1) Discuss in details about any two computer generations with suitable examples.

Second Generations
Second Generation
The second generation computer includes many crucial developments at all level of computer
system design. Example of these development are technology used to build the circuits and
usage of programming languages used to write scientific applications. In this era diode and
transistors are basic things for electronic switches.
Diode and transistor technology formed the basis of the electronic switches and the switching
time came down to around 0.3 microseconds. In 1948 transistor replace the vacuum tube in
devices such as radios, television sets, and computers. The first machines to be built with this
technology include TRADIC at Bell Laboratories in 1954 and TX-0 at MIT's Lincoln
Laboratory. IBM soon followed with the transistor-based IBM 7090. Important commercial
machines of this era include the IBM 704 and its successors, the 709 and 7094.
In second generation, two supercomputers designed specifically for numeric processing in
scientific applications. The term ``supercomputer'' is generally reserved for a machine that is
an order of magnitude more powerful than other machines of its era. The Livermore Atomic
Research Computer (LARC) and the IBM 7030 (aka Stretch) were early examples of
machines that overlapped memory operations with processor operations and had primitive
forms of parallel processing.

Besides that during this second generation many high level programming languages were
introduced, including Formula Translator (FORTRAN), Algorithmic Language (ALGOL),
and Common Business Oriented Language (COBOL).The second generation machines were
programmed in high level programming languages and were used for a wide variety of
business and scientific tasks. Important innovations in computer architecture included index
registers for controlling loops and floating point units for calculations based on real numbers.
Floating point operations were performed by libraries of software routines in early computers,
but were done in hardware in second generation machines.

The advantage of second generation is the computer size is smaller compared to the first
generations computer. Moreover the second generation computers more reliable. They also
used less energy and were not heated. Besides that it is has a better portability than first
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generation computers. Second generation systems have a better speed. They could calculate
data in microseconds. Furthermore, it used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks,
printers and many more. These era computer also used assembly and high level language
instead of machine language.
The drawback of second generation computers is it require cooling system to be installed. It
also require constant maintenance. During era IBM faced difficulties to produce commercial
product. Besides that, second era computers are only used for specific purposes. They are
costly to build and not versatile. Finally punch cards were used for input data into computers.

Third Generations
The third generation computers were developed during time of 1964 to 1971. A computer
built with small-scale integration integrated circuits, designed after the mid-1960s. In this
generation computers used integrated circuits in place of transistors. Integrated circuit was
invented by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby in 1958-59. This electronic circuit is formed by
constructing electronic components like transistor, resistor and capacitor on a small piece of
semiconducting material. Integrated circuit is also called as chip or microchip. Large number
of transistors is placed on a single chip. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon
chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers. A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated
circuitry. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient.

Keyboards and monitors developed during the period of third generation of computers. In
third generation computers also interfaced with an operating system. Microprogramming
became widespread and simplified the design of the CPUs and increased their flexibility. A
variety of techniques for improving processing efficiency were invented, such as pipelining
and multiprocessing. As the execution of a program requires that program to be in memory,
the concurrent running of several programs requires that all programs be in memory
simultaneously.
Thus the development of techniques for concurrent processing was matched by the
development of memory management techniques such as dynamic memory allocation, virtual
memory, and paging, as well as compilers producing relocatable code. The LILLIAC IV is an
example of a third generation computer.

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The advantage of third generation is computer is the size is smaller and have a better
portability compared to other two generations. Besides that it also generates less heat than
previous generation computers. Third generation computer can perform calculations in
nanoseconds while consuming less power compared to first and second generations. Besides
that, the computer maintenance cost is also low. The computer are totally general purpose and
cost low. The Drawback of computer in this generations is it require air conditioning to
operate. Furthermore it was stilly costly to be installed and used by middle class companies.

2) With suitable diagrams, explain the function of any two type ROM and Ram in detail.

