HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER,

DESIGN AND MODELLING USING

FINITE ELEMENT TECHNIQUE

BY
ADIL H. MUHAMMED,MPhil

A THESIS IS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHYIN THE FACULITY OF
ENGINEERING
NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY
---------------------------201 29469 5
---------------------------L- 7,: t 9, g

LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITYOF NEWCASTLE UPON TYNE

2000

ABSTRACT

in
has
density
high
field
recent
much
attention
The
received
power supplies
of
power
frequency
increase
is
to
the
The
so
as
to
switching
the
concern
most
area of
years.
in
high
frequency
Such
in
power
the
concern
size.
power supply
achievea reduction
In
(quasi,
led
has
all
to
multi,
and
pseudo).
many resonantstructures
conversionunits
is
by
load
from
the
to
the
transfer
the
types,
source
controlled
varying
power
resonant
been
frequencies.
Every
has
to
effort
made to reduce
the ratio of operating resonant
the switchinglossesusing zero voltage and/or zero current techniques.
In contrast, little attention has been given to the area of the design of the magnetic
in
is
frequency
It
high
that
the
usually
accepted
operation.
weak point
componentsat
further high frequencypower supply design is in the magnetic devices( transformer
into
high
).
No
inductor
taking
the
transformer
the
of
accurate
model
account
and
frequency range has been performed yet. It is well known that as the frequency
increasesso the transformermodel becomesmore complicated,due to the complexity
frequency
distribution,
dependence
the
transformer
of
the
and
nature
of
element
of
kind
directions,
Indeed,
this
take
these
of
can
and the
work
many
elements.
some of
attempt here is to introduce a number of mathematics,analytical, numerical, and
high
factors
The
directions
the
the
transformer.
to
main
model
affecting
practical
frequencyperformanceare the eddy current losses,leakageflux and the effects due to
the transformerelements,where the transformeris part of the resonantconverter.
Two dimensionaltransformer finite element modelling
0 is used to examine different
including
open and short circuit conditions. The frequency dependencyof the
cases,
winding resistanceand leakageinductanceis fully explained.The practical design of
the transformer and testing is used to valididate the simulation results. These results
are supported by the results obtained from the mathematicalformulation. Special
attention is given to reducingboth copper lossesand leakagein the windings.
Three dimensionalmodelling of the high frequencytransformer and the solution using
a program solving the full set of Maxwell's equationsis the original part of the present
work. Frequencyresponsecharacteristicsare found and compared to that obtained
from the test. Curves of these characteristics are used to predict a simplified
transformerequivalentcircuit. This circuit is used with the simulation.of a full bridge

isolation,
feedback,
(
and
switches,
control,
all
units
seriesresonantconverter, where
transformer ) are representedby an equivalent circuit. The power supply operation
frequency
in
behaviour
its
to
the
change
of each of the transformer
with
respect
and
elementsare examined.Two casesare consideredthrough the simulation, when the
it
is
below
frequency.
is
The
frequency
the
tank
and
resonant
above
when
operating
by
building
a practical power supply.
are
validated
results
simulated
In addition, the numerical solution of modelling the transformer by an equivalent
highest
Q
introduced.
is
(R,
L,
The
are
possible
number
and
of elements
network also
found
both
FEM
2D
the
are
using
of
magnetostatic
all
elements
solution
used,where
is
integration
fields.
This
the
trapezoidal
solved
using
rule
of
network
and electrostatic
influences
distribution
The
the
the
theory.
of
examination
of
and electric network
frequency
internal
is
the
response
characteristic
carefully
capacitanceson
winding
examined.
The last work in the present researchis focussedon finding a general model of an
frequency
is
The
the
to
thesis
transformer
equivalent
circuit
cover
wide
range.
exact
completedwith a conclusion.

11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to expressmy deepestthanks to Professor AG Jack, my supervisor for
his support in all aspects of the work, and for being a constant source of
encouragementthroughout the most difficult times. I would like to thank him for
during
final
the
stageof writing.
painsundertaken
I would also like to thank Dr. B. Mecrow for his contribution and help in the early
stagesof the work. As with most projects of this kind, a great many academicand
technical peopleare owed a great deal of thanks.
I would like to expressmy specialthanks to all my colleaguesin the UG lab, Chris,
Simon, Steve, Oystien, Ken, Phil, Jim, Hassan,Bernhard, Wander, and Christian, for
their ffiendship and mutual encouragement.
I am also thankful to my parents, brothers and sisters who have undergone all the
in
long
absence.
my
pains
Last but not least,my thanksto my wife Safiyawho has never failed to offer help and
support at all times, and my son Ala!a, and daughterShaima'a.

III

SYMBOLS, PREFIXES, AND

ABBREVIATION

magneticfield intensity Am-'

current density

Ani-2

A
B

vector potential
magnetic flux density

wb m-'
T

D
E

electric flux density

electric field intensity

Cm-2

area
length

ni!

e
C.

Vnr'

m
F

capacitance
inductance

frequency

Hz

resistance
impedance

C1

admittance

f2-1

current

voltage

Prefixes
9

ground

M
d

magnetising
distribution

resonant

oc

open secondarywinding

sc

short secondarywinding

primary winding

s
h

secondarywinding
history ( previoustime

IV

Abbreviation
FEM

finite elementmethod

EC

equivalentcircuit

FFT

fast fourier transformer

HF

high frequency

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 : Introduction
1.2 : Literature Review
1.3 : ThesisStructure
CHAPTER TWO:

1-1
.........................................................................
1-4
.........................................................................
1-9
.........................................................................

PRACTICAL

VALIDATION

OF THE HF

TRANSFORMER SIMULATION AND TEST

2-1
2.1 : Introduction
.......................................................................................
2-2
2.2 : Principles of resonance
.......................................................................
..
2.3 : Converterdesign
2-4
..................................................................................
2-5
2.4 :,Power transformerdesign
...................................................................
..
2.4.1 Primary turns
2-8
...................................................................................
..
2.4.2 Secondaryturns
2-8
...............................................................................
..
2.4.3 Primary& secondarywiring specification
2-8
..........................................
2.4.4 Temperaturerise
2-9
................................................................................
.
2.5 : Control technique
2-10
...............................................................................
2.6 : Principle of operation
2-11
.........................................................................
2.7 : Practical considerationof the power supply
2-12
.........................................
2.7.1 : Input stage
2-13
.......................................................................................
2.7.2 : Power stage
2-14
.....................................................................................
2.7.3 : Isolation stage
2-15
.................................................................................
.
2.8 : Converteroperationand test
2-16
...............................................................
2.9 : Testing the HF transformer
2-16
................................................................
.
'
2 10: Summary
2-18
.
..........................................................................................
CHAPTER THREE:

EFFECT OF EDDY CURRENT IN

TRANSFORMER

WINDING

BY 2D FEM

3.1 Introduction
3-1
I
.....................................................................
......................
3.2 2D finite elementmethod
3-2
.....................................................................
3.2.1 2D FE transformermeshmodel
3-4
.........................................................
3.2.2 Serieswinding representation
3-5
............................................................
3.3 : Eddy current lossesin transformerwinding
3-7
..........................................

andcircuit conductors
3.3.1 : Copperlossesin the circuit wiring

vi

3-9
.....................................................

3-9
3.3.1.1 : Skin effect
....................................................................................
3-11
33.3.1.2: Equivalent circuit model of the wire
.............................................
.
3-13
3.3.1.3 : Proxin-dtyeffects
..........................................................................
3-14
3.4 : Short and open circuit analysis
............................................................
3-14
3.4.1 : Short circuit analysis
.........................................................***...........
3-16
3.4.2 : Open circuit analysis
.......................................................................
3-16
3.5 Core properties
.
..................................................................................
3-18
3.6 Windings layers at HF applications
....................................................
3-22
3.6.1 : Layers topology
.............................................................................. .
3-24
Analysis
IMHz
validity
at
3.7:
.
................................................................. .
3.8: Summary
3-25
............................................................................................ .
CHAPTER FOUR:

THREE DIMENSIONAL
TRANSFORMER
MODEL BY FEM

4.1 : Introduction
4-1
.........................................................................................
4.2 : Mesh generation
4-2
..................................................................................
4.3 : Element shapesin 3D FEM
4-3
.................................................................
4.4 : Field equations
4-5
....................................................................................
4.5 : Guageand formulation
4-7
........................................................................
4.6: Programvalidity
4-10
................................................................................
4.7 : Open and short circuit impedancescalculations
4-11
.................................
4.8 : Commenton the results
4-14
.....................................................................
4.9 : Transformerequivalentcircuit
4-16
...........................................................
4.10: Summary
4-19
.........................................................................................
CHAPTER FIVE: PARAMETERS ESTIMATION AND
WINDING NETWORK ANALYSIS
5.1 : Introduction
5-1
.........................................................................................
5.2 : Network parameters
5-2
.............................................................................
5.2.1 : Capacitance
5-3
......................................................................................
5.2.2 : Inductance
5-5
............. ........................................ ...................................
5.2.3 : Resistance
5-6
..................................................... ...................................

5.3 : Equivalent network of the transformerwinding

5-8
...................................
5.4 : Trapezoidalintegration
5-9
........................................................................
5.4.1 : Trapezoidal rule for inductance
5-10
......................................................
5.4.2 : Trapezoidal rule for capacitance
5-10
................... ..................................
5.5 : The numerical solution
5-12
.................................... ..................................
5.5.1 : LU Factorisation
5-13
........................................... ..................................

Vil

5-15
5.5.2 : Analysis of linear network
...............................................................
5-16
5.6 Programdescription
...........................................................................
5-18
5.7 Programaccuracy
..............................................................................
5-20
5.8 Network transientresults
...................................................................
5-24
5.9 Modelling the HF transformerby network representation
..................
5-25
5.10: Summary
.........................................................................................
CHAPTER SIX: TRANSFORMER ELEMENTS SIMULATION
USING SPICE CONVERTER MODEL
6.1 : Introduction
6-1
..........................................................................................
6.2 : Simulation advantage
6-3
...........................................................................
6.3 : Converter model
6-4
..................................................................................
6.3.1 : Input stage
6-5
........................................................................................
6.3.2 : Power, isolation and control stages
6-6
...................................................
6.3.3 : Transformer model
6-7
...........................................................................
6.4 Principle of operation
6-8
..........................................................................
6.5 Transformer elements and power supply performance
6-9
.........................
6.6 Transformer elements effect on the output
6-12
.........................................
6.7 Summary
6-13
...........................................................................................

CHAPTER SEVEN: EXACT TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT

CIRCUIT
7.1 : Introduction
7-1
.........................................................................................
7.2: Physical meaning of elements
7-3
..............................................................
7.3 : EC elements calculation
7-4
......................................................................
7.4 : Open & short circuit impedances calculation
7-8
.......................................
7.5 : Transient response
7-9
...............................................................................
7.6 : Summary
7-11
...........................................................................................

CHAPTER EIGHT:

CONCLUSION

APPENDIXES :
A. I: Finite elementformulation in 2D analysis
i
............................................................
A. 2 : -Usefulnessof the magneticvector potential
iii
......................................................
B: Transienttransformerequivalentcircuit
...............................................................v

REFERENCES:

Ni
..................................................................................................

Vill

CHAPTER ONE
1.1: INTRODUCTION
have
in
1970's,
MOSFET
first
they
introduction
the
Since the
practical power
of the
in
improvements,
and are now widely acceptedand used
undergonemajor performance
for
features
They
them
a
that
suitable
make
combine many
power electronic equipment.
losses,
low
high
including,
light
and
switching speed,
weight,
wide range of applications,
high power density. One of the areaswhere they are used is in power supply units. There
Each
implement
basic
to
topologies
supply.
a
power
switching
commonly used
are many
topology hasunique propertieswhich make it best suited for a particular application, such
is
Essentially,
low
high
the
the
unit
size
supply
of
power
output power, voltage etc.
or
as
inverselyproportional to the switching frequency,therefore most of the researchnowadays
is concernedwith the high frequencyrange and Megahertz in particular. Higher switching
frequenciesmade possible by power MOSFET transistors, new topologies and PWM
)
integrated
circuits (which pack more control and supervisory
pulse width modulation
featuresin a small volume), have contributed to making modern power supplies smaller.
Power supplieshave a very wide rangeof applicationincluding TV, PC, power system,Xin
ray, etc., and a reduction power supply size has a significant effect on the cost of the
overall system.
The developmentof high frequency power suppliesencompassescircuit analysis,control
theory and magneticcircuit design. It is generallyacceptedthat the weak point in further
increasesin switching frequency comesmainly from the magneticdevices.Unfortunately,
thesemagneticdevices( transformersand inductors ) are unavoidable.
Transformersare presentin most circuits servingmany purposes,such as isolation, step up
and down. Practically,there is no upper limit to their power handling capability, if proper
designis achieved,but it is also one of thernost difficult devicesto model accuratelyas the
operating frequency goes higher. An accurate model of the transformer with proper
account of the effects of high frequencyis essentialto further designprogress.When such
a model is achieved,it should be possibleto establishthe important.characteristicsof the

1-1

be
higher
frequency.
for
The
in
drive
must
model
magneticstructure and thereby assist the
into
in
taking
transformer
account
parts
all
the
currents
eddy
of
effect
predicting
of
capable
include
loss
leakage
dependence
frequency
capacitive effects
and
elements,
and
the
of
betweenturns and betweenwindings and earth.
There are many types of transformer categorisedaccording to their operating frequency
band,
The
pulse,
etc.
power transformerusually operates
power,
wide
such
as
and power,
for
frequency
i.
line
).
band
(
A
frequency
typical
the
power
application
e.
over a narrow
transformers is in distribution systems for electric utilities. Power transformers are
designedmostly to operate near the maximum allowable flux density under steady state
density
highest
highest
turn
the
the
current
and at
possiblevoltage per
conditions, near
be
limits
Transformer
these
the
will
cooling
mechanism.
operation
above
consistentwith
destructive.

