Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Germany
and
R. J. CLIFTON
Brown University, Providence,
R.I., U.S.A.
1. Introduction
Many models have been proposed to predict qualitative and quantitative features of elasticplastic behavior of polycrystalline metals. One which is particularly attractive is the so-called
self-consistent model developed by Kroner [ 1 ] and Budiansky and Wu [ 21. This model incorporates slip on the slip systems of single crystals, viewed as spherical inclusions in an elastic-plastic
matrix which has the stress-strain characteristics of the bulk material. It has the advantage of
relating macroscopic plastic deformation to the underlying slip mechanisms in a consistent,
straightforward way. Unfortunately, it has the disadvantage that extensive computations are required for each load increment, even for cases of nominally homogeneous stress. The large computing effort arises from the large number of grains and slip systems which must be considered in
order to obtain satisfactory average behavior.
The objective of the present work has been to develop an efficient computational procedure
which would make it possible to employ self-consistent models in computations involving more
complex states of stress than have been considered so far. Herein a computational method based on
techniques used in linear programming is applied to the case of face-centered-cubic (FCC) metals.
Numerical results are given for the case of simple tension. The computed stress-strain curve is obtained in a remarkably short computing time and agrees fully with the results of previous computations [ 2,3].
* This paper is based on a thesis submitted by J. GtiIdenpfennig in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master
of Science in the Division of Engineering at Brown University, June, 1975.
142
2. Governing equations
In self-consistent slip models of plastic deformation of polycrystalline metals the states of stress
and strain are characterized by nonhomogeneous stress and strain fields uii, eij which are constant
in any given grain, and by average stress and strain fields u$, E, which are the remote uniform
fields considered in the analysis of the interaction of a single grain with the surrounding matrix.
The total strains eij, Eij are assumed to be the sum of elastic and plastic strains where the respecp = 0, E:,= 0). The microscopic states uij, EC are
tive plastic strains EC, EG are isochoric (i.e. E,,
related to the macroscopic states c$, E$ by relations derived for the case of a homogeneous spherical inclusion embedded in an infinite homogeneous matrix having the elastic-plastic behavior of the
aggregate polycrystalline material and having remote uniform stress and plastic strain fields ut, E;.
For the case in which the individual grains are regarded as elastically isotropic the resulting relations are given by [ 2,3]
0..
11
bo = _
ij
2 (7 - 5~)G (pp.
15(1-V)
,+)
IJ
where V, G are Poissons ratio and the elastic shear modulus (superposed dots indicate time derivatives).
Because plastic strains are incompressible, it follows from (1) that the mean normal stress
uKK/3 is uniform. Then, eq. (1) can be rewritten as
op.= 1
J
vv s
uij dV,
G-d
Gb)
For definiteness, in the further development of the governing equations we consider the special
case of FCC crystals. Such crystals (see fig. 1) have four slip planes (normal vectors m,) and six
possible slip directions (k ny)) on each plane for a total of 24 slip systems. The resolved shear
stress on the nth slip system is
r(n) =
uij
l$
= sij a[; )
where
,j;) = f (mp)+)
+ mf)n!)) .
(3)
143
The plastic strain rate 6; resulting from shear strain rates 9tn) on the various slip systems is
(4)
The remaining condition to be imposed is the constitutive equation which governs the elasticplastic behavior of the single crystals. In the present analysis we assume that the crystals are
ideally plastic. Then the constitutive conditions are
+I = 0
9
> 0
or for r@) = rY ,
for r@) = rY ,
i()
< 0 )
fC) = () )
3. Formualtion
Multiplication of eq. (1) by ~$1 and summation over indices i and j give, with the use of eqs.
(3) and (4), an equation of the following form for each slip system in each crystal:
(6)
where
G= 2G(7-5v)
15(1-v)
and
&,=s;+L%;.
(7)
144
(6)
Then, since each slip system is counted twice, once for slip in each direction, the quantities AyCm),
#)(s + As) satisfy the inequalities
O< Aycrn) ,
0 <
+(s
@aI
(8b)
Eqs. (6) and (8) have the form of constraint conditions for a standard linear programming problem (e.g. see [4]). To complete the formulation as a programming problem, it is necessary to prescribe an objective function which is minimized (or maximized) for values of r()(s + As), Aycrn)
which are consistent with the constitutive conditions (5). An appropriate objective function is the
function z defined by
z =
cn
(T,, -
(9)
The inequalities (8) ensure z > 0, and (for sufficiently small steps As) when z takes its minimal
value z = 0, the constitutive conditions (5) are satisfied in incremental form.
The objective function (9) is nonlinear, but it causes no difficulty, because of its simple form.
In fact, the objective function is so simple that its implications regarding which slip systems are
operative at each stage of the deformation are evident without performing calculations involving
the objective function.
The solution of (6) which satisfies (8) and minimizes (9) can be obtained by means of the
simplex method used in linear programming (see [4]). In this method one first finds an initial
basic feasible solution (i.e. a solution of (6) which satisfies the inequalities (8) and which has
fewer than 24 of the variables T()(s + As), A#) at limit values) and then proceeds systematically
from one basic feasible solution to another until the objective function is minimized. The variables which are set at limit values before solving eqs. (6) for the remaining 24 variables are called
145
nonbasic variables; the variables which are free to assume other than limit values are called basic
variables; the set of basic variables at any stage of the solution process is called the basis of the
system (6) at that stage.