Type of rom

EPROM

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The Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory is a type storage device which the data is
determined by electrical charge stored in an isolated MOS transistor gate. The isolation can
retain the charge forever. The EPROM is programmed by passing through charge into floating
gate, using technique based on the tunnel effect. This programming technique require higher
voltage than I normal operations.

The EPROM has a grid of columns and rows and the cell at each intersection has two
transistors. The two transistors are separated from each other by a thin oxide layer. One of the
transistors is known as the floating gate and the other as the control gate. The floating gate's
only link to the row (word line) is through the control gate. As long as this link is in place, the
cell has a value of 1. To change the value to 0 requires a process called Fowler-Northeim
tunnelling.
Tunnelling is used to alter the placement of electrons in the floating gate. Tunnelling creates
an avalanche discharge of electrons, which have enough energy to pass through the insulating
oxide layer and accumulate on the gate electrode. When the high voltage is removed, the
electrons are trapped on the electrode. Because of the high insulation value of the silicon
oxide surrounding the gate, the stored charge cannot readily leak away and the data can be
retained for decades. An electrical charge, usually 10 to 13 volts, is applied to the floating
gate. The charge comes from the column enters the floating gate and drains to a ground.

This charge causes the floating-gate transistor to act like an electron gun. The excited
electrons are pushed through and trapped on the other side of the thin oxide layer, giving it a
negative charge. These negatively charged electrons act as a barrier between the control gate
and the floating gate. A device called a cell sensor monitors the level of the charge passing
through the floating gate. If the flow through the gate is greater than 50 percent of the charge,
it has a value of 1. When the charge passing through drops below the 50-percent threshold,
the value changes to 0. A blank EPROM has all of the gates fully open, giving each cell a
value of 1.
These chips also can be rewritten many times. The floating gate programs can be erased by
applying ultraviolet light to the chips surface through a quartz window in the package. An
EPROM eraser is not selective, it will erase the entire EPROM An EPROM that is left under

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too long can become over-erased. In such a case, the EPROM's floating gates are charged to
the point that they are unable to hold the electrons at all.

PROM
The Programmable Read Only Memory is a type of rom that can written by PROM
programmer. The contexts of each bit is determined by a fuse or anti fuse. PROM can be
programmed once by blowing the fuses. Blowing a fuse opens a connection while blowing
anantif use closes a connection. Programming of PROM is done by applying voltage pulses
which are not encountered during normal operations.

PROM chips have a grid of columns and rows just as ordinary ROMs do. The difference is
that every intersection of a column and row in a PROM chip has a fuse connecting them. A
charge sent through a column will pass through the fuse in a cell to a grounded row indicating
a value of 1. Since all the cells have a fuse, the initial (blank) state of a PROM chip is all 1s.
To change the value of a cell to 0, you use a programmer to send a specific amount of current
to the cell. The higher voltage breaks the connection between the column and row by burning
out the fuse. This process is known as burning the PROM.

PROMs can only be programmed once. They are more fragile than ROMs. A jolt of static
electricity can easily cause fuses in the PROM to burn out, changing essential bits from 1 to 0.
But blank PROMs are inexpensive and are good for prototyping the data for a ROM before
committing to the costly ROM fabrication process.

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Type of ram
RDRAM
The Rambus dynamic random access memory is memory subsystem designed to transfer data at faster rates. . It is designed
by Rambus and introduced in 1999. RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM). The speciality of RDRAM is
it uses a special high speed data bus called Rambus channel. Its memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data rate of 800
MHz. The drawback of RDRAM of they generate a lot of heat because it operate in high speed. In order to keep cool, the
excess hear Rambus chips are fitted with a heat spreader, which look like a long thin wafer .

RDRAM is also known as

Direct RDRAM or Rambus.

The RDRAM 16-bit bus uses a set of data processing features with a steady sequence stream, known
as pipelining, that facilitate the output of one instruction prior to the input of the next instruction.
Pipelining transfers RAM data to cache memory, allowing up to eight simultaneous data processing
series. Pipelining also improves performance by increasing average successful message delivery rates
when processing streams of data.