A pulsetransformeris a transformerthat operatesin high frequencycircuits providing

isolationandlow power signalamplification.Typicalapplicationsincludecommunication
andfeedbackcircuits.
equipments
Sincethe input to a power supply transformersis high frequency,high power, these
transformerscombinethe featuresof power andpulsetransformersand are termedwide
bandpowertransformers.
in wide bandtransformerdesignis the efficiency.The high
Amongthe first considerations
in
be
those
efficiencythat is achievedin low frequencytransformers
cannot comparedwith
a highfrequencytransformer( wide band). The transformerlossesarestrongly relatedto
frequency.Theselossescontributeto the economicsof the systemin which they operate.
Theheatdueto transformerlossesneedto be considered
aspart of the equipmentin which
limit, sinceall
they areinstalled. It is crucialthento reducetheselossesto an acceptable
switches,thetransformer,andthe controlcircuitsarevery closeto eachotherin the power
supplyunit. Reducingthe lossesso asto reachhigherefficiencyis currentlythe subjectof
muchattention.Thereare two lossesmainlycontributingto the total transformerlosses,
the coreloss( whichrepresents
the no load loss),andthe windingor copperloss( which
the load loss).The core lossi.e. the power dissipatedin the core consistsof
represents
1-2

in
loss
is
losses.
hysteresis
Hysteresis
the
continuous reversal
consumed
current
and
eddy
is
loss
This
direction
field
due
the
to the changing
of
magnetisingcurrent.
of the magnetic
is
loss
loss.
Eddy
design
the
than
current
eddy current
stage
easierto control through the
due
is
in
body
This
to the
by
the
the
core.
of
current produced
caused circulating currents
inducedvoltage when the magneticflux is changing.In principle, the induced voltage per
is
direction
in
is
The
in
this
the
current
of
secondarywinding.
turn the core the sameas at
it.
low
frequency,
flux
direction
At
that
the eddy currents
to
the
produced
magnetic
normal
induced
frequency
in
direction
by
laminating
As
be
the
the
the
of
core
voltage.
can reduced
impracticable,
is
laminations
become
the
and
resort
made to Ferrites which
required
rises
is
by
loss,
have
low
The
the
granular structure.
core
which
eddy currents virtue of
naturally
determined by the core materials and the design is a function of the amplitude and
frequency of the applied voltage. Core manufacturers have gradually improved core
ideal
including
The
Ferrites
the
which are widely used at -present.
material properties,
transformercore materialwould have an infinite magnetisingpermeabilityand zero loss. In
infinite
have
the
core
material
would
addition,
saturationflux density,unfortunately current
ideal.
for
fall
this
short
of
materials
Winding loss and leakage component calculations still representa great challenge for a
high frequencytransformer designer.They are related to each other in the sensethat any
reduction in one tends to be at the expenseof the second.Reducing the leakagemagnetic
fields is vital to avoid interference with other circuits within the power supply unit.
Unfortunately, reducing the leakagealso results in an increasein the distributed winding
capacitance.
Many computationaltechniqueshave been applied to improve the analysisof transformer
performancewhich havebeenaidedby rapid developmentsin digital computers.One of the
techniqueswhich has been applied successfullyto predict transformer performanceat low
and audio frequenciesis the finite element method. This method provides a numerical
solution of the electromagneticfield in eachpart of the transformer.The calculation results
-canbe used to predict performanceat the design stage. They also have a tutorial value in

1-3

providing a clear overall picture of the various aspectsof the performancewhich are not
easyto obtain by conventionalmethods.

1.2: LITERATURE

REVIEW

The major thrust of this thesis is to design, model, and analyse high frequency power
transformers.To achieveeconomy in the design stage, and high operational performance
of the transformer, it is vital to model the transformer accurately.The main factors that
disturb transformer operation at high frequency,are winding eddy current losses,leakage,
and the increasinginfluenceof capacitance.The combinationof distributed inductanceand
capacitanceproducesmany natural frequencieswhich are troublesomeif the transformer is
usedin a resonantconverter.
When the frequency of the excited.waveform is increased, current is not distributed
uniformly through the conductor but in a skin around its periphery. This gives rise to the
eddy current lossesin the winding, i.e. as skin effect in a particular conductor, and as
proximity effect with respectto currents in all other conductors. The proximity lossesare
minimisedif the sub conductors are far apart, but the down side is an increasein leakage
flux.

The problem of reducingthe leakageflux while keepingthe winding losseswithin

acceptablelimits has receivedconsiderableattention.In 1966,Dowell [1], derived an
analyticalformulationto predict the frequencydependence
of winding resistanceand
leakageinductance.
The relationwaslimitedto the window areaof the core ( i.e. the core
is not included). It only includesthe effect of high frequencyon the inductanceand
resistance,capacitanceeffects are not included.Different winding arrangements
were
from a physicspoint of view. Anothermathematical
formulation
calculatedanddiscussed
to solvethe skineffectproblemin a conductorwasgivenby Silvester[2] in 1967.A two
dimensional
modelwasusedfor this purpose.A resistive-capacitive
networkwasusedto
avoidsolvingthe full field equations.Thiswasfollowedby anotherpublication[3], using
a resistive-inductive
networkto solveboth skinandproximityeffectlosses.The procedure
14

individual
into
i.
by
sub
the
the
conductor
subdivision of
same e.
of solution was
branch.
The
by
methods were
a
network
represented
conductors, each of which was
has
hopelessly
it
becomes
but
the
system
complex when
applied to the single conductor,
many conductors.
Transformer models using equivalent RL and C network have long been a common
different
for
fast
[4]
Fergestad
type
transients.
a
presented
method of analysisparticularly
based
but
distributions,
to
the
transient
on
still
calculate
voltage
of numerical method
be
into
divide
The
to
to
the
solved
a number of sections
approachwas
winding
networks.
numerically.Kasturi [5], introduced a method of solving the winding equivalentnetwork
through a companionnetwork. Each elementin the network was replacedby its equivalent
is
is
derived
integration.
As
trapezoidal
the
network
which
using a
rule of
a result,
transfeged at eachtime step to an entirely resistive systemthat can be easily solved. Many
been
instance
have
for
to
the
transient
published
other papers
model
characteristics
[ 6,7,8 ] are a selection.
Once capacitance effects come into operation at high frequency, the prediction of
transformerfrequencyresponseis far simplerthan its time (i. e. transient) response.This is
because a transient excites all frequency modes. Therefore, the determination of
transformer frequency response characteristics have received attention as the only
reasonablemethod to model the high frequencytransformer.In 1977, Degeneff [9],

used

the familiar equivalentwinding network to calculateterminal and internal impedancesand

to predict the resonantand anti resonantfrequencies.Many papershave also paid the same
attention to the transformer frequencyresponse[9,10,11,12]. Certainly, measurementcan
be usedbut it is difficult to predict the internal winding response,even with a capacitively
coupledprobe, damageto the winding insulationis unavoidable.
The enormous difficulty of modelling a high frequency power transformer is well
recognised.Continuedgrowth in computer scienceand technology has made it possibleto
contemplateincreasinglyaccuratetransformermodels.
The rapid developmentof the finite element method since the 1970's has provided an
improved method for the solution of transformerelectromagneticfields. The power of the
1-5

field
its
to
is
finite element method well recognised, and
electromagnetic
application
drawn
first
it
to the attention of
dramatically
has
was
since
expanded
problems
has
been
].
[
The
13
by
Zienkiewicz
applied with success
method
electromagneticanalysts
]
[
18,19
frequency
],
[
frequency
14,15,16,17
low
to 2D
and medium
eddy currents
discussed
been
have
dimensional
Three
extensively
also
applications
problems.
[13,20,21,22,23,24,25].
The finite elementmethod can be used within an equivalent winding network model to
field
At
the
time,
the
the
attempts using
electromagnetic
same
predict
network elements.
equationsdirectly has grown dramatically.In 1979, Perry [ 26 ] examinedthe variation of
based
in
dimensional
density
The
on
was
a
multilayer
coil.
work
a one
reduction of
current
finding a relation of power dissipationwith respectto the thicknessand number of layers.
On the samegrounds,Beland [ 27 ] computedthe eddy current lossesin different shapes
induced
flow
that
the
the
currents
on paths parallel to the
assumption
under
of conductors
FEM
2D
impedance
in
frequency
The
the
responseof
multiconductor systemsusing
sides.
by
impedance
from
introduced
[
].
Weiss
28
The
the calculation of
was predicted
was alsq
loss densityand stored magneticenergy.Many numericalmethodshavebeenused for eddy
current field computations and magnetic device modelling. Konrad [ 17 ] presented a
surveyof suchmethods.
Some have given direct attention to the capacitancedistribution through the winding.
Chowdhuri [ 29 ] presenteda method in 1987 to calculate the equivalent of the winding
seriescapacitances.Laplacetransformswere usedto predict the input impedanceresponse.
In 1988, Vaessen[ 10 ], presenteda method to model a high frequencytransformer using
the principle of two port networks aided with the measurementof admittanceand transfer
functions. Vandelac [ 30 ], presentededdy current losses( skin and proximity ) using a
field approach. The work provides an insight into minimising copper losses at high
frequency including interleaving the winding. Proximity effects have also been studied
widely by many [ 2,31,32 ]. An approachto calculatehigh frequencyconductor resistance
was presentedby Goldberg [ 33 ] in 1989. In this work a layer of winding composedof
discretewires is convertedinto an equivalent continuous sheet.Further simplification was
1-6

length,
infinite
the
has
finite
layer
by
so
thickness
and
that
and
a
each
assuming
achieved
includes
detailed
A
dimension.
is
transformer
to
model which
one
problem
reduced
from
derived
in
]
the
The
by
[
1989.
losses
34
Wilcox
model was
winding
was given
from
derived
by
impedances
A
test.
classical
model
aided
calculation of self and mutual
transformertheory was also presentedin 1991by Wilcox [ 35 ]. The procedureconsistsof
decomposingthe transformer into sections,and each section is representedby a network.
The voltages and currents of eachsection are arrangedin matrix form. The model can not
be used to design a transformer, but it allows better a understanding of the transient
phenomena.
The first confirmation of interaction between a resonantconverter and a transformer was
given by Wint [ 36 ] in 1991. A low frequency oscillation of the input and output of the
power supply transformer was noticed and solved mathematicallyusing an equivalent
model. In 1993,Woivre [ 37 ] presentedanalyticaland numericalmodels( FEM ) to model
the transformerand to calculatethe frequencyresponsecharacteristics.Fourier transforms
were usedto computethe over voltage transient effect. Morched [38] introduced a model
to simulate the behaviour of a multiwinding transformer, over a wide frequency range.
Another numerical solution to the winding of the high frequency transformer was
presentedby Leon et. al [ 39 ]. Ahmad et al [ 40 ] provided in 1994 a generaltransformer
model to predict the high frequency behaviour. The capacitanceswithin the model were
computed using 2D electrostatic FEM, and magnetostatics to predict the winding
resistance and leakage inductance. Frequency response characteristics were studied
covering a frequency range of 0 to IMHz. The core eddy current losses and hysteresis
havereceivedequal attention. Ahmed [ 41 ] and Basak [ 42 ] solvedthe core loss using 2D
FEM in 1994. The confirmation of the need to use the core conductivity as a function of
frequency was recognised in their work. Hysteresis losses in high frequency power
transformerswere also under attention, seefor instance,Leon [ 43 ] in 1995. Lotfi [ 19
presenteda method aswell to calculatethe frequencydependentresistancein a rectangular
conductor. The solution is basedon the ellipse formulation from the fact that the shapeof

1-7

current in the conductor cross section is equivalent to an ellipse. The method was
comparedto the FEM result and appliedat the power supply switching frequency.
All the methodsdiscussedso far have limitations as well as lack of generalisationand so
cannot used to model high frequencytransformers.The attempt toward further frequency
range with a fbll transformer model is hardly found. Therefore, the attention is given
currently to model the whole transformer regardless of the design differences. High
frequencyeffects are taken into account correctly. The model is solved using the full field
equationsby finite elementtechnique.

1-8

1.3: THESIS STRUCTURE

In the presentwork, an attempt is madeto introduce a numberof numerical-andanalytical

by
is
The
to examine the
supported
practical
and
mathematical
processes.
aim
methods
frequency
in
factors
high
that
the
transformers
affect
of
power
performance
main
used
supply units. These factors are, winding losses,leakage,winding capacitances,core loss
and their variation with transformer design, particularly with referenceto use in resonant
power supplies. A practical transformerhasbeendesignedand built as detailedin Chapter
two, and a power amplifier is used to test the transformer impedancecharacteristics.
Another concernof chapter two is the operation of the transformer in a full bridge series
resonant converter. Particular attention is paid to consideration of an adequateway to
simulate the transformer within the power supply unit. Practical aspectsof building the
power supply are also discussedin detail. The current and voltage waveform at the input
and output transformerterminalsprovide a basisfor justification of the simulation. In fact,
the actual power supply can be used for the test purposes, since the series resonant
converter can safely handle a short circuit, but the resonant tank elements could be
coincident with the transformer elementswhich results in curves which differ from the
transformeralone. The designprocedurewas used to examinea large number of casesto
examineboth the leakageand lossesin the winding using a two dimensionalfinite element
model as detailed in Chapter three. In this chapter, attention is paid to the frequency
dependenceof the winding resistanceand leakage.inductance. Since a two dimensional
model is used for the magnetic field, capacitive effects cannot be representedplacing a
limit on the calculation below the frequency at which such effects appear. Winding
arrangementssuch as the number of layers and turns are examined. The

frequency

dependenceof these elementsare also introduced analytically and compared with finite
elementand practical results.
The electromagneticequationsgiven by Maxwell are usually approximatedat power line
frequencyby neglectingthe displacementeffects. This approximation
be
valid as
may not
the frequency goes into the Megahertz zone, where capacitance effects become
1-9

increasinglyimportant. The magneticand electric fields are coupled and three dimensional
formulation
four,
in
Chapter
is
is
That
a
numerical
where
covered
analysis required.
involving the full set of Maxwell's equations is derived and then solved using a three
dimensionalfinite element model. A simple model is used first for validating the results
)
i.
(
just
transformer
and
core
e.
an
air
core
primary and secondarywindings and no
with
is
The
transformer
then used to predict the
model
results.
whole
practical
with
compared
impedances.
in
is
Later
Chapter,
this
short
circuits
attention given to the
actual open and
derivation of a simplified transformer equivalent circuit. The elementsof this circuit are
found directly from the resonantfrequenciesof both impedancescurves. Indeed, most of
theseelementscan be predicted directly from the finite elementmodel calculations.There
is however considerabledifficulty in predicting the capacitancedue to its complicated
distribution in the actual transformer. Usually the capacitanceeffects are consideredas
frequencyindependentand can be solved electrostatically.This procedure can reduce the
model to two dimensionsbut will never model all of the transformer elementsaccurately,
becausemagneticand electric fields are coupledto eachother.
Chapter five, pays particular attention to capacitance effects within the transformer
winding. The transformer winding is modelled by an "accurate" equivalent circuit which
has series/ parallel branchesto representthe distributed nature of the field. The elements
of this circuit ( R,L, and C) are found by solving the 2DFE model magnetostaticalyand
electrostaticalyindividually. The full circuit is solved for transient problems numerically
using the trapezoidal rule of integration. The combined effects of capacitance and
inductanceare viewed through the frequencyresponseof the input impedance.
In Chapter six, fiill details of the power supply simulation is given, and the aim is to
examinethe effects of the transformer elementson the performanceof the power supply.
Each part of the power supply including switches( MOSFET ), control, feedbackisolation,
and transformeris implementedusing its equivalentrepresentation,taking into account the
high frequencyeffect of the switches.Two caseshave been consideredone above and the
other below the resonantfrequency.The simulated results are validated practically using
the measurements'described
in Chaptertwo.
1-10

The high frequency responseof wide band transformers is usually analysedby meansof
is
Although
circuit
any
not an exact representation of an actual
equivalent circuits.
transformer, it can be a convenient way of approximation. The representation of a
transformerby an improved equivalentcircuit is the subjectof Chapterseven.The thesisis
completedwith conclusions.

