VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

UNIVERSITI TECHNOLOGI PETRONAS

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME
BANDAR SERI ISKANDAR
31750 TRONOH
PERAK DARUL RIDZUAN

TEST 1 : SUSPENSION CABLES

Objectives:
To investigate a cable suspended between two points subjected to different conditions of load,
tension, sag and support height.

Apparatus:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Sag and Tension Apparatus

A Set of Cable Weight
Combination Square
Scale of 1 Meter

General Discussion :
Flexible cables are commonly used for a wide range of applications such as electricity
transmission lines, cable-ways and suspension bridge.
Consider a flexible cable of constant section with a loading of w per unit length. The
loading is uniformly distributed over the length of the cable on a horizontal base, as per
diagram below.
w (load per unit length)

L
X1

X2
B

A
Y2
Y1

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VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

The ends of the cable, A and B, are at different heights above the lowest points, O,
which is taken as the co-ordinate origin. If we section the cable at the origin and draw a free
body diagram for the right-hand portion we find that equilibrium is satisfied by the triangle of
forces TB, To and wx2 .
w (load per unit length)

TB
B
wx2
Y2

To

O
X2

The position of the lowest point O, and also x1, is not known. To determine x1 we take
moments about B:T0 y2 - wx2 x2
2
Which may be written as :y

= 0

(1)

= w x2
2T0

(2)

Where x and y are the co-ordinates of any point on the cable relative to O. equation (2)
is the equation of the parabola which is thus the shape taken up by the cable.
If we not consider the case where A and B are at the same height then y1 = y2 and due
to symmetry the lowest point O is in the middle of the span. Thus x = 1/2 L. Equation (2) may
now be written as :y = wL2
8To

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(3)

VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

Where y is also known as the sag. Equation (3) may be simply re-arranged to determine the
horizontal tension, To.
T0

= w L2
8y

(4)

The length of the wire can be determined by :Consider an element of the curve of length ds, then :ds = dx

1 + ( dy / dx )2

From formula (3) and (4) we find :dy = wx = 8xy

dx
T0
L2
so

ds = dx ( 1 + 64x2y2 / L4 )1/2

so

ds dx ( 1 + 32x2y2 / L4 )

If we integrate from x = 0 to x = L/2 and multiply by 2 we obtain :s 1 ( 1 + 8y2 / 3L2 )

(5)

If we again consider the free body diagram and resolve horizontally we obtain :- T0 + TB cos = 0

(6)

From which the tensile force in the cable at any point is given by :T = To / cos

(7)

As we are often not given To we may approach the same question, that of the maximum and
minimum tensions, by resolving vertically.
TB sin - wx = 0

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(8)

VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

However, sin =

y
( y 2 + ( x / 2 )2 )1/2

TB = wx ( y 2 + (x / 2)2 )1/2

(9)

The value of TA may be obtained by substituting the appropriate x and y values into equation
(9). The minimum value of tension, at O, may be obtained by substituting y2 and x2 into
equation (2).
If we require a certain stress level the tension is divided by the cross sectional area, a ,
of the cable as we assume that the stress is uniformly distributed across the section. Thus : = T
a

(10)

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.

Set the two top pulleys to the same height, using the combination square (eg: 300mm
height). Set the span of the cable to 1m.
Slacken the upper clamp screws and move the scale bar so that the zero mark is where the
cable leave the pulley. Use the square to aid positioning.
Place some weights on the cable at a horizontal pitch of 100mm c/c. Use the square to
assist and start at the left end. Some adjustments may be necessary as the sag is finally set
and the effect of all the weights has changed the cable position.

Part A Variation of Tension with Sag

4.
5.
6.
7.

Read spring balance reading at particular sag to obtain cables tension. (Cables sag refers
to maximum sagging at the middle og the cable).
Change the sag of the cable to get different reading for cables tension. Sag can be varied
by adjusting the spring balance adjuster.
Repeat steps 6 and 7 to obtain another 3 more reading of cables tension for different sag.
Different sag gives different reading for cables tension. Maximum cables sag refer to
the sag at the middle of the cable ( x = 500mm).

Part B Shape of the Cable

8.
9.

Use the same cable loading at any particular sag.

Measure the x1 and y2 distances using combination square.

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VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

10. Repeat part B by changing the sag to a different value.

11. Tabulate the result for Part A and Part B in tables 1 and 2.
Calculation and Data Presentation :
Sketch the cable and label the important values of forces and lengths.
Show all calculations and discuss the source of error in this experiment.
Part A Variation of Tension with Sag
1.
2.

The 0.2N weights at 100mm c/c give a distributed load of 1.8N/m.

Use equation 9 to calculate value for TB.

Part B Shape of the Cable

1.

TO is first calculated using equation 4. Theoretical values for the x and y coordinates are
calculated using equation 2.

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VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

Table 1 Variation of Tension with Sag

X = 500

mm

Sag (mm)

Tension,
experiment (N)

Tension,
theory (N)

Error (%)

Table 2 Shape of the Cable

Tension (N) = __________

Sag (mm) = __________
To (N)
= __________

Tension (N) = ___________

Sag (mm)
To (N)

= ____________
=____________

x
(mm)

y,
measured
(mm)

y,
theory
(mm)

y,
x
measured
(mm)
(mm)
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500

Error (%)

-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500

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y,
theory
(mm)

Error (%)

VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

UNIVERSITI TECHNOLOGI PETRONAS

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME
BANDAR SERI ISKANDAR
31750 TRONOH
PERAK DARUL RIDZUAN

TEST 2 : THREE HINGE ARCH

Objectives:
To determine the relationship between applied load and the horizontal thrust at the support of a
three hinge parabolic arch.