SDRAM
The Synchronous dynamic random access memory is a DRAM with an interface synchronous with
the system bus carrying data between the CPU and the memory controller hub. SDRAM will wait for
the clock signal before it responds to control inputs. SDRAM has a 64-bit module with long 168-pin
dual inline memory modules (DIMMs). SDRAM access time is 6 to 12 nanoseconds (ns). SDRAM is
the replacement for dynamic random access memory (DRAM) and EDO RAM. DRAM is a type of
random access memory (RAM) having each bit of data in an isolated component within an integrated
circuit. Older EDO RAM performed at 66 MHz.

With older clocked electronic circuits, the transfer rate was one per full cycle of the clock
signal. This cycle is called rise and fall. A clock signal changes two times per transfer, but the
data lines change no more than one time per transfer. This restriction can cause integrity (data
corruption and errors during transmission) when high bandwidths are used. SDRAM
transmits signals once per clock cycle.
SDRAM is improved DRAM with a synchronous interface waiting for a clock pulse before it
responds to data input. SDRAM uses a feature called pipelining, which accepts new data
before finishing processing previous data. A delay in data processing is called latency.
DRAM technology has been used since the 1970s. In 1993, SDRAM was implemented by
Samsung with model KM48SL2000 synchronous DRAM. By 2000, DRAM was replaced by
SDRAM. In the beginning SDRAM was slower than burst EDO DRAM because of the extra
logic features. But the benefits of SDRAM allowed more than one set of memory, which
increased the bandwidth efficiency.

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3) List and explain the various functions and services of Operating system support with respect
to Computer Organization and Architecture.

Operating system is the most important system program. An operating system is a group of
instructions that coordinates all the activities among computer hardware devices. It is the first

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program loaded into the computer by a boot program and remains in memory at all times. Operating
System provide service such as:o

Program execution

Operating System prepares programs for executions, opens files and allocates
computer resources for processes.
o

Access to I/O devices

System access

resources.
o

Operating System cover up the complicity from the user.

Operating System controls access to system as a whole and to specific system

Error detection and response

Operating System detect Internal and external hardware errors, device failure,
software errors, access to protected memory and lack of resources It also should report and
repair the error with minimal impact on running processes.

Accounting

Operating System also collect various usage and performance statistics for tuning the
system and billing or tracking usage of shared resources.

The main function of Operating System is to provide a stable and reliable way for applications to deal
with the hardware without having to knowing all the details of the hardware. An application program
interface allows a developer to write an application on one computer and can insurance that it will run
on another computer of the same type, even though the amount of memory or the quantity of storage
is different on the two machines. Besides that operating system also manages hardware and software
resources of the system. When various programs and input methods compete for CPU and demand
memory, storage operating system make sure that each application gets the necessary resources.
Furthermore, the task of operating system is to perform basic computer tasks such as managing
peripheral devices. One of the most important function of the operating system to boot the computer
and shows the user the desktop. Another function of Operating system is provide user interface. Most
of the users nowadays are non IT liberated people, so a smoother, easier and simple interface is
important. Finally OS should provide file management.

4) Performa a survey and record your understanding on the following,

a. Benchmarking for processor.
Benchmark results were gathered from internal testing and user feedbacks. Performance test for
processor conducted nine different tasks and then average the result together determine the processor
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mark rating for a system. I order to make sure that the full processor power of a pc benchmarking is
conducted. Performance test runs on processors. The test will run specifically for hyper-thread, dual
core and multiple cpu chips. The types of test conducted are:

Integer maths test

It measure how fast the CPU can perform mathematical integer operations.
Compression test
It measures the speed that the CPU can compress blocks of data into smaller blocks of data
without losing any of the original data.
Prime number test
It test how fast the CPU can search for Prime numbers, reported as operations per second.
Floating point math text
It performs the same operations as the Integer Maths Test however with floating point
numbers.
Encryption test
It encrypts blocks of random data using several different encryption techniques.
Multimedia instructions
It measures the SSE capabilities of a CPU. SSE is a set of CPU instructions that have been
introduced into CPUs to enable blocks of data to be processed at higher speeds.
String sorting test
It uses the qSort algorithm to see how fast the CPU can sort strings.
Physics test
It uses the Tokamak Physics Engine to perform a benchmark of how fast the CPU can
calculate the physics interactions of several hundred objects colliding.
Single core test
This test only uses one CPU core and rates the computer performance.