1-11

CHAPTER TWO
PRACTICAL

VALIDATION

TRANSFORMER

OF THE HF

SIMULATION

AND TEST

2.1: INTRODUCTION.

The size of a switched mode power supply unit is reduced by increasing switching
frequency or by improving efficiency. Increasing the switching frequency leads to a large
),
filter
(
in
transformer
while
the
and output
magnetic components size
reduction
increasing efficiency leads to less overall losses and hence to a smaller heat sink in the
power supply unit. The

transistor switching losses in the conventional pulse width

(
for
500khz
frequency
limits
)
(
PWM
the
the
supply
power
working
modulation
lMz). In PWM, the current waveform is driven mainly square in shape which increases
losses
due
both
These
losses
to the overlap
turn-on
turn-off.
are mainly
and
on
switching
failing
falling
turn-off,
transistor
and
or
rising
current
at
current and rising voltage
of
dissipative
due
Using
losses
the
to
the
turn-on,
reverse
rectifier
recovery.
plus
voltage
at
0

RC ) or nondissipative( LC ) snubbercircuits to reduce transistor switching lossesis

not a practical solution at higher frequencies.This is becausethe switching lossesare not
losses
is
is
be
happens
if
dissipative
the
that
to
that
all
snubbercircuit
used,
reduced a
In
from
(
)
MOSFET
that case
the
the
the
transistor
to
of
circuit.
resistance
snubber
shift
a larger heat sink is required for both the resistanceand transistor. A nondissipative
it
is
frequency,
because
hand
high
the
troublesome
acts as a
snubbercircuit, on
at
other
handle.
that
the
the
transistor
transistor
resonantcircuit around
cannot
and storesenergy
Resonant converters offer the advantage of overcoming these problem and hence
be
losses.
In
the
the
these
reducing
converters,
switching
current waveform can
sinusoidal (or quasi sinusoidal) instead of square which'minimises higher frequency
harmonicsand reducesnoise. Also the transistor can turn-on and off at zero current or
2-1

dv/dt
low
di/dt
losses,
a
with
stresses
or
the
give
to
and
switching
eliminate
zerovoltage
goodtransientresponse.
different
for
been
have
Many resonantconverterstopologies
proposed,which are used
Most
depend
their
these
of the topologiesare mainly
applications.
on
purposes,and
few
but
density
losses,
areconcernedwith the transformer
a
etc.,
power
about
concerned
in
distributed
The
transformerelementvaluesare
the
capacitance.
particular
elements
important,
is
Their
higher
frequencies
megahertz.
value
approaching
very sensitiveat
first becausethe transformerelementsare resonantelementsand haveto be accounted
for in the resonanttank, andsecondbecausewaysmustbe foundto reducethe effectof
to get low EMI andreductionin stress.
theseelements
The topologyselectedin this chapteris aimedto introducea power supplythat canbe
in
later
The
toprovide
the
results
chapters.
which validate simulationcarriedout
used
simulationresultsare used to examinethe effect of eachof the transformerelements
within the normaloperationof the powersupply.This topologyis a full bridgeclamped
in manypapers[ 44,45 ]. Later
modeseriesresonantconverter,that is well documented
partsof this chapterconcerntestson the actualtransformer.

2.2: PRINCIPLES OF RESONANCE.

Resonancephenomenaare very important physical effects in any circuit having RLC

elements.During resonance,the circuit is purely resistive and maximum power can be
deliveredto the load if its value matchesthe load value. The circuit with RLC elements
can have series,parallel, or a combinationof series-parallelresonance. In this section, a
brief introduction to the principle of resonanceis given to establishterms but of course
this is well known theory.
Fig.( 2.1 ), shows a typical RLC circuit modelled in both the time and frequency
domains,together with the magnitudeand phaseof the circuit impedance. The resonant
condition occurs when the source voltage and current are in phase. This means, the
2-2

11

circuit impedance is a purely real number, which leads to the conclusion that the
imaginary part of the circuit impedanceis equal to zero. Hence, during resonancethe
circuit is equivalentto a single resistance.In order to satisfythis condition, the following
applies;
Z (j o)
Z0

R+
I

0j) .-.
J( XL - XC

=R

where f. ( Hz

XL - XC
f) and,

0 => f- =I

(Hz)

-2; r --fL C
is the resonancefrequency,and XL = coL, Xc =

From theserelations, three casescan be observed.First, when f)f.

1C
0)
( source frequency

larger than resonancefrequency ) i.e. above resonance,XL) XC2 0(

the impedance

phase angle ) is positive. Hence the circuit is predominantly inductive. Second, when
f(f.

i. e. below resonance, XL( XCI 0

capacitive. finally, when f=f,,

is negative. The circuit is predominantly

( at resonance), XL

XC 0 is zero, and the circuit is

purely resistive.
The circuit impedancecurve showsthat when the sourcefrequencyis zero ( dc ), Xc is
oo ( open circuit ), and the impedancemagnitudewill be oo . When the source frequency
tends to oo XL is co and the impedancemagnitude will be at oo again. The only
,
,
condition that the impedancemagnitude is minimum is where the source ( current or
voltage ) frequencyis equal to the resonantfrequency.The opposite conclusion can be
made for the case of a parallel resonant circuit. At resonant frequency, the circuit
impedancewill reach its highest magnitude which equals the resistancevalue. If the
resistanceis removed( circuit with L and C only ), the impedancemagnitudecould reach
an infinite value ( open circuit ), but this caseis not practical since there is an internal
resistanceaccompaniedwith the inductor.
The resonantfrequencyhasthe samerelation in both seriesand parallel RLC circuit, but
the behaviour in these two cases is completely different. However, both series and
parallel resonancecould be presentin the samecircuit, as is the casewith filters or the
high frequencytransformerdiscussedin the following chapters.

2-3

2.3: CONVERTER DESIGN.

Generally,the design of any type of converter is based on the numerical calculation of

dc
].
[
The
46,47,48,49
dc
voltage conversion
the voltage conversionratio characteristics
for
different
differential
by
modes of
equations
solving
ratio curves are obtained
for
ON-OFF
follow
the
These
states
the
arrangement
pulses
switching
modes
operation.
function
The
the
as
a
of normalised conversion
characteristicsare plotted
of
switches.
frequency,which is the ratio of switching to resonantfrequenciesfor simplicity of the
be
All
the
the
normalised
currents
and
can
results.
voltages
calculationsand generalityof
_IC'
impedance
(VL,
),
to
the
and the transformer
characteristic
resonant
with respect
turns ratio.
However, the procedure of the full design is not illustrated in this chapter, the present
have
below
frequency
dc
the
already
above
and
resonant
characteristics
power supply
beengiven [45]. In the converter shown in Fig.( 2.2 ), there are a few points of interest
first
is
diodes
(
The
Ds2&Ds4).
In
deserve
the
series
somecircuits
attention.
more
which
that require reversevoltage across the transistor, a blocking diode could be placed in
drain
(
).
In a resonant
MOSFET
the
terminals
the
transistor
the
or
of
source
serieswith
circuit, the reverse voltage rises very quickly on cessation of forward current. The
antiparallel diode within the MOSFET is not fast enough and a blocking diode is
required. The blocking diode will prevent forward current from flowing through the
transistor body diode, and the fast reverserecovery diode (D1 -D4) carries the required
forward current. The diodes ( Ds2&Ds4 ) are then used to avoid conduction of the
internal diode of the MOSFET.
The load in a series resonant converter is resistive in the transformer secondary side
reflected to the primary by the turns ratio squared,and in serieswith the resonatingLC
elements.In the seriesresonantconverter,the output inductor is ornitted. This converter
is usedfor high voltage applicationas it requiresno output inductor. An output inductor
for high output voltage would have to support large voltage acrossitself and would be
bulky. Hence this converter can be used for either high or low output dc voltages. The
24

series loaded circuit can safely survive an output short circuit as the reflected load
impedanceis in serieswith the resonatingLr and Cr elements.This impedanceis small
comparedto the characteristicimpedanceof the resonanttank elements( Lr and Cr).

2.4: POWER TRANSFORMER

DESIGN.

Most switching power suppliestransformersuse Ferrite cores [33,46,50]. In general,

Ferrites are ceramic ferromagnetic materialshaving a crystalline structure consisting of
mixtures of iron oxide with either manganeseor zinc oxide. Each Ferrite manufacturer
processesdifferent mixes:of oxidesfor specific purposes. Ferrite cores are manufactured
in a wide variety of shapes,EC, ETD, EF, U, RKE, and many others shapes. With each
of the shapes,there is a recommendationfrom the manufacturer to be used in an
application which dependson the transformer power density. For instance, an E-core
has been recommendedto be used for a power of 500 Watt and over by Philips [51].
There are also many grade materialsforming these shapes,3C series,D series,S series,
and many others. Each of thesegradematerialshas a different material permeabilityand
resistivity to fit the required application [ 18,41
The performance of the power supply Ferrite core transformer is determined by the
factors specifiedbelow:
Geometry
of the core and winding.
The
allowabletemperaturerise.
The
frequency.
operating
The
input
minimum
and
maximum
voltage.
The
by
the winding with respectto the window area.
area
occupied
Peak
flux
density
in
the
the core.
value
of
The size of the transformer is determinedby the maximum volt-second product applied
to the primary winding and the current flowing through the primary and secondary
windings. The maximum volt-second product determines the maximum flux density
2-5

leading to core sectional area and primary turns selection. As the operating frequency
increases,the volt-second product decreases,it is then possibleto reduce the number of
the primary turns or select a core with smaller area. The minimum number of primary
turns is limited by the required turns ratio, beyond this any decreasein volt secondsdue
to frequency increaseis achieved by a reduction in the core area. There is a limited
frequencyrange for any core, becauseas the frequency increasesthe core and copper
lossesincreasewhich leads to a reduction in the transformer efficiency. Operating the
transformerabovecertain frequency no longer results in a size reduction, since a larger
core is requiredto handlethe losses.
The first step of material selectionis the core loss definedby a curve of loss ( usually in
milliwatts or kilowatts per cubic centimetre or meter ) versus peak flux density at
different frequencieswhich is suppliedby the manufacturers.From Faraday'slaw, which
is usedto calculatethe numberof primary turns, the larger the flux density,the lower the
primary turns and the larger the allowable wire size, and the larger the output power.
The limitation on higher flux density is the core loss, and hence increased core
temperaturerise. In this casethe core loss is not the only limitation, the core may also
go into saturation.The primary then cannot support the applied voltage, drawing large
magnetisingcurrent and destroyingthe power transistor. The peak flux density has to be
chosenso that the total core and copper lossesresult in an acceptablylow temperature
rise over ambient(i. e. room temperature). In order to avoid this method of choosingthe
peak flux density during the design,anotherway is desirable. The design for this work
follows [52], and is built on selectingthe core temperature rise rather than peak flux
densityat the operatingfrequency. This is a much safer way. The finite elementanalysis
can be used for this purpose using magnetostaticand either two or three dimensional
models.The finite elementresults can give the best selectionof the flux density at which
the leakageis minimum. Theseresults can be comparedwith the practical results using a
searchcoil aroundthe core [42,53].
An E-shapedcore with material grade 3173was used to designthe transformer at 1MHz
operatingfrequency,with the core dimensionsas given in Fig.( 2.3 ). The choice is made
2-6

that the maximumtemperaturerise due to the total loss ( core and winding ) will 40 C*.
It is also assumedas a starting point that half the temperaturerise occurs in the core due
to iron loss and half in the winding due to J2R and eddy loss. The core thermal
loss
is
In
is
1.35
C*/watt.
The
14.8
then
transformer
to
watt.
maximum
resistance equal
loss
by
[5
],
loss
in
1
Philips
the
the
this
to
curve
given
manufacturer's
order use
value of
total loss hasto be given per unit volume, which is the effective core volume, and that is
3.
/
/
76.8
1.35
17.6
mWatt CM From the loss curve at IM]Hz, it is found that
equalto
=
the maximumflux densityis 16 mtesla( peak ).
Important relations to examinethe design limitation ( winding loss or hysteresisloss
havebeenmentioned[52]. Thesetwo relationsare:
11.1 (pi. ),
4
cm
core size
winding loss
K0f
p

core size
where; Pi.

i'l

)1.58
104

I 20-K 2
PY77 input

(Kh f+ Ke f2

0,66

cm

(2)

coreloss

power

K factor equalto 0.165 for full bridge

f operatingfrequency
K. hysteresiscoefficient = 4E -5
K, eddy current coefficient = 4E -10

According to the samereference,if the core size calculatedby relation (1) is smallerthan
that using relation (2), the design is limited by winding loss and not iron loss. At an
output power of 500watt, the peak to peak flux density is 32mtesla and at IMHz
frequency,the first equation results in 2.8 cm4, and the second equation in 3.66 cm4These results indicate that according to the design specifications,the smallest core
requiredshould be in the range between 2.8 - 3.66 cm4. Therefore the core that is
selectedis E42, where the area product is its window area ( Aw=1.78 cM2) times the
effectivecrosssectionarea( A, ff.=1.82 cm' ), and that gives 3.2 cm4.

2-7

2.4-1: PRIMARY TURNS.

Primary turns are calculateddirectly using Faraday'slaw [52,53]. The minimum primary
is:
frequency
IMHz
input
150V
turns to support a minimum of
voltage at
104

V*

N=i.
= 14 turns
P 2f AB A,,
ff.

2.4-2: SECONDARY TURNS

In order to calculatethe number of secondaryturns to support 250V output voltage, the

turns ratio hasto be calculatedand is given by :
(Vp

Np

n=

N.

where

VmosFBT,

VMOSFET)
VO

VDIODE

* duty cycle
VDIODE

are the voltage drops on the transistor and the output rectifier

is
duty
0.9,
then
[50,54],
the
turns
cycle of
ratio
given a primary voltage
respectively
0.52, andthe secondarynumberof turns is 26.

2.4-3: PRIMARY- SECONDARY WIRING

SPECIFICATION.