Apparatus:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Support frame
Three hinge arch assembly
A simple support
A roller support
A set of weight

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Fix the simple support and the roller support frame at a distance equals to the span of the
arch i.e 1000mm.
Fix a load hanger at the end of the wire rope and at the selected location of the arch.
Offset the dead load by placing sufficient load on the load hanger at the end of the wire
rope so that the arch is level.
Place the load on the load hanger at the selected location of the arch.
Add sufficient loads on the load hanger at the end of the wire rope to level the arch.
Record the magnitude of the applied load and the load at the roller support.
Increase the applied load and repeat step 6 to 9.
Repeat the above experiment for other two tests to obtain average reading of the
measured values.

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VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

Calculations and Data Presentation:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Show that the arch system is statically determinate structure.

Draw the free body diagram of the arch.
Derive the horizontal thrust at the pinned support for the three hinge arch in terms of the
applied loading, span and height of the crown.
Using the data in Table 1, plot the graph of load verses horizontal thrust for the
experimental and theoretical case.
Draw the best-fit curve to pass through the plotted points.
Calculate the percentage error between theoretical and experimental result.
From the results, state the relationship between the horizontal thrust at the support and the
applied load.
State the probable source of error for this experiment, and discuss ways to reduce this
error.

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VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

Three Hinge Arch

Table 1

Applied
Load
(N)

Load At The Roller Support i.e

Experimental Horizontal Thrust (N)

Test 1

Test 2

Test 3

*Please show all calculations.

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Average

Theoretical
Horizontal Thrust
(N)

VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

UNIVERSITI TECHNOLOGI PETRONAS

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME
BANDAR SERI ISKANDAR
31750 TRONOH
PERAK DARUL RIDZUAN

TEST 3 : DEFLECTION OF A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Objectives:
To establish the relationship between deflection and applied load and determine the elastic
modulus of the beam specimen from the deflection data.

Apparatus:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

A support frame
A pair of knife edge support
A load hanger
A dial gauge with 0.01mm accuracy to measuring deflection
Beam specimen with constant depth and width through out its length
A micrometer to measure the depth and width of the beam specimen.
A meter ruler to measure the span of beam
A set of weight

Procedure:
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Bolt the two assembled support systems to the support frame using the plate and bolt
supplied with the apparatus. The distance between the two support should be equal to the
span of the beams to be tested.
Measure the width and depth of the specimen and note the readings (take measurement at
three locations and record the average reading)
Place the beam specimen onto the support.
Fix the load hanger at the mid-span of the beam.
Position the dial gauge at the mid-span of the beam to measure the resulting deflection.
Zero the dial gauge reading.
Place the suitable load on the load hanger and note the resulting dial gauge reading.
Increase the load on the lad hanger at suitable increments and for each increments note
the dial gauge readings.

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VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

9.

When the desired maximum load is reached, decrease the loading on the load hanger at
the same increments as above until all loads is removed from the load hanger.

Calculation and Data Presentation:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Using the tabulated date, plot the graph of load verses experiment and theoretical
deflection.
Draw the best fit curve through the plotted point and hence deduce the relationship
between the applied load and the resulting mid span deflection.
Calculate the Modulus of Elasticity from the graph obtained. Assuring a liner relationship
between load and deflection.
The theoretical mid-span deflection,
= WL3
48 EI
Rewriting,

= L3W
48 I

Or,

L3
____________________________________________________

48 I x (Slope of the load deflection curve)

5.
6.

From the experiment what is the relationship between the applied load the resulting
displacement.
How does the experimental result differs with the theoretical in terms of accuracy.

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VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

Deflection of A Simply Supported Beam (1)

Dial gauge reading

Load
N

Average

Theoretical

Increasing Load

Decreasing Load

Mid-Span

Mid-Span

div

div

Deflection

Deflection

mm

mm

Span of tested beam

mm

Width of beam specimen

mm

Depth of beam specimen

mm

Moment of inertia of beam specimen

mm

Dial gauge reading, 1 div

mm

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VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

UNIVERSITI TECHNOLOGI PETRONAS

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME
BANDAR SERI ISKANDAR
31750 TRONOH
PERAK DARUL RIDZUAN

TEST 4: AXIAL FORCES IN TRUSS

Objectives:
To analyze the loading pattern on a Warren Girder structure and to determine the forces in all
the structure members.

Apparatus:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Warren Girder apparatus

Spring balance
Set of weights
Digital vernier caliper
Measuring tape

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.

Make sketch of the frame to a reasonable scale.

Measure the join centers by using a measuring tape.
Find the angles in each of the triangles which form the frame by using the cosine and sine
rules.
4.
Place the frame member at the top.
5.
Record the initial spring balance reading on both right and left support.
6.
With no load on the frame other than self weight, use the digital vernier caliper to
measure the distance between the anvil faces in each leaf-spring balance.
7.
Place the loads onto the frame using the built-in hangers.
8.
Measure the distance between the anvil faces again.
9.
Substrate the two distance readings for each spring balance in a frame member.
10. Record the two spring balances reading.
11. Tabulate your result in a table.
( The reading printed on each leaf-spring balances are the calibration for the forces exerted
per mm displacement. )
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VBB 2013 Theory Of Structures

Axial Forces In Truss

Table 1
Initial Reading :

A = _______________
B = _______________

Final Reading :

A = _______________
B = _______________

FRAME MEMBER

FAB

FBC

FCD

FDE

INITIAL READING
( MM )
LOADED READING
( MM )
DEFLECTION
( MM )
(INITIAL LOADED)
CALIBRATION
N / mm
FORCE IN MEMBER
(N)
( EXPERIMENT)
FORCE IN MEMBER
(N)
( THEORY )
* FORCE IN MEMBER = DEFLECTION x CALIBRATION

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FEA

FBE

FBD