Current Top Ten Lists (Single CPU)

1) Intel Xeon E5-2698 v3 @ 2.30GHz
2) Intel Xeon E5-2697 v3 @ 2.60GHz
3) Intel Xeon E5-2695 v3 @ 2.30GHz
4) Intel Xeon E5-2699 v3 @ 2.30GHz
5) Intel Xeon E5-2690 v3 @ 2.60GHz
6) Intel Xeon E5-2680 v3 @ 2.50GHz
7) Intel Xeon E5-2686 v3 @ 2.00GHz
8) Intel Xeon E5-2687W v3 @ 3.10GHz
9) Intel Xeon E5-2697 v2 @ 2.70GHz
10) Intel Xeon E5-1680 v3 @ 3.20GHz
Current Top Ten Lists (Multiple CPUs)
1) [Dual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2698 v3 @ 2.30GHz
2) [Dual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2697 v3 @ 2.60GHz
3) [Dual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2690 v3 @ 2.60GHz
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4) [Dual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2695 v3 @ 2.30GHz

5) [Dual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2680 v3 @ 2.50GHz
6) [D1ual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2687W v3 @ 3.10GHz
7) [Dual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2696 v2 @ 2.50GHz
8) [Dual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2666 v3 @ 2.90GHz
9) [Dual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2699 v3 @ 2.30GHz
10) [Dual CPU] Intel Xeon E5-2687W v2 @ 3.40GHz

b. Intel Microprocessor
In the second generation, processors were built using discrete element. These devices
performed the required operation, but too large and slow. So in the third generation
microchips were invented. All of the component that made up the processor was replaced with
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single piece of silicon. Then the size became smaller and provide better speed. Intel has been
producing an unbroken series of upgrades and improvements to the worlds best known
microprocessor family. From its early 8-bit beginnings, the Intel architecture now
encompasses a range of 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors that address a range of
applications, performance requirements, power levels, and price points.
The cornerstone of Intel architectures popularity is its compatibility. Each new generation of
Intel architecture microprocessor is a superset of its predecessors, providing backward
compatibility with older chips and older software, while also adding new or enhanced
features. This compatibility allows engineers, programmers, and development teams to reuse
the software and software-development tools from earlier projects, protecting their investment
in time and talent. It also makes developing new Intel-based systems easier by leveraging
developers experience. Software can be reused across generations of products, and product
teams can protect their investment in a cost efficient manner. Although original work may be
required to take advantage of the newest microprocessor features, the old software will still
work as-is. Intel architecture chips have obviously undergone many changes over the past 40+
years. Earlier chips used shorthand of x86 architecture, in reference to the last two digits of
each chips part number. Intel first microprocessor sis Intel 4004. It was introduced in 1969. It
has included 2300 transistors in it. The microprocessor also had 4-bit register and 4-bit data
bus. Then Intel released Intel 8008 on 1972. This microprocessor had achieved higher clock
speed rather Intel 4004. It has 3500 transistors, 8-bit register and 8-bit data bus. After two
years, Intel released another microprocessor name Intel 8080. It was great success for Intel.
The clock speed of this microprocessor is 2MHz. It has 4500 transistor while having same
number registers and data bus with Intel 4004. Following the success Intel also released Intel
8086 on 1978. It clock speed was double of the previous processor because it contain 29000
transistors. Moreover it has 16-bit registers and data bus.