The selectionof the wire size is usually found from the current density. The allowable
current density is nearly the same in all the winding. A large increase in any single
winding current density over other windings in the transformerleadsto a hot spot in the
coil. Wire tablesgive a current densityusually in Ampere per unit areawhich provides a
very rough guide to heatinglimits basedupon typical ( conservativelyestimated)cooling.
The cross section area of the wire required can then be estimated directly from the
current density. The maximum primary current at minimum dc voltage of 150V and
maximuminput power of 625 Watt is:
2-8

IP

Pn
Vi.

4.1 Amp.

The current density is the ratio of the current to the cross sectional area of the wire.
Using insulatedcopper wire of 450 A/ cni2 leadsto the size of the wire required, which
is 0.009 cni2 The number of fine wires is selectedaccording to the skin depth. At
.
IM]Hz (0.0066cm) the number is 64 of wire gauge 35 with the following specification;
insulator
diameter
0.412-4
diameter
0.009
0.007cm,
cni2
and
copper
area
cm,
copper
,
insulator area 0.7E-7 =2
The secondary current can be estimated directly from the turns ratio, giving 2.2 Ampere.
Following the same procedure, the cross section area of the wire required to carry this
current is 0.0048 cni2 . Using the same wire gauge the number of fine wires is 32.

2.4-4: TEMPERATURE

RISE.

It is importantto checkthe validity of the temperaturerise assumptionwhich is 40 C'

as assumedearlier.The temperaturerise canbe found from the total losses( core and
winding) andthe thermalresistance( 14.8 C' /W

of the selectedcore. The thermal

data for the core and is an experimentally

resistancecomesfrom the manufacturers
determined
figure usingnormalwindingvolumeandfill factors.The core losshasbeen
found earlier equalto 1.35W.The winding loss can be estimatedfrom the primary
current(4.1 Amp.), meanlengthof the turn ( from the data sheet9.3 cm ), primary
numberof turns ( 14 ), and the resistanceof the selectedwire ( wire specification
0.00032Ell cm whichgivesa windinglossof 1.22W( assumingthat eddylossesin the
,
winding*areinsignificant). The total lossis then 2.57W,andthe temperaturerise is
2.57 * 14.8) equal38C*
.
Sincethe estimatedvalue of the temperaturerise is less than that which has been
the designis accepted.If this valueis biggerthan40C* largercoreneedsto
assumed,
,a
be selectedandthe samedesignprocedurerepeated.

2-9

2.5: CONTROL TECHNIQUE.

In resonantconverters,i. e. series,parallel, or series-parallel[45,48,55,56], the switching

losses are reduced due to zero current or zero voltage techniqueswhich need to be
has
line
load
for
The
the
control circuit
current and
voltage.
maintained a wide range of
duty of maintaining any change and reflecting that as a change in the switching pulse
width. There are two types of control technique namely fixed and variable frequency.
The variablefrequencycontrol technique[52], uses frequencymodulation to control the
output voltage. The method usesthe slope of the circuit impedancecurve to control the
output. The control circuit changesthe frequencyto move either toward or away from
resonance,and thereby controls the energytransferredto the resonantcircuit and to the
load accordingly. In general,this technique suffers from a number of limitations. First,
MOSFETs with a small transition time are required to maintain control at high
frequency,secondas the frequencyapproachesresonance,peak currents and voltages go
higher stressingthe resonant componentswhich are designed to operate at a single
frequency, and also the filter componentswhich are usually designed at the lowest
frequency.Practically this is not an easytask with respectto the frequencyvariation of
this control circuit. Therefore it is desirableto keep the switching frequency constant
[45,55].
Constant frequency control uses the conventional pulse width modulation ( PWM
principle [57,58], to changethe output. There are three kinds of constant frequency
control strategy,direct duty cycle, voltage forward, and current mode. In all three types,
the output voltage has to be comparedwith a fixed referenceto give an error voltage
which is usedby the control circuit to modify the on-time. The total pulse frequencyon
and off is kept constant.
The constant frequency technique is the one currently used to control most power
supplies.Dedicatedintegratedcircuits are availablefor this task for instanceUC3825A.

2-10

2.6: PRINCIPLE

OF OPERATION.

The clampedmode seriesresonantconverter as shown in Fig.( 2.2 ), is a seriesresonant

duty
frequency
by
be
the
cycle
that
controlling
regulated at a constant
can
converter
)
is
held
(
i.
Clamped
the
tank
the
that
the
e.
resonantcircuit
voltage across
ratio.
means
leg
in
MOSFET's
for
the
the
the
opposite
switching cycle until one of
a period of
at zero
is triggered.
The duty cycle can be used as the control parameterwhile the switching frequency is
in
is
by
four
frequency
MOSFETs
Constant
triggering
the
a
operation realised
constant.
time sequenceso as to produce a quasi square voltage, which is applied across the
bases
(
)
Fig.
2.4
the
theoretical
tank.
of the switching pulses, tank,
shows
resonant
inductor
'resonant
(
),
(
Ir).
The
Vcr
the
and
resonant
current
voltage,
capacitor'svoltage
four switching pulses are arranged as shown in this figure, where each of the two
switches( i. e. MOSFET's ) in one leg are delayed 180' with respect to the switches of
the oppositeleg [45].
At the start of the new switching cycle, T3 and T4 ( Fig. 2.2 ) are conducting, while TI
and T2 are off. The resonant inductor (Lr) current starts to circulate and charge the
resonantcapacitor(Cr). When T3 is turned off, the current still circulatesin the inductor
through DI and the capacitorvoltage reachesa maximum.TI is now turned on, forcing
the resonant inductor current to change its polarity, and causing the capacitor to be
discharged.The voltage is clampedto zero until T4 is turned off. When T2 is on the
resonantcapacitorchargesto negativepolarity and reachesmaximumvoltage when TI is
turned off. The inductor current circulatesthrough D3 and T2 to dischargethe resonant
capacitor,and the processis repeated.
Two important points have to be considered.First, the resonantinductor current does
not reverseuntil one of the switches in a leg is turned off. Considering the switching
sequencesof the four MOSFETs during the period that TI is ON, T4 is ON for a short
period shown in the Fig.( 2.4 ), and during this period the current circulatesthrough the
tank only. When T4 is turned OFF, T2 will turn ON, therefore, the current polarity
2-11

OFF
leg
first
leg
in
OFF,
TI
turn
the
two
turns
the
the
switches
so
remains
sameuntil
its
before
is
diode
loss.
Second
the
conducting
associatedanti parallel
with no switching
ON.
force
is
ON
transistor
turn
to
turned
switching
at
a zero voltage
switch
Further detail of the circuit operation can be found in publications on this type of
converter [ 45,50].

2.7: PRACTICAL

CONSIDERATION

OF

THE POWER SUPPLY.

Any power supply prototype consists of different stagessuch as, the input dc supply,
in
block
isolation,
the
output
circuit
switching circuit,
as shown
control circuit, and
diagram in Fig.( 2.5 ). Each of these stageshas its own problems. In addition to the
specificconsiderationsthat will be explainedshortly, it is clear that in a high power, high
switching speed converter electromagnetic interference i. e. noise is going to be a
problem.The following points help to reduce noise.Practical experienceshowsthat they
are necessary.
I- The control circuit has to be well spaced from the power circuit to reduce the
interference.
2- The resistorsthat are used as peripheral componentsaround the control circuit need
to be of non-inductivetype.
3- Twisted fine wires needto be used to connect parts of control circuit and the supply
switching pulsesshouldbe kept as short as possible.
4- The resistorsand capacitorshaveto be placedwith as short leadsas possible.

2-12

2.7-1: INPUT STAGE.

The dc input stage consistsof a bridge rectifier and filter which convert the main ac
voltage to dc. The rectifier circuit consistsof an input transformer, full bridge diodes and
an output capacitor.The input bridge diode circuits used in the presentpower supply are
dual packageSKKD2608 diode modules.
A capacitorinput filter is used to reduceripple and provide the requirqd dc supply. The
for
in
be
the design. If the value of this
this
to
capacitor
needs
accounted
value of
capacitoris too small,the result is a large ripple and lower minimum input voltage. If the
capacitor value is larger than necessary,the recharging current is narrow and large in
amplitude which increasesEMI and gives higher losses.The energy required from the
capacitorto provide the power supplyis given by:
Pin
Joules( Watt-second
w=
f
Which is the input power over the line frequencyof 50 Hz. The input capacitorvalue is
Cm

w
=
V2peak

_V2

min

The input capacitorusedin the power supply is an electrolytic of value 470PF ( 450V
As a simpleapproach,the capacitorvalue can be found by using I gF for every volt, with
a little extra as tolerance.

2.7-2: POWER STAGE.

Thepowerstageconsistsof four MOSFETsandthe resonanttank. The selectionof the

MOSFET type dependson the rating of the input current and the maximuminput
voltage.The current can be found from the design specificationof minimuminput
voltage,efficiency,outputpowerandthe duty cycle,resultingin 4AAmp. following the

2-13

specificationgiven earlier. The selectionof at least a 5A MOSFET gives some margin.

The MOSFETs currently used are IRF730 rated 400V and 5.5A.
The size of the heat sink used for the MOSFET can be estimated from the drain to
in
in
device
(
)
due
loss
ON
The
MOSFET
temperature
the
to
the
rise
source
resistance.
this resistanceis one of the design specifications. This resistance is a function of
temperature

( increasing as the temperature increases), and is supplied in the

manufacturer'sdata sheet.The value of this resistancefor IRF730 is I fl at 25C* and at

the designvalue of 60C*

(i. e. a temperaturerise of 35 C' ) its value is 1.392 The

.
power dissipatedduring the switching ON time then is the product of current squared,
resistanceand 0.45 ( the On time), giving 11.3 Watt. The thermal resistanceof the heat
sink requiredat the specifiedtemperaturerise is (35/11.3) 3.1C* /W The heat sink used
.
is 5 C' /W slotted ABL with a dimensionof 33mm height and surfaceof 50mm*50mm.
The presentpower supply is aimed to operatebelow resonantfrequency. The capacitor
used in the resonant tank is I. InF (poly). The measuredleakage inductance of the
transformeris 4.1ffl and this could be used as the inductor of the resonanttank if the
frequency is high enough. However at practical frequency this inductance is not large
enoughto force zero voltage switching and to handlethe power of the tank, so a series
inductor is required.The designprocedurefor the inductor is similar to that used for the
transformer, where here a small toroid ferrite core is used. However, the design
procedureusedto build this inductor is basedon the inductor design step given by Evans
[59 ].

2-7-3: ISOLATION STAGE.

Isolation circuits are vital for any power supply.There are three circuits with their
featuresandfunctionsasfollows:
I- Isolation betweenthe power input and output lines.
2- To provide a virtual ground for the top MOSFETs of the converterbridge.
2-14

3- Isolation betweenthe output dc power and the control circuitry.

The first point relates to the IIF power transformer that was discussedearlier. The
The
MOSFET's
to
the
top
are
ground
referenced.
whose
sources
not
secondrelates
input switching signal is formed with respect to the ground of the power circuit rather
than the emitter of the switch, and hence a dc isolation is needed.Basically, there are
three ways that can be used to provide dc isolation between the gates of the power
devicesswitchesand the control circuit, a pulse transformer,DC-DC chopper circuit, or
an optoisolator [50,52]. A pulse transformer can only sustain a limited duration pulse,
inductance
its
leakage
its
from
Furthermore,
to
and output also swings
negative positive.
has to be very small to achieve acceptablebandwidth. The chopper circuit also has
bandwidthlimitations and is therefore only really suitablefor low frequencyapplications.
The opto-couplerrequiresa separatedc supply for isolating the ground betweenits input
and output ( specifically an NMA seriesdc-dc converter ). The optically coupled gate
6N137 used requires an additional stage at the output to regulate the switching current
as shownin Fig.( 2.6 ).
The third point relates to the isolation of the output voltage feedback to the error
amplifier before entering the control circuit. The output voltage is first reducedusing a
voltage divider, and the result is used with an adjustablevoltage regulator to drive the
optoisolator.

2.8: CONVERTER OPERATION AND TEST.

The practical circuit is shownin Fig.( 2.7 ). The power supply currently used is operating
below the resonantfrequency, where the ratio of switching to resonant frequenciesis
designedto be 0.8. This ratio is used to achievebetter performance as recommended
[45]. The frequencyratio can be adjustedby varying the number of turns of the series
2-15

inductor. Of course this ratio is not expectedto be exactly 0.8, since that dependson
how sensitivethe instrumentis that is usedto measurethe inductor.
Fig.( 2.8a), shows measurementsof the resonant capacitor voltage and resonant tank
from
figure
be
It
that zero voltage switching is clearly seen.The
this
voltage. can noticed
capacitorvoltage and resonanttank voltage are rising from the point that both are almost
zero. When the air gap of the core is changedor the frequency ratio goes higher ( for
instance0.88), zero voltage switching is not guaranteed,and then external capacitors
across the switches are required as shown in Fig.(2.8b). In this figure, zero voltage
switching doesnot occur, and so the devicesare switchedon while the capacitor voltage
is just starting to discharge.Therefore, external capacitors are required across each of
the devicesto force zero voltage switching or resonatethis capacitor with an additional
inductor in serieswith the transformer primary winding Fig.( 2.9 ) shows the resonant
inductor current. The measuredwaveforms may be compared with the simulations
which are shown in Fig. ( 2.10-2.11). Good agreementis clearly seen.The detail of the
simulationprocedurefor this type of converteris given in chaptersix.

2.9: TESTING THE HF TRANSFORMER

The high frequencymeasurementsare not different in principle to that at low frequency.

