This requires a constitutive model which accounts for material
anlsotropy. We are carrying out studies directed toward developing such models (42) which can
then be incorporated within the theoretical framework described in Section 2. The second
analysis involves a study of the initiation of shear bands within individual grains. A first

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attempt at this could be pursued along the lines developed by Peirce et al. (15,16) for
analyzing macroscopic shear bands in single crystals and used in the hi-crystal analysis of
LeMonds (13). Here it may be possible to include the mechanisms suggested by Morii and Nakayama
(3) for the initiation of shear bands from microtwin clusters. Including such microstructural
features explicitly in the modelling should lead to a specification, or prediction, of shear
band width from the analysis. Such an analysis would undoubtedly provide considerable new
insight into the mechanics of shear band formation as well as help delineate the range of
microscale phenomena that can he described with continuum analysis.
Acknowledgments
R.J.A. gratefully acknowledges support from the Metallurgy Section of the U.S. National
Science Foundation under grant DMR26190. A.N. is grateful for the support provided by the U.S.
National Science Foundation Solid Mechanics Program under grant MEA-8101948.
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