Beginning in 1993, the x86 naming convention gave way to more memorable product
names such as Intel Pentium processor, Intel Celeron processor, Intel Core
processor, and Intel Atom processor. Although every branch of the broad Intel
architecture family tree retains the same basic features and functionality as the earlier chips,
and retains backward compatibility with them, each new generation also adds its own unique
features to the mix. For example, Intel Pentium processor added MMX technology that
accelerated audio and video processing. Extended temperature Intel Pentium processor with
MMX technology is with more streaming-media capabilities known as Intel Streaming
SIMD Extensions and Intel Streaming SIMD Extensions 2. Floating-point units went from
optional upgrade to standard feature of Intel architecture processors, and today encryption or
decryption extensions, power-management features, and multilevel caches are now found on
most Intel architecture processors. Data paths have widened from 8 bits to 32 bits, 64 bits, and
even 128 bits and more. Operating frequencies have jumped from a few megahertz to 2 GHz
and beyond.

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Intel 8008

Intel 4004

Intel 8080

Intel 8086

5) Explain in detail about two types of secondary storage devices with suitable example.
Magnetic tape.
Magnetic tape data storage is a system for storing digital information on magnetic tape using
digital recording. Magnetic tapes can store up to one terabyte of uncompressed data - as much
as can be stored on a hard disk.
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Modern magnetic tape is most commonly packaged in cartridges and cassettes. The device
that performs writing or reading of data is a tape drive. Magnetic tape uses 'serial access' to
find a piece of data. This means that to find a specific piece of data, the tape reader has to
start at the beginning of the tape and continue fast forwarding until it gets to the piece of data
that needed.
Serial access makes it fairly slow to find and retrieve data so it would not be much use to
store data that you needed to get hold of quickly. However, magnetic tape is excellent for
archiving data. The advantage of the magnetic tape is it is cheapest form of storage per
megabyte of storage. Besides that it can also store large amounts of data in a tape. Example,
up to 1Tb can stored in per cartridge. The drawback of the magnetic tape is its serial access
can make users to access data slow. Magnetic disk also need special piece of equipment to
record and read the data on tape. Finally, the data in the tape might corrupted if the tape is
exposed to strong magnetic field.

Holographic Versatile disc

There are many types of secondary storage devices. One of type of secondary storage device Is
Holographic versatile Disc. It is a storage medium for holographic memory. It uses collinear
holography technique to store data in the disc. It is an advance optical storage disc technology. It has
also a great storage capacity of #Tb with the same of Cd and DVD. The speciality of this type of disc
is the storage would be stored beneath the surface.
The component of the holographic versatile dics is
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1. Green writing/reading laser (532 nm)

2. Red positioning/addressing laser (650 nm)
3. Hologram (data)
4. Polycarbon layer
5. Photo polymeric layer (data-containing layer)
6. Distance layers
7. Dichroic layer (reflecting green light)
8. Aluminum reflective layer (reflecting red light)
9. Transparent base

The drawback of this disc is its difficult to implement in the market because it requires highly
complex optical system to line the beams at the exact point at which they need to intercept. Besides
that, it is incompatibility with current storage media. Moreover, holographic memory disc are ticker
than CDs and DVDs. Finally holographic storage system does not include servo data, because the
beam carrying it could interface with the holography process.

Reference
1. http://ecomputernotes.com/fundamental/input-output-andmemory/explain-read-only-memory-what-are-the-types-of-rom
2. http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/programmable-read-only-memoryPROM
3. http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/p/progrrom.htm
4. http://www.electronics.dit.ie/staff/tscarff/memory/rom.htm
5. https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2802/rambus-dynamic-randomaccess-memory-rdram
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6. http://techterms.com/definition/rdram
7. http://www.rambus.com/memory-and-interfaces/rdram-memoryarchitecture/
8. http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/s/sdram.htm
9. http://www.ccs.neu.edu/course/com3200/parent/NOTES/DDR.html
10.http://lyberty.com/tech/terms/memory.htm
11.http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/intelligent-systems/embeddedsystems-training/ia-introduction-basics-paper.html

Table of Content

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No

Content

Page Num

Question 1

1-3

Question 2

4-7

Question 3

Question 4

9-12

Question 5

13-14

Reference

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