The methodsthat were used for low frequencycan be used with high frequencybut care
needs to be exercised. There are many methods that are used to measure the BF
transformerelements( capacitanceand inductance), including impedance,resonanceand
a bridge. Using a bridge circuit such as an Owen bridge [60] can yield the measurements
of the coil resistanceand inductance,but the impedancemethod is easy to use and it
needs an ammeter and voltmeter only. The inductance here means any

leakage,

magnetisingor self inductance,but the procedure of the test will decide which of these
dominate the measurement.The leakage inductance could be approximately found for
instanceby shorting the secondarywinding and measuringthe
inductance,
and
primary
resistance.It is not possible however to split the values between windings. A similar
2-16

impedance
The
for
be
using
an
circuit
connection.
magnetising
open
method can used
(
inductances
in
be
found
different
the
transformer
these
can
capacitances
parts of
using
).
frequencies
frequency
)
low
(
the
and
resonant
series and parallel If
measuredat
it
be
directly
by
is
than
can
rather
calculation,
measurementof capacitance required
done using a capacitancebridge but the results are prone to error. Even given accurate
its
determination
because
the
capacitance
still
exists,
measurement,
problem with
distribution ( i.e. betweenturns and betweenturns and earth ) is important and there is
no way to separatethe components.
Transformer element measurement has been discussed in many publications
[34,46,60,61,62].Researchershave usually used an indirect way to estimatethe element
impedance
functions
(
transfer
valuessuch as via
short circuit
and voltage gain )[63,64],
together with fitting procedures.
In the presentwork, open and short circuit impedancesare measuredand used to model
the transformer. Using these impedances, all the resonances experienced by the
transformercan be viewed. During the measurementsa variable frequencysignal from a
function generatoris amplified and appliedto the primary winding of the transformer. It
is more safeto apply the signal to the high voltage terminals of the transformer and then
refer the impedanceto the winding required by the turns ratio of the transformer. The
frequency responseof this impedanceis obtained from the ratio of input voltage to
current or directly using an impedanceanalyser.A class AB amplifier, as detailed in
ReQ54], is used to amplify the signal of the function generator. The parametersof the
amplifier havebeenimproved by using high speed,high power transistorsand capacitors
to handlea bandwidth of 3 MHz. The amplifier can drive a voltage of 80V and a current
of 1.2 A at the highest frequency. Depending on which of the impedancesis to be
measured,the secondarywinding is open or short circuited. The most critical point in the
test is when the measurement approaches the series resonant frequency of the
transformer.The circuit can deliver a maximum current enough to fuse the transistor if
care is not taken. In order to avoid repetition, the practical results will postponedto a
later chapterso asto comparewith thesefound using numericalmethods.
2-17

2.10: SUMMARY.

This chapter is concerned with two topics, the practical implementation of a high
frequencypower supply, and transformer testing. The power supply is built to provide
the ground for justifying the simulation results that will be carried out in a later chapter.
The converterused is a clampedmode seriesresonantconverter, that clampsthe voltage
is
leg
in
turned off. This converter uses a
the
to zero until one of
switches a converter
duty
keeping
frequency
the
the
technique,
cycle
controls
while
which
control
constant
for
frequency
The
selecting this type of resonant
reason
constant.
switching pulse
it
is
high
(since
is
transformer
testing
a
to
the
voltage
a
serve
requirementof
converter
high voltage converter), as well as a clear insight into the interaction between this
resonantconverterand its transformer.
A ratio of 0.8 of the switching frequency to the resonantfrequency is used. When the
frequency,
high
frequency
the
current
resonant
very
switching
more closely approaches
flows through the tank causingunacceptablestressto the tank elementsand increasing
losses accordingly. Simulation has been used to study the effect of the internal
transformerelementson the converter performance.
This kind of resonant converter can survive short circuit without damage, because
during a short circuit, the load is reflected to the primary as a very low impedance
connectingthe LC resonantelementsin series.Parallel resonantconverters on the other
hand reflect the short circuit impedance across the resonant capacitor, destroying
resonanceand sharplyincreasingswitching losses.
It may seemadvantageousto use the resonantconverter to test the transformer, but this
converterexperiencesdeficiencyduring open circuits. Here, the reflected load impedance
betweenthe tank elementsis high and hencevery small current flow through the tank
and primary winding ( i. e. no or smalltransformerinput current), and in addition :I- Many changesneed to be made at each frequency required. The changesinclude,
control circuit, drive, resonant tank elements, and the peripheral components of the
PWM chip.
2-18

2- The resonanttank elementsare in serieswith the transformer and could lead to an

impedancemeasurementerror, becausethe tank elementsare part of the transformer
internal ( parasitic)elements.
For thesereasonsa linear power amplifier hasbeenusedto test the transformer.

2-19

RL

XC=I/ 0)C

C--

.....

coo
Magnitude

Frequencydomain

Time domain

j
1\1
------

XL=

90 1------------------------------/Ind
Capacitive
,
Wo
-90

-------------------

Phase

Fig.( 2.1 ) Seriesresonancein an RLC circuit

I
IF

TI-T4: IRF730
Ds2 & Ds4: RHRD660

Dol-Do4: RIIRP860
D2 & D4 I IDF4

Fig.( 2.2 ) Clampedmode seriesresonantconverter

43mm
;;z-1.9.5mm
12.2mm

A
14.8

21mm

-T
15.2mm

Fig.( 2.3 ): E-42 core dimensions

Tl
T2
T3
T4
Vtank

D3T2
D4T1
DlT4

Ir

Fig.( 2.4

The theoreticalbasesof switching pulses

AC I/P Rectifier
&
Filter

Power&l
Resonantl
Circuits

I
HFT

HFilter
Rectifier
&

Voltage
Divider
pr

Isolatorsl

FT1I
Pwm

OptoIsolator

Optodriv
&
Regulat
;u

Fig. ( 2.5 ): Block diagramof the power supply main stages

470 Q

--------------

6NI37
.............

Fig.( 2.6 ) Opto-coupler drive circuit

O/P

Fig. (2.7) Photographs of practical power supply

...........................

.........................

...

.............

..........

....

....

..............

44-4
4-A

...........................

............

chl

-I- v"

!..!..!

...

...

.........

.....

.........

.0

J
DIV:

C112 t IOVIDIV

-;
.---!
-..!-.

-1...

.........................

.........................

....

...................

........

.......

\A.II..............
.........

...........
...............

...........

C-::1

Fig.( 2.8
ratio,

ov",Dlv:

Ch

OV/DIV

m -3.5 -;
Is

Resonantcapacitor(Ch2)and tank voltages(Chl)measured it 0.8 frequency

a): Normal operation, (b): Core air gap changed

...........................

...........................

...... ......
P

i4

i,.

... .... ..
-i-. l. --+-+.+--. + +44-i

..................................
Jr
T..

...

.............

Fig. ( 2.9

Resonantinductor current measuredat 0.8 resonantfrequency

( IA/Div, 0.5 ps )

(a)

(b)

Fig. ( 2.10 ): Simulatedwaveformsof resonantcapacitorand tank

frequency
(a)
at
ratio 0.8, (b
at resonant
voltages.
ratio of 0.88.

2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
-0.50
oo
-i.
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50

Time us

(a)

(b)
Fig.( 2.11 ): Simulatedwaveforms:(a) ResonantInductor current at frequencyratio 0.8
(b) ResonantInductor current at frequencyratio 0.88

CHAPTER THREE
EFFECT OF EDDY CURRENTS IN TRANSFORMER
WINDINGS BY 2-DIMENSIONAL FINITE
ELEMENET METHOD

3.1: INTRODUCTION

Voltage is induced in a conductorwhen it links time varying magnetic field. The faster
the changein flux, the more voltage is induced. If the conductor size is significant and /
or the magnetic field is rapidly changing, voltage induced in various parts of the
conductorscan causean internal current loop called eddy currents.
The eddy currents representan advantagein some systemsand disadvantagein others.
In application such as transformers, the existence of these currents affects the
performanceof the transformer and causelosses.Away must found to minimise these
effects. In some electroheatapplications, they representthe source of heat due to the
energy dissipatedthrough the ohmic losses.

In our case,the existenceof thesecurrentsin transfonnerneedsto minimise for the

following reasons:
I- 'Mey causeundesiredohmic loss in the windingsboth due to skin and proximity
effects
2- Theycauseextralossin the coreandreducedits effectivepermeability
3- Theycausestraylossin structuralandcontainmentcomponents.
Thus,the study of the behaviourof thesecurrentsis very importantin the searchto
reducelossesandtherebydesigna higherefficiencytransformer.

3-1

As the frequencyis increasedand the power transformer size is reduced, eddy currents
become one of the major limiting factors. The winding ac resistance and leakage
inductanceare strongly relatedto eddy current effects.
In order to analysethe eddy currents, Maxwell's equations are used. These equations
be
form
fields.
The
these
can
describecompletelythe magneticand electric
of
equations
is
in
formulate
best
integral
[23].
The
these
differential
to
equations
way
or
either
terms of potentials.
This chapter will consider eddy currents effects in some detail using one of the most
is
).
(
FEM
This
is
finite
the
method
elementmethod
powerful numericalmethodswhich
based on an approximate solution of

Maxwell's equations [15,16,32,65] using the

methodof weighted residuals.

A closed form mathematicalapproach is available from the work done by Dowel [11,
Greater
[19,30].
is
by
and
simple
method
quick
as
a
which adopted
some researchers
is
is
this
the7subject of the work
and
accuracy only possibleusing numerical methods
describedhere.

3.2: 2-DIMENSION FINITE ELEMENT METHOD.

By. its very nature a transformer is a three dimensionaldevice. Both magnetic and
electric fields are involved and they act in a sensenormal to each other making the
solution three dimensional and time varying. Three dimensional solutions [21] are
expensiveand time consuming, and it would be very useful to reduce analysisto two
dimensions. Sincethe magneticfield is the main source of eddy current generation,the
solution can be approximately reduced from three to two dimensions. What is being
ignored is the displacementcurrent which effectively in an ac sense"bleeds" charge
betweenconductorsand to ground. At low frequencyignoring this current is acceptable.

3-2

At high frequency the approximation becomes troublesome. This two dimensional

be
but
the
to
does
include
all
calculate
the
not
used
currents,
will
of
eddy
effects
analysis
parametersof the equivalentcircuit model.
The beauty of the FEM comesfrom its flexibility. It is not restricted in any way by the
irregular geometryor inhomogenietyof the field areato be solved. The main procedures
of the FF-Msolution is:
I- Break up the geometryof the problem into a small elements.
2-Apply a different ( approximate) equation to each element.For instant, the magnetic

in
is
by
linear
is
(A)
the
variation each
vectorpotential
unknown represented a
which
element.
3- Taken together the elemental equations form the overall system equations which
becomea matrix of simultaneousequations.The best solution methods for the size of
the problem consideredhere appear to be semi-iterative methods such as Incomplete
CholeskConjugateGradients( ICCG ) [66].

Thefinite elementformulationthat hasbeenadoptedusingthe magneticvectorpotential

is given in appendix A. 1.

4- Post-processingof the results in order to obtain parametersof interest and to show

the resultsin graphicalform.
The.main equationto be solvedin the 2-dimensionalprogram is :

(PI-)=
VxA
x

(0 A,
-a O+vv,

------------

During the solution, this equation is consideredto have a sinusoidal source variation,
which meansa simpletransferenceof the eddy current term into the frequencydomain.

3-3

6A,

= jo). A,

19t

(3.2)

-------------

In most power supplies,the current waveforms are not sinusoidal. Although, modelling
this wave shapeis possible,it greatly addsto computation time. Therefore, attention has
beenrestrictedto the fundamentalcomponentonly.

3.2.1: TWO DIMENSIONAL FE TRANSFORMER MESH MODEL.

Apart from the assumptionswhich have already mentioned, further simplifications
havebeenintroducedin order to makethe problem numericallytractable:
I- The magneticvector potential( A ), and the sourcecurrent density (J) have values in
the z-axis only, which are constantin that direction.
2- The problem is treated as linear, where a singlevalue of permeabilityand conductivity
are applied. Hence, the hysteresis, saturation and temperature effects [41,43] are
approximatedor neglected.
3- The displacementcurrents [65] are absent,i. e.:
OD
=0
.0t

------------

(3.3)

Fig. (3.1a) shows the mesh model of the transformer. Valid solutions
must also satisfy
the condition that the length of each elementside has to be shorter than the skin depth.
This condition is important to avoid excessiveerror. The well known skin depth
relation
is :
F2
8=
c0 adu

------------

(3.4)

3-4

having
area
an
with
section
cross
in
a
square
as
The conductors the model are considered
by
been
has
.
researchers
This
many
considered
approach
to
that
wire.
of a round
equal
[1,30] to makethe problem more manageablefrom a meshingviewpoint.
The answersfor A and V( the net voltage at the end of the conductors) are effectively
idea
lead
to
This
to
obtain
in
direction
length
the
turn.
simple
a
can
the
of
per unit of
better accuracy, by noticing that the depth of the E-core viewed from the front is larger
is
for
the
In
from
path
the
that
magnetic
area available
the sides.
than that viewed
case
different in eachside. Therefore two models are used one for each side as shown in Fig.
(3.1b). The total winding impedanceis the total of the impedanceof the two models.
Z=

2N. (,

VV+j *ZVV)
*y
2
I
,

(3.5)

- ----------

Where 1, and 12are the length from the front and side section of the core, and N is the
by
2%
improve
due
the
The
two
at
these
to
result
turns.
models
numberof
calculation
IKHz and by 8% at lNffh in comparisonwith that of using one model when compared
with measurements.

3.2.2: SERIES WINDINGS REPRE SENTATION.

In the solution of the FE equations,the sourcethat is used to drive equation ( 3.1
is either vOltage'orcurrent. The term VV representsthe voltage appearingat the ends
for
is
length
If
the
of conductor expressedper unit
ofthe conductor.
voltage not given,
instancewhen the winding is connectedto an impedance,an extra equation is required to
solve the extended circuit. For example, when the impedanceis a short circuit, the
summationof VV is equalto zero, but its value for eachindividual conductor is not. The
extra equationrequiredis :
V=I*

j: VV
N

-----------

(3.6)

3-5

is
is
is
VV
V
N
the
the
the
turns,
the
voltage across
winding, and
where
number of
is
between
formed from two separatesections.
turn
turns
each
voltage
sections,where
This equationgives the flexibility required to link extendedcircuit with the FE analysis.
A simple caseis a capacitor connectedacross the terminals as carried out in reference
[67], or by adding an external circuit as seen in the Fig. (3.2). When this figure is
considered, equation( 3.6 ) can be rewritten as :
V+IZ=

-txzvvN

-----------

(3.7)

The equationthat representsthe inducedcurrent in the windipg iis

I i-ff Jds= -fficocrAdcdy-ff
3

a VVdxdy

---------

(3.8)

Whereds is the conductorcrosssectionarea.This equationcanbe rearrangedIn order

to include the serieswinding equationas :
-ffc; -VVdxdy=l+jo)

YffaAdxdy
I,
conductors

----------

(3.9)

Equations (3.1), (3.6), and (3.9) can be formed into a matrix that is used to solve for A

and VV. The useof the magneticvector potentialto calculatethe winding inductance
and resistanceis given in appendixA. 2.
In order to help to validate theseequations,the transformer describedin chaptertwo has
beenmodelledbut with very simpleprimary and secondarywindings of
only 4 turns each
( eachturn cross sectionareais the sameas the true transformer)
The table below showsthe results for the short circuit condition. Two
conclusionscan
be drawn from the table. First, that the input voltage is
equal to the summationof the
voltage at the end of conductorsin the primary winding, while their net value is equal to
zero in the secondaryas required. Secondly, the voltages across all conductors are
relatively the samedue to the absenceof any capacitive effect. The small changein the

3-6

flux
leakage
due
in
be
difference
to
the
the
value of
explained
secondaryvoltage can
linked by eachturn.
The high frequency losses in the winding will depend on the depth of the conductor
relative to its skin depth and also on the position of the conductor relative to its
neighbours ( proximity effect ). This very slight differencein inducedvoltage per turn at
this low frequency( IKHz ) will becomelarger as the frequencyis raised.