As long as the material remains elastic, the basic variables of the system (6) are T()(s + As) < T,,,
and minimization of (9) requires that all A+() must be zero. If the shear stress of the ith slip system @(s + As) reaches T,,, this slip system becomes active, and A#) replaces T@)(s+ As) = T,, in
the set of basic variables. Further loading causes other slip systems to become active and results
in a corresponding change in basis. As the deformation proceeds cases may arise in which unloading
of an active slip system occurs. If so, a change of basis also occurs, but this time a AT() leaves the
basis and the corresponding T(~)(s+ As) enters it. For each stage of loading, the stress-strain history
is linear as long as no new slip system becomes active, i.e. as long as the set of basic variables stays
constant. A limiting state of stress is reached when 5 independent slip systems become active in
each grain.
If the loading is such that stress reversal does not occur, then the number of slip systems to be
considered in each grain is reduced from 24 to 12. Furthermore, for the case of simple tension used
for the numerical example presented in the next section the only nonzero components of the macroscopic stress and plastic strain tensor are syl = -2st, = - 2& = 5 u and Ey, = - 2 E;, = - 2Efs, = EP,
where u is the imposed tensile stress and EP is the corresponding plastic strain. For simple tension
eq. (7) becomes
(loa)
(lob)
and the terms $)Qij
4. Computational
procedure
After introduction
fY =Go
c =y
rY
of dimensionless variables
x
AQ
--a11
(n)
n _
AY()
EY
>
7y -
d)(s + As)
>
y"=
TY
- T()(S)
jj"= rY
>
rY
(11)
rY
and
a mn = 2(7-5~)
15(1-V*)
a; a; )
m,n =
1,2 )... 12 )
(12)
146
= [A,,A,,
...A.,],
B = [P]
in which A, and Un denote column vectors (U, is a unit vector with one in the nth row and zero
elsewhere).
In the early stages of loading when all c satisfy c > 0, the system (12) is in canonical form,
i.e. the basic variables yn have a unit coefficient in the nth equation and zero coefficients elsewhere.
The solution of (12) is simply y = c and x = 0. At each step AQ the right-hand side of (12) is
changed according to eq. (11). If after a step AQ one or more components of c become smaller
than zero, then the basis of ( 12) has to be changed. Transformation of (12) into the corresponding
canonical form is done by a pivot operation. This operation is carried out by starting with the
smallest component of Bc, say (Bc)~, and replacing the basic variables y* in the basis by x. To
make this change in basis, one considers the elementary matrix
D = [(II,
. .. A,
...
u,, ]
II-=
where
Km =
-Ja
mm
}.
+ D-'By
= D--l Bc ,
or
where B is identical with B except for column m, and column 1, becomes the unit vector U,. If
at least one component of & is smaller than zero, say (Bc), then the procedure is repeated using
the elementary matrix
D = (U, ... A,
... U,,)
provided that 2, is not equal to U,. If, however, A, = U,,, then the nth slip system is already
active and unloading must begin. In this case the pivot operation is carried out using the elementary matrix
147
where Ziy) is a set of 12 matrices calculated for one crystal orientation, and Cij is the transformation matrix required to transform -cn)
CV,, to the orientation of interest. Written in terms of the two
Euler angles, the transformation matrix has the form
148
Cii =
cos/3
cos 7j
sin /3
cos /3 sin n
-sin p
cos
sin n 1
- cos p
sin fl sin n
/.
cos q 1
The macroscopic tensile strain EP/cy is, from (2b), the average, over all orientations, of ~f,/e,.
This average is calculated by numerical integration of the integrals in the quotient
(19
over one of the 48 similar triangles. The integrals are evaluated numerically by a combination of
Simpsons rule and Newtons rule. Once EP is obtained from (1.5) for a given stage of loading Q(s),
the corresponding value of s:i can be obtained by integrating eq. (7).
1.1030
1.2105
1.2900
1.3775
1.4271
1.4577
1.4777
1.4899
1.5269
1.5331
1.5332
0.0783
0.3992
0.7667
1.3708
2.0382
2.7371
3.4538
4.1834
15.7885
164.1114
332.4446
IO
149
I5
EP/
EY
Fig. 3. Stress-strain curve.
combined longitudinal and torsional plastic waves. Solutions based on a self-consistent slip model
are shown to be in closer agreement with the experimental results [ 61 than are solutions [ 7,8]
based on assumed forms of smooth yield surfaces.
Acknowledgement
Scholarship support from the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst is gratefully acknowledged as well as support from the U.S. Army Research Office through Contract No.
DAHC04-75-G-0174 with Brown University.
References
[ll E. Kroner, Fur plastischen Verformung des Viel-Kristalls, Acta Metal. 9 (1961) 155.
I21B. Budiansky
and T.T. Wu, Theoretical prediction of plastic strains of polycrystals, Proc. 4th Cong. Appl. Mech. (1962) 1175.
131 J.W. Hutchinson, Plastic stress-strain relations of FCC polycrystalline metals hardening according to Taylors rule, J. Mech.
Phys. Solids 12 (1964) 11.
141 G.B. Dantzig, Linear programming and extensions (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, 1963).
[51 J. Giildenpfennig and R.J. Clifton, An application of self-consistent slip models to plastic waves of combined stress
(unpublished manuscript).
[61 J. Lipkin and R. 3. Clifton, Plastic waves of combined stresses due to longitudinal impact of a pre-torqued tube, Part 1:
Experimental results, J. Appl. Mech. 37 (1970) 1107.
171 J. Lipkin and R. J. Clifton, Plastic waves of combined stresses due to longitudinal impact of a pretorqued tube, Part 2:
Comparison of theory with experiment, J. Appl. Mech. 37 (1970) 1113.
[gl R.P. Goel and L.E. Malvern, Biaxial plastic simple waves with combined kinematic and isotropic hardening, J. Appl. Mech. 37
(1970) 1100.