SF
11
22
33
44

cond. No.

voltage / meter

primary winding
I

-1.18635E+01 +j

-1.18635E+01 +j -8.11604E-01

3-1.1863
4

8.11783E-01

5E+O1 +j -8.11605E-0 1
8.11426E-01
+j
-1.18635E+01

secondarywinding
3.66716E-01 +j 2.23612E-01
2

+j
-3.67713E-01 -2.25624E-01

+j
-3.65717E-01 -2.24668E-01
3.66714E-01 +j 2.26679E-01

3-7

3.3: EDDY CURRENT LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

WINDINGS AND CIRCUIT CONDUCTORS.
As switching frequency is increased, optin-isation of the power transformer

becomes a major concern. Eddy current losses and variation of inductance with
frequencycan greatly affect the transformerperformance. The changein inductancewith
frequencybecomes significantin sizeas comparedto the total circuit inductance.
It will be useful to define some general principals and resulting phenomenon at the
outset. It will also help to relate the effects to the terms often used to describe them. If
an inductor is suitably manufactured from
not vary with frequency.

fine wire, its resistance and inductance will

In, practice, there will always be a frequency at which these

eddy current effects start to become significant, and the current is forced into a surface
layer by its own magnetic field. The resistance will clearly rise and hence the term " ac
resistance " is coined.

At the same time, as the resistance rises, the inductance falls

because the area of the flux path is reduced by the width of the conductor. If the inductor
has an iron core, the laminated or sintered core will also be affected by eddy currents,
and its reluctance will rise which will also tend to reduce the coil's self and leakage
inductance.

Yet a further effect is that any conducting componentsnearby will increasingly have
opposing eddy currents induced in them, which will again appear as reduced coil
inductanceand increasedcoil resistance. The term ac inductanceis often used to point
to the fact that the effective inductance( self and mutual ) reducesas the frequencyrises.
More confusinglythe term " parasitic inductance" is also used. The implication is that

as frequencyrisesthe " parasiticinductance" increases,and that thereforeone could

view the parasiticinductanceasbeing negativein character.
Proximity is the effect whereby current is forced to flow in the edge of a conductor by
the proximity to current in nearby conductors. It will have the same effect as

3-8

larger
be
In
transformer
a
windings, proxin-dty will
many
straightforward skin effect.
effect than simpleskin effect [2,31,52,68].
A numericaltechniquethat includesall of the important effects and is in good agreement
with the practical resultsis thereforeessential.
In this section, different physicalaspectsof the winding arrangementare discussed.The
aim is to understandthe underlying principle and thereby lower leakagecomponentsand
eddy current losses.

3.3.1: COPPER LOSSES IN THE CIRCUIT WIRING.

It is well known in eddy current analysisthat extremecare must be taken in

modelling correctly the rapid decay in field that occurs at conductor boundaries
[28,52,69]. This problemwill be troublesomeas the frequencygets higher and lossesare
increasedaccordingly.
The main two effectsthat dominatethe copper lossesare the skin and proximity effects.
The procedureof numericalsolutions will start by consideringone conductor only, and
the principlesdeducedcan be extendedto include all the turns in the winding.

3.3.1.1: SKIN EFFECT.

I

Fig. (3.4) showsa copperconductorconsistingof 64 ( parallel untwisted) fine

,
wires forming the " go " half of a turn of the winding. The return half is not modelled
due to the symmetryof the turn aroundthe core.

3-9

In the top flux plot in Fig.(3.4), the conductor is carrying current at I KHz.

At this

frequencythe skin depth is 2mm. This is much greater than the depth of bundle of wires
differential
field
is
The
0.48
the
conductor causing
varies across
mm.
magnetic
which
insufficient
in
but
to redistribute the
the
result
are
currents
which
eddy
voltage eachwire,
field.
When the frequencyis increasedto the level where the skin depth is much smaller than
the wire thickness,the current inside the conductor will be non uniformly distributed as
seenin Fig. (3.5). The bottom flux distribution of Fig.(3.4) is with a frequencyof IMHz.
The skin depth is now 0.063mm,and the eddy currentsredistribute the flux, so that every
turn links the sameflux. Thesecurrents are in the samedirection as the main current at
the conductor surface and oppose it further in.

Hence, the current density falls

exponentiallywithin the conductor. The actual area of the conductor that carries current
is reduced as the frequency increases,and so the ac resistancewill be greater than its
value at dc or low frequencyand the loss increasesaccordingly.
In order to reducethis skin effect, the wire has to be divided into many fine wires and
twisted, so that eachof the fine wires occupiesequally every position in the bundle. The
main issuehere is to seehow fine the wire has to be. Many researchers[30,33,59] have
usedthe commonapproximationthat the current is evenly distributed acrossa skin depth
(see sketchbelow). In this casethe actual curve of the current density is replace by an
equivalent rectangular distribution as shown in the diagram, which of course is much
easierto apply. In fact this approximationis only valid provided that the conductor is far
greater than the skin depth. Extending the argumentto suggestthat conductors should
be no more than one skin depth deepin fact doesnot makebest use of material.

3-10

Actual

Equivelant
(One Skin Depth)

The finite elementtechniquehas beenused to estimatean "optimum" value of wire size

providing the best compromise between number of wires ( and hence cost ) and ac
resistance.Different wires sizeswith respectto the penetrationdepth relation have been
modelled. The results show that a good ac;to dc resistanceratio is achievedwhen the
wire thicknessis 1.2 times the skin depth.
In order to give additional support for this value, a method is derived for calculating the
variation of the conductor resistancefor a single square conductor against frequency.
The resulting resistancevalue for a sinusoidalvariation, for a single conductor is given
by :
R"
Re
=
Rd:

FpL
(-E
9,u

*b coth

(FP1-0"u

*b)

Where the dc resistanceis E-t and b is the side length. A full derivation of this
b' ,
equation is given in ref [1] and discussedin ref[52].

The resistanceratio is shown

graphically in Fig.(3.17)as comparedwith that in ref [1], which shows how its value is
increasedas the thicknessto skin depth ratio gets higher. As can be seen,the ratio takes
118
for
the curve around
a sharprise
= 1.2. The accuracyof the finite elementresult
providesvalidation for the method and helpsjustify its use for more complex problems.

3-11

3.3.1.2: EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL OF THE WIRE.

It is often useful to form an equivalentcircuit model. This approach is probably
deal
designer
for
to
with.
easier a circuit
In the finite element modelling, if the wire is placed in free space it will set up an
infinitely extending magnetic field. To restrict computation the wire is encasedin a
boundedareato enclosethe magneticfield at a reasonabledistance.However, its size is
still arbitrary, but it is a matter of numerical convenienceto satisfy the requirementsof
the finite element solution. In practice there will always be a return wire(s) and the
boundaryconditions imply their existence.
Returning once more to the 64 strandedwires shown in Fig.(3.4), an equivalent circuit
can be producedfor thesefine wires as shown in Fig. (3.3a). If thesewires are modelled
in one equivalentcircuit, three elementscan be clearly recognised.One of theseelements
is the resistanceassociatedwith the loss in eachof the wires. The secondelementis the
assemblyof inductancesassociatedwith the operation of all wires acting together, this is
termed the "external inductance" [3,46] and is given in the symbol Lext in Fig.(3.3a).
The other inductanceis associatedwith flux which lies between each parallel wire and
reflects the fact that there is flux produced by each wire, which does not couple with
other wires. It would be logical to describethe fine wire elementsby an inductance
matrix made of self and mutual terms, and the effect of proxin-dty would demand the
samefor a resistancematrix [39]. However, The size of thesematriceswould be 64*64,
which by any standardsis large and cumbersome.In order to keep the computations as
simpleas possible,a singlefine wire is considered. In this casethe equivalentcircuit can
be reduced to the model shown in Fig.

(3.3b). It should be noted that point "V

representsthe outer surface of the conductor, while "T' is at the centre. In order to
calculate the terms ( elements) in the model, the impedanceof the wire is calculated
using finite elementsat two different frequenciesand the results are as given below.

3-12

frequency(kHz)

R/m ( 921m)

Z/m

Urn ( P"Im

1.0

0.06 +j 0.0021

0.06

0.33

1000.0

0.16 +j1.99

0.16

0.31

The inductancevalues above describethe total of two components( self inductance).

One comesfrom the energystoragein the externalmagneticfield, and the other accounts
for the magnetic energy distributed throughout the wire. At very high frequencies,the
flux is effectively excludedfrom the wire and the effective inductancefalls towards the
external'inductance.From the energy calculations(ILV),
2

the internal inductancesat

these two frequenciesare 34 nWm and 13.7 nIVm while the external inductancesare
0.316 tWrn and 0.31 gWm respectively.Thesethree components:- internal inductance,

externalinductanceandresistance
arethe elementsof the equivalentcircuit of onewire.
The relevanceof the skin depth can be seenclearly by applying a sinewave signal to the
circuit of Fig.(3.3a). The values of the elementsare the sameas those calculatedabove.
When the frequencyof the voltage wave form is 1 KHz the current distribution will be
uniform as seenin Fig.(3.6), becausethe internal reactanceis relatively small compared
to R( the resistive component). In the high frequency case, the current flow will be
greatestat the surfaceand fall exponentially toward the centre of the conductor, due to
the high value of reactancein comparisionwith resistivecomponent.

3.3.1.3: PROXIMITY

EFFECTS.

Sofar only oneconductorhasbeenconsidered,

wherethe selfinducededdycurrentsare
called the skin effect eddy currents. Another important eddy current effect is the
proximity effect [31,33,52]. This effect exist due to the flux linking surrounding
conductors,whichcausea circulatingcurrentin adjacentconductorsasshownin the Fig.
I

3-13

(3.7). Flux is not going to be radially uniform when two adjacent conductors carrying
the samecurrent are considered.As the frequency is increased,current will concentrate
on the outer surfacesof the conductors. The field will be additive on the outside and
cancelin the middle. If the bundle of fine wires are in parallel and untwisted, the current
will end up flowing in the outer wires, and the situation would be identical to having a
solid conductor. For this case the current distributions in different wires within the
conductor bundle including face, middle and far end at low and high frequencies
respectivelyare given in Fig.(3.8 a,b). The effect of the eddy and proximity effects in the
middle area which are opposing the main current in the surface is clearly shown in the
figure.
As the spacebetween the conductors is reduced, more field cancellation occurs. The
losseswill then be higher and the leakageinductancereduced. If eachwire was very far
from its neighbour,the proximity effect would be negligible but the leakage inductance
would be high. This is clearly not a reasonablesolution, the obvious solution is to twist
the conductor bundle. This has the effect of forcing every wire to carry the same
current, and hencereducinglossesbut also to minimiseleakageinductance.

3.4: SHORT & OPEN CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

The aim of the analysisis to make an attempt to minimise the

copper [30] and eddy
losses[28,70]. Theselossesdependon the total current
carried by transformer windings.
There are three current componentsforming this current, they
are, load, magnetising,
and capacitive currents. This analysis neglects the capacitive effects for the reasons
already stated, and they are in general small in comparisonto the leakage and copper
loss.But their effectscan not neglectedfor frequencies
greater then IMHz [71].

3-14

The load and magnetisingcurrents can almost be separatedby open and short circuit
analysis.Sincea Ferrite core of high permeabilityis used, the magnetisingcurrent will be
small in comparisonto the load current. It may be quite appreciableif the core has an air
gap, and transformersused in power suppliesneed an air gap for two reasons,first to
provide the required magnetisingcurrent to maintain zero voltage switching at light load
[49], and secondto avoid saturationcausedby dc flux components in the transformer.
Finite Element analysis is used to consider the effects due to the two current
components,and the transformeranalysedis as before.

3.4.1:

SHORT CIRCUIT

ANALYSIS

This analysis enables the determination of the copper loss and leakage flux

componentscausedby the load current. In this analysisa rated current of 5Ampere is

applied to the primary side, while the secondary terminals are short circuited. The
equivalentcircuit for this two dimensionalmodel is shown in Fig.(3.9a). The values of
the total ac resistanceand leakage reactance for both windings are calculated and
referredto the side on which the voltage is supplied.
2

R=Rp+

Xj=XP+

N,
NP

R,

NJ
X.,
NP)

-----------

(3.10)

------------

(3.11)

On shortcircuit,the flux is low in the coreandthe magnetising

currentis negligible.The
valuesof the circuit elementscanbe difficult to determineseparatelyand accuratelyby
test becauseof the dominationof the inductorreactance.In the finite elementanalysis
thevaluescanbe determined
from the lossandthe storedenergydirectly.

3-15

The field distributions during a short circuit in the secondary winding at different
frequenciesare shown in Fig.(3.10). As the frequency is increased,the flux tends to
field
distribution
in
between
This
the
the
reflects
of
change
concentrate
space
windings.
losses due to the proximity effect and also changes in the leakage inductance. The
calculated impedanceis the sum of the two finite element models

front and side

elevations) as shown in Fig.(3.11) (Pleaserefer to fig. (2.3) and ref [5 1 for transformer
overall dimensions).The total short circuit impedancein the primary side is given in
Fig.(3.12) along with measureddata and it can be seemthat the agreementis reasonable.
The curve shows that the calculation is viable up to I M]Hz, but above that capacitive
effects cannot be neglected, the calculated impedancetherefore only rises whilst the
measuredimpedanceturns over as capacitancestarts to dominate. The total winding
resistanceand leakageinductanceare given in Fig. (3.13a and b) respectively.
The most important factor that effects the leakage inductance is the gap between the
windings, i. e. inductanceincreasesasthe gap increases.The effect of the gap on the loss
is the opposite,i. e. falling with increasinggap as proximity effects reduce. The effect of
winding separationis clearly seenin Fig.(3.14).

3.4.2: OPEN CIRCUIT

ANALYSIS

Traditionally, this test will establishmagnetisingcharacteristics,core loss

and winding
coupling ( i. e. effective turns ratio ). The assumptionhas been made for the core test
that the permeability will be a single value, this meansthat the elementsof the open
circuit test to do with saturation, and harmonic production [6,43,72] are beyond the
scope of the study. It is the case however that proximity effects are changedby the
presenceof the main field and effective winding resistanceswill not be the sameon open
circuit as they are on short circuit. An example of this effect is that even though the

3-16

it
be
is
which
in
there
within
currents
eddy
can
still
the
zero,
winding
secondary
current

sumto zero.
is
bulk
ferrite
be
It should noted that whilst
conductivity which around
cores exhibit a
10' smallerthan laminationsteel,it still becomesimportant at high frequency.This effect
both
The
it
is
be
of
that
results
not a negligible effect.
can rnodelledand the results show
in
in
(3.15)
this
inductance
Fig.
and
respectively,
are
shown
primary resistanceand self
casethe magnetisinginductancefalls as core eddy currents occur at about 1MHz.

3.5: CORE PROPERTIES

The core used in this analysis is Ferrite E42 [5 1], the dimensions and all relevant data are

given in chapter two. Fixed values of relative permeability and conductivity are used
during the finite elementmodelling. These values are p= 2200 and a= 2(n. m)-', for

Ferrite
be
best
(
the
to
to
the
taken
match
permeabilityand conductivityrespectively
manufacturersdata ).
In general,there are two types of lossesin the core, eddy current and hysteresislosses.
The finite elementmodelling showedthat the largest effect was eddy current rather than
hysteresisloss.
The core properties have virtually no effect on the transformer parametersduring the
short circuit, becauseflux in the core is small and hencethe eddy currents in the core are
negligible as comparedto those in the winding. The short circuit test's main use is to
examine'theeddy current loss in the winding and the subsequenteffect on the leakage
inductanceand winding resistancerather than effects in the core. The opposite state can
be expectedduring the open circuit case,where the eddy current in and leakage of the
winding are very small and can be neglectedin comparisonto the propertiesof the core.

3-17

Essentially,the open circuit and short circuit modelling ( with conditions chosento avoid
saturation ) give relatively good results as shown previously in Fig.(3.13a,b) and
Fig.(3.15).

The small difference between calculation and measurementvalues can

for
instance
be
by
the single real value of
the
employed,
probably explained
assumptions
the permeability.
In order to examinethe effect of the core properties on the transformer parameters,high
and low values of the permeability and conductivity are considered as shown in
Fig.(3.16). This figure indicates ( not surprisingly ) that the self inductance is more
sensitiveto the value of permeability,while any changein the core conductivity results in
a greater changein the winding resistancedue to the loss effects of the eddy currents
induced in the core. As the permeability is reduced, the frequency at which the self
inductancecurve falls is reduced. This frequencyrepresentsthe maximum frequencythat
the core could realisticallybe used with such a value of permeability. This is in addition
to the more obvious reduction in inductancewith reducing permeability. The frequency
at which the self inductancefalls away shows the point at which skin effect starts to
dominate.
Laminated steels require unpractically thin laminations to operate at very high
frequencies. Ferrite have a very low bulk conductivity which allows high frequency
operation, but it is easy to see from the results that skin depth eventually sets in the
region of 1MHz. Extreme operating frequencywill demanda reduction in conductivity,
or acceptanceof a reduction in permeability. It would also be possibleto laminate the
Ferrite.

3-6: WINDINGS LAYERS AT HIGH FREQUENCY

In this section, the effect that occurs due to increasesin the number of layers is
considered(a layer here is taken to meanin its conventionaltransformer parlance,i. e. a

3-18

).
Again,
the
helically
layers
from
is
coils
wound
of
successive
made up
winding
The
depth.
1.2
the
main
is
times
thickness
skin
of
simulation carried out with a wire
inductance.
find
the
and
the
resistance
the value of
ac; component of
concern is to
Firstly, this gives an immediatefeeling as to the limiting factors that restrict the design,
inductance,
leakage
in
losses
lead
the
the
to
the
and
a reduction
study can
and secondly
[53].
interference
due
in
factors
to
the
electromagnetic
minimising noise
main
which are
As the frequencyis increased,the field in the gap between the windings is not effected,
density
inside
it
depends
dimensions.
But
the
the
the
current
conductor,
since
only on
falls exponentiallywith increasingdepth into the conductor. When the flux within the
is
is
is
leakage
inductance
But
this
the
not a good way
also reduced.
conductor reduced,
to reducethe leakageinductance,sincethe penaltywill be increased eddy current loss.
The problem of reducing the leakage inductance and keeping the eddy losses within
[1,19,30,52].
from
limits
has
many researchers
reasonable
received great attention
Dowell solved the problem mathematicallyand the equationshe used are fully detailed
[1]. The principle works well but the main drawbacks are that the geometrical
distribution of leakagefield is assumedto be purely acrossthe transformer window, and
eachlayer of the winding is coalescedinto a current sheetwith simple assumptionsmade
on current distribution within the sheet[30].
In this work, the calculations are done using FE analysis,where all the turns of the
windings are included, and the core is fully modelled.The elementsare chosento be no
larger than one third of a skin depth at the highestfrequency.The primary and secondary
windings are arranged in layers in the same way as the true transformer. The model
allows variation in the numberof layersto be considered,and the FE results from this are
presented.
The dc componentscan be found either by solving the problem at zero frequency,where
the equationto be solved is the magnetostaticform of Maxwell's equation ( i. e. the eddy

3-19

form
),
)
in
(
3.1
the
to
term
equations
closed
madeequal zero or using
current
equation
discussedin chapterfive and given by Dowel [I].
There are two ways of calculating the ac components of the winding resistanceand
leakageinductance.The first is the simplestand involves a short circuit calculation, this
gives a good approximationof the combinationof the leakagein the primary winding and
the leakagein the secondaryreflected to the primary by the turns ratio. During a short
circuit, the shunt inductanceand resistancedue to the magnetisingflux and loss in the
core are small and can be neglected.That means,during the short circuit, it appearsthat
the impedanceseen at the terminal is the primary and secondary leakage branchesin
series.The secondmethod involves exciting a section of the winding, in this case each
layer in turn and calculating the resulting flux linkage in the excited and all the other
nonexcited section (layers). This procedure has to be repeated for each layer so as to
build a matrix ( detailedin chapter five ). This matrix can then be used to determinethe
effectiveimpedanceresulting from any connection.
In the Dowell analytical solution, the leakageimpedancecalculation is done by dividing
the primary winding into layeredportions from the inside of the winding outwards. Each
of the portions consistsof two layers. There are two principles clearly explained in his
work:
I- The leakageimpedanceof a particular layer needsto consider the effect of all of the
other layersin the winding on the consideredlayer.
2- The leakage flux in each layer dependson the current in that layer and the total

currentbetweenthe layerandanadjacentpoint of zeronmE

Hence,eachportion of the winding is consideredseparately,and the primary leakage
impedance
is the sumof the leakageimpedance
of the portions.The analyticalresultsare
given in Dowel'swork as a graphshowingthe differentlayersin the primarywinding
portions.It is clearly recognisedthat to includethe secondarywinding, the leakage

3-20

impedanceof the portion forming part of the secondaryhas to be divided by the turns
has
it
two principal problems:
to
to
the
primary, which
squared refer
I- In the Dowell model, the flux in the gaps between the conductors is considered
independentof frequency.In fact the leakageflux as it is expelled from the conductors
tends to fringe around the conductors and make the leakage field non-uniform. This
fringing involvesthe spacearoundthe windings.
2- There is a possibility of proximity effect between the primary and secondarylayers,
and consequentlyfor a good solution both primary and secondaryneed to be modelled
together.
Here, the ac to dc ratios of the leakageinductanceand resistanceare found using FE
with the layersof the primary consideredfirst. Each layer consistsof 14 turns, therefore;
two layers means28 turns and so on, a half layer means7 turns placed in the middle of
the window. In considerationof primary layers only, it is easy to compare the results
with Dowell's analytical solution. Fig.(3.17) shows, the comparison between analytical
and FE, where a reasonablyclose agreementis seen.The vertical scalesare the ac to dc
inductanceand resistanceratios respectively.The horizontal scaleis effectively frequency
( or rather the root of the frequency ), but it is presentedin terms of the ratio of the
conductor sizeto the skin depth.
The figure showsthat an increasein the numberof layer apparentlyshows an increasein
the ac resistanceas comparedto the dc, and a reduction in the inductanceper turn for ac
as compared to dc. It should be rememberedthat these results are taken against
conductor thickness as a ratio of skin depth. Taking results for a fixed dimension of
conductor and simply upping the layers actually puts more copper into the transformer
window. When the fields become skin limited there is less spaceavailable for leakage
flux and the inductance per turn falls. The conductors are close together and hence
proximity is increasedcausing an increasein the ac resistance.Normally a choice for
more layers implies a thinner layer and hence design changesin layers are not simple
3-21

be
design
is
however
to
The
that
the
these
graphs allow any
verticals on
graphs.
point
analysedwithin the transformerwindow becauseof the way they have beennormalised.

If the secondaryis now addedit is possibleto use Dowell's work by reflectingthe

leakageimpedance
valuesobtainedacrossthe turnsratio. The finite elementresultsare
obtaineddirectlyusingstoredenergyandlossasbefore.Thetwo resultsarecomparedin
Fig.(3.18), and the resultsshow that the inductanceper turn is reduced,and the loss
resistanceis increasedby almost30% as the conductorthicknessto skin depth ratio
variesfrom I to 10. The existenceof the secondarylayersadd more loss which is
reflectedto the primaryby the turns ratio. The caseis not the samewith the leakage
The leakageflux dependson the spacebetweenlayersandthat of the rest
components.
of the window, and since the window spaceis part of the solution, the leakage
do not showmucheffectby alteringthe secondary
layers.
components

3.6.1: LAYERS TOPOLOGY

In order to illustrate the effect of increasingthe number of layers on the leakageand
losses, the diagrambelow may be considered[30,52].
4 -3
91

Layer

3 -2 2 -1
U
11

1
91

4321

Assumea current of one ampereflows through four layers, eachwith two turns. The
skin depth is 1.2 times the conductor thickness. The current in layer one causes a

3-22

the
layer
The
between
in
field
two.
of
the
surface
to
opposite
and
one
gap
exist
magnetic
flux.
The
in
it
by
induced
layer
has
this
net
a nearly equal and opposite current
next
been
has
in
has
layer
be
two
to
assumed, and so a2 amp current
as
one ampere
current
flows in the far surface of layer two, and so on for the rest of layers as shown in the
above diagram. The mmf curve rises with layer responding to net current. The current
density squared determines the loss density, the two surface currents in layer two alone
(2)2 +(_1)2
be
in
layer
losses
The
times
that
can
applied to the
one.
same
cause
of
=5

four
in
layer
layers,
in
layer
losses
13
25
the
the
times
three
times
rest of
where
are
and
with respectto layer one. The averageresistancein all four layers is 25 +13 +5+I/4=
11 times that in layer one. Since the ac resistancein layer one is ( for generality the
whole areais 100%, and the areaconsideredis 12%) 100 / 12 = 8.33 with respectto the
dc acrossthe whole conductor area,and it hastwo surfaces,the ac resistanceis therefore
equalto 4.167. That meansthe ac to dc ratio would be 4.167:1( the ratio of averageac
to dc resistanceis 11 * 4.167 = 45.8 ). In order to confirm the obtained result, the graph
in Fig.Q. 18) showsthat four layerswith depth ratio of 1.2 gives an ac to dc resistanceof
about 4( averageac to dc ratio is II*

4= 44 ). If the penetration is larger than the

conductor thickness,the mmf will not be zero at the middle of the conductor and the
current cancellationwill be complete.In this casethe value of ac would be the sameas
the dc, and the current is distributed uniformly within the area of the conductor. The
ratio of the ac to dc resistanceis then equalto one
.
Another considerationin the value of ac to dc ratios of leakageinductanceand resistance
can be observed.One of the main concernsusing the graph is the number of fine wires
that are used for a certain operational frequency. Consider for example, a single wire
which f6rms one turn of a ten turns layer, with a wire gauge of area 0.033 CM2, and a
transformer designedto operateat IMHz, (where the depth of penetrationis 0.066mm).
This meansthat the conductor thicknessis much greater than the depth of penetration.
The ratio of conductor thicknessto skin depth ( sayK) is 27.5. Referring this value of
K to a single layer on the graph of fig. (3.18), it shows that there is a large difference

3-23

between ac and dc resistanceas expected. In this casethe systemwill not be able to

handlethe high losses. If this conductor is divided into four conductors each with 1/4
the original diameter,the numberof conductorsis then 40 with two layers, eachwith 20
dc
be
6.75
The
K
to
to
to
the
ratio
ac
conductors, will
original wire.
equal
with respect
is still high and needs to be reduced. Again by dividing each of the four section of
conductor into six, there are 60 wires placedin 2.5 layers, 25 wires per layer, eachwith
diameter0.075mm, and K is less and so on. Therefore, dividing the original conductor
into many fine conductors is a very important way to reduce losses.This information
can be obtained by deriving a graph of the type shown in Fig.(3.18) at the design
frequency and number of primary and secondarylayers. Further detail can be obtained
from publications[1,30,52].

3.7: ANALYSIS VALIDITY AT I MHz

In order to give the required validity to the FE analysis at I MHz, example 6.2 in
reference [ 31 ] is considered.In this example an inductance needs to be built at a
requiredvalue of 28 uH at IN411z.The inner diameterof the toroidal core is 28mm, and
the outer diameter is 40mm. The core material is Nickel-Zinc Ferrite with resistivity
equal to 5x 10' Q. m. The procedure that the author used to design this inductor is the
sameas that used by Dowell [1], where the conductor is consideredto have a square
section area to make the mathematical calculations more manageable. Using the
referenceequations,somecalculationsneedto be prepared.The height of the core ( H,
equal 5. lmm, the inner and outer diameters are D, = 28mm D. = 40mm, and the
numberof turns and strandsare 77 and 16 respectively(as shown in the diagrambelow).
The author predicted from the calculationthat the optimum ac resistancefor the winding
length of 1.9mis 0.41 fl, and the measuredvalue is 0.48 fl.
Finite Element analysis is used for the above specifications. The field distribution is
shownin Fig.(3.19), at I MHz. From the loss relation the ac resistanceis 0.456 fl. The
3-24

finite elementanalysishas resulted in a value close to the practical result. The reasons
behindthe differencebetweenthe measuredand calculatedvalues may possiblybe due to
derived
is
the
mainly
the neglect of conductor curvature, and secondly,
equation
it
is
for
Using
FE,
infinite
the
possible
core.
assuming
permeabilityand zero conductivity
to model circular wires and the core is more exactly and accurately modelled. This
exampleshowsthe capability of the finite elementanalysisto solve any problem, and to
be the first choicein comparisonwith other numericalmethods.
O. lmm

13 E3 E3 E3
E3 1:1 E3 1:1
E3 E3 E3 E3
E3 E3 E3 E3

Nickel-Zinc
Ferrite

0.51 mm

: 5.1 mm

----------------------------1.36 mm

3.8: SUMMARY

The ac component of magnetic field that exists between the primary and secondary
windings is the main reasonfor proximity effects. This field is shown to be concentrated
in the gap between the windings as the frequency goes up. This causes an induced
current that is circulating within eachconductor, adding to the conductor current in one
surfaceof the conductor and opposing or cancelling current in the other. Effects like
thesetogether with the effects due to the self induced currents (i. e. skin effects ) can be
removed or at least reduced to acceptablelevel by using either twisted fine wires, or
reducing the operating magnetic field strength. The field strength can be reduced by
using a wider window areato accommodatethe number of turns in less layers. Reducing

3-25

less
is
field
has
to
the
transformer
that
make
work with
this
another advantageas well,
saturation.
Another way to reduce the effective number of layers is by splitting the winding into
faces
by
interleaving.
In
the
this
one
section
of
caseeach
primary winding
small sections
full
balance
is
in
layer,
If
the
ampere-turn
achieved
each
secondarywinding.
section of
in
field
field
Because
for
the
the
the
conductors.
of
outside
reduced
cancellationoccurs
suchan arrangement,the leakageinductanceis reducedas required.
Also, the study in this chapterhas shown that the winding resistanceis a function of core
conductivity, while the self inductanceis a function of core permeability. So, by choosing
a core material with a very high permeability and very low conductivity, the lossesand
leakagecan be reduced greatly.

3-26

.0P:

ell
Iz

77

N \ \NIN

lii

.0E

Em

CJD

FIG. (3.2)

Principle of Finite Element Analysis with seFIeSWIndIng

.

LQxt

LIN
w

L11

Surfa

RiN
Centt

LUL

Li

Surface
Ri

Center
FIG. (3.3) Single conductor equivalent circuit

FIG. (,3-4)

: Flux distribution for sin-fe conductor at I kHz and I MHz

Current Density Modulus Against Position

30 ,I
25
10
20
15

"

10
5
LL
0

2345
distancealong line (m) xlO**-4

CurrcntDensityModulusAgainstPosition
25

20

15

10

7 F-I

234
distancealong line (m) xlO**-,
0

FIG.

Modulus current density along the conductor at I kHz and 1 MIR.

0.8
0.61
,
0,4
0.21
01
',0

: -0.20
1
-G4
-6!

brre ( us)

FICY.(5-6):

Current Oscillation Behaviour due to the skin efrect

----

main current
eddy current

proximity effect

->-

FIG. 3-j

): Proximity Effects Principal

Instantaneous Current Density Against Position

30
%0

25

20

15

10

10
5

ol

II

III

II

II

II

II

2345
istancealong line (m) x 10**-4

30

InstantaneousCurrentDensity Against Position

11)
25

20

&
<I

15

10

2345
distancealongline (m)xlO**-4

30

InstantaneousCurrentDensityAgainst Position
30

10 2.'

25
20
15

10

I-

0
23456
distancealong line (in) x 10**-4
N

FIG. (3-'3A) : Instantaneous current density along the conductor in different

positions at I klIz.

InstantaneousCurrent Density Apinst Position

il

-Q
N
1

0123456
distancealong line (in) x)O**-4

2Q

InstantaneousCurrent Density Against Position

20
15

.
0
K

.
<
N

10

10

55

,
()i.

LJQ

.0
-5

D
2345
distancealongline (m) x 1010-4

InstantaneousCurrent DensityAgainst Position

30

3
I-,
4
4

2,25
-I

E 2)
&

20
15

10
5

0123456

(
7-1 r--i

iIO

distancealong line (in) xlO*0-4

Instantaneous current density along the conductor in different

positions at I MIN.

FIG.

equ

C--

equ

LrA

egIec

Circuit

-Short

Rpilmary

IB:

Xprimary

Open Circuit IR

X mag.

core
-;

FIG. (3-CO: 2-Dimensional equivalent circuit model at: a- short circuit, b-open
circuit

N
N

In

FIG. (3-10 ): Short circuit nux distribution

different frequencies

Impedance(Ohm)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100

10

1000

Frequcncy( KHz )

I-IstModel

--i,2ndMod

Fig.( 3.11 ): Short circuit impedancecalculatedfrom two FE model

Impedance( Olun
100000 F
10000
1000
100
10
I

0.1
10

100

IOPO

10000

Frequency( KHz )
1-measured
-*-Caculatedl

Fig.( 3.12 ): Short circuit impedancecalculatedfrom 2D FE model

Rcsistance( Olun )

8
64.
2-

o1

100

10

1000

Frequency( KHz )
I-Caculated
--h-Measure
16

(a)

1.nductance(uH)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
n

1000

100

10

Frequency( KHz
-measured
Fig. ( 3.13

20

(b)

Ac winding resistance and leakage inductance

Inductance
(a):
Resistance, (b):
Rcsistance (Ohm)

Lcak-ageInductance (uH)

...
........
.
.........
......

16

12

02468

Fig. ( 3.14

10
Distance(nun)
I-Inductance
-x-Resist
Effect of the gap between windings on the resistance and inductance

Resistance( olim )
10000
_

Inductance(mH)

1000

3:
100

10
I

0.1
100

10

1000

Frequency( KHz
1-measuredL

-*-calculatedL -wcalculatedR -e-measuredR

duringthe opencircuit
Fig.( 3.15): Selfresistance
andinductance

R (Ohm)

L (mH)
10 r-

10000
1000

100
10

0.1
1
0.1

0.01
10

100

1000

Frequency (KHz)

1-+-u=2200

-a-u=100 -e-Con.=2

Fig. ( 3.16 ): influenceof core propertieson the resistanceand self inductance

Lac Ldc

0.8--

0.6-0.4-0.2-FE-2L -,o,Dowel 1-41_-EFE-4

-Dowel 1-21--mI.....
III,.

10

0.1
Conductor

thickness / skin depth

Rae Rde

100

10

--------------------

Dowell-2L

FE-2L

Dowell-4L -(*FE-4L

IIIIItIIII
0.1

1
Conductor thickness / skin depth
Fig. ( 3.17

Primarylayereffecton the inductanceandresistance

10

1000

Lac / Ldc

Rac/Rdc

0.8

100

0.6
0.4

10
0.2

1
10

0.1
Conductorthickness/ skin depth
-wFE-R(P&S)
-A-Dowell-R(P) -a-FE-L(P&S)
Dowell-L(P)
Dowell-R(P&S)
4
-A
-4-Dowell-L(P&S)

Fig.( 3.18

Effect of transformerlayer on the lossesand leakage

(4 Layers, P&S Primary and SecondaryWindings and
P Primary Winding Only)

FIG. (3-1q) : Flux Distribution for Toroidotcore inductor at IMHz

CHAPTER FOUR

THREE DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMER MODELLING

BY FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

4.1: INTRODUCTION
is
device
in
One
dimensional
highly
a
devices
Many
three
such
nature.
are
frequency,
low
At
is
a
transformer, where there
almost no axis of symmetry.
frequency
high
but
from
the
is
the
at
core,
transformer radially symmetric apart
field
the
varies
the
magnetic
whilst
winding
electrostatic potential varies along
transverseto the winding.
The reality is that two dimensionalfield analysisis only reasonableat low frequency,
but as capacitive effects start to become significant all the potentials and fields (
FE
dimensional
Hence
in
)
three
three
a
axesx,y, and z..
magneticand electric vary all
is
The
is
solution made
solution truly required to model the transformer numerically.
it
full
but
low
frequency,
displacement
by
reaches
current at
easier
neglecting the
[70].
The
be
Maxwell's
to
the
solved
equation
needs
complexity when
complete set of
difficulty comes from many sides including, the gauge chosento force unique values,
the size and shapeof the elements,the derivation of the problem matrix, and economics,
becausea huge computer memory and time is required. The great developmentsin
computerspeedand memory now allow suchan analysisto be carried out.
In this chapter the use of a magneticvector-electric scalar potential formulation with
Coulomb gaugeto solve the full set of MaxwelFsequationsis explainedand applied to
the transformer model. This includesboth the eddy current and displacementeffects.
In this casethe magneticvector potential has three componentsx, y, and z, due to the
three dimensionalnature of the field, while the electric scalar potential V has only one

4-1

The
in
tetrahedral
the
elements
the
concept
of
using
model.
of
mesh
each
node
at
value
Gauge,
implement
FE
hexahedral
mesh
the
explained.
to
are
method
elements
and
in
included
is
information
this chapter.
also
generationand other relevant
An exampleis given to check the validity of the calculations and it is compared with
for
is
The
a transformer model, with three turns.
out
carried
analysis
measurements.
The interactionbetweenthe turns is vital for the capacitanceeffects which are known to
be dominantat high frequency. A real value of permittivity is used, although there is no
dielectric
losses.
to
the
represent
complex
value
of
a
restriction on
use

4.2: MESH GENERATION

The main initial requirement to perform an FEA is to describe the problem by

is
into
domain
The
the
problem subdivided a numberof small
creatinga mesh. entire
of
domains( elements). The way in which the mesh is generatedcould affect the
computer storage requirements,the computationtime, and the accuracy of the
numericalmethod.Therefore;it is moreconvenientto usean automaticmeshgenerator
than a manualapproach.Generally,programsthat generatea meshautomaticallyare
basedon a meshmodificationandan error estimationalgorithm. The error algorithmis
directlyusinglocalfield derivativesor residuals[73]. In threedimensions
approximated
forward
far
from
suchautomaticschemes
are
straight
and currentlythey will not deal
here.
with the typeof problembeinganalysed
In the presentwork, the three dimensionalmeshis generatedby constructingand
combiningslicesof a two dimensional
mesh.Theprogramextrudesthe two dimensional
meshto any depthand/or angleand eachslicemay be requiredto be modifiedafter
extrusion.The programis not restrictedon the numberof slicesthat form the model.
One of the difficultieslies in representinground wire. Extrusionmeansthat the only
way availableis by replacingthe roundwire with an equivalentsquarecrosssection.
This hasbeenadoptedby manyresearchers
asexplainedin chapterthree.In the caseof

4-2

behind
does
Thus
in
the
reason
this
not exist.
problem
the 2D meshshown chapterthree
first
is,
in
to
three
in
chapter
the
explained
model previously
using a square wire
it
is
the
that
the
3D
case
the
and
second,
currently
used,
the
model
compare resultswith
is
analyticalsolution more manageablewith squarerather than round wire.
The diagram together with the table in Fig.( 4.1 ), representsthe way that the three
dimensionalmodel was formed, where the materialnumberedone in the table represents
the core, two is the air gap, three and four represent the primary and secondary
for
be
has
in
the
The
to
the
table
of
each
repeated
shown
process
respectively.
windings
in
discussed
depth
by
is
(which
the
of
penetration
as
strongly affected
slices required
is
dimensional
the
The
transformer model using
above method
three
chapter three).
be
in
Fig.
(4.2).
The
either short or open circuited.
can
secondarywinding
shown
The sameprocess-can be used to include as many fine conductors as the main primary
(
Fig.
4.3
into.
diagram
divided
The
be
table
to
and
of
and secondaryconductorsneed
is used to create the three dimensionalmesh shown in Fig.( 4.4 ). Since there is a
limited number of nodes that the program can handle according to the computer
in
Megahertz
be
is
intend
to
the
zone where small
out
carried
capacity, and
analysis
is
elementsare required,only a model of a singlewire used.

4.3: ELEMENTS SHAPES IN 3D FEA

The numerical accuracyof the finite elementanalysisdependson the characteristics(

shape,integration, etc. ) of the elementusedto representa model. In this section a brief
general discussionis introduced regarding the element shapes.In the 3-dimensional
analysis,there are three common shapes,which are known as : tetr ahedral( four sides,
four nodes ), pentahedral( five sides, six nodes ), and hexahedral ( six sides, eight
nodes), The choice of the size and shapeof these3-dimensionalelementsare arbitrary.
Tetrahedral elements are the most suitable choice for the derivation of the matrix
equation, becausethese have shape functions which are complete polynomials of a
4-3

Gaussian
in
the
leading
general
case.
to
greater accuracy per node
given order
integration is usedto numericallyintegrate over the volume of the elements,by using a
in
integral
involving
the
the
specific
nodes
terms
at
evaluated
summation
of
simple
domain multiplied by suitableweightings [ 13 ].
The general form which yields the solution for the tetrahedral coefficients of the
magneticvector potential is:
A(x, y, z)=

ZA.
n-Q.

k. I

(a. +b. x+c,, y+d,, z)

(4.1)
....................

Where i, j, k, and I representthe four comers of the overall shapeof the element
Tetrahedronsgives most flexibility in the construction of objects but they are not easy
to work with, thereforehexahedralelementsare introduced to build volumetric models.
Each of the hexahedralelementsconsistsof five tetrahedralelements,and they are used
as the global discretizationbuilding blocks. The way of creating tetrahedral,hexahedral,
prism and others are explained in detailed in reference [24]. The discussion of each
shapeis out of the scopeof this chapter,and only a brief introduction hasbeengiven.
The three dimensional mesh shown in Fig.( 4.2 ), consists of 18875 tetrahedral
elements,and more than ten thousandnodes.The number of unknown vector potential
values (A) is three times the number of nodes, due to the three dimensionalanalysis(
reducedslightly by fixed potential boundaries).

4-4

4.4: FIELD EQUATIONS

In any electromagneticdevice ( transformer, inductor, etc. ), there are two

theories to be applied, the internal electromagneticfield of the device and the external
circuit it is connectedto.
The four governing partial differential equationsdescribing the electromagneticfield
which havebecomeknown asMaxwell's equations) [Q are :

VxH=J+

VxE=

0D......................
0t

(4.2)

0B.....................

(4.3)

,0t

V. D=p

.... .................

V. B=O

.......................

(4.4)

(4.5)

The constitutive relationsare also required, and given.by :

J=aE,

D=eE

&

B=pH

.........................

( 4.6a-c

The equationfor current continuity ( derived using 4.2 and 4.4 ) is also useful

V. j

P
.......

(4.7)

Equation (4.5) can be satisfiedby using the magneticvector potential

VxA=B

......................

(4.8)

From equation ( 4.2 ) and the time derivative of D in equation

betweenE and A can be derived and is given by:

4-5

the relation

O A_
E=_.
VV
01
,

...........................

(4.9)

where V is the electric scalarpotential.

The current density relation is formed from equations (4.9) and ohm's law ( equation
4.6a), and given as
OA_cVV

J=_a

0t

..........................

(4.10)

The first term on the right side of equation ( 4.10 ), representsthe current arising from
voltage by the changingof magneticfield, while the secondterm is the current caused
by the electrostaticfield.
The main step in any electromagneticfield analysisis the construction of an efficient
and economicalnumerical algorithm. The algorithm describing the particular problem
can be derived by manipulatingMaxwell's equationsto give the required relations. The
equations(4.2) to (4.10) can be combinedtogether to form the vector equation given
by :

Vx

I
p

VxA=-

OA
+cy-V V-6
a
Of

cA60v.......................
T-1701

The first and second terms of the right hand side of equation (4.11) are defined in
equation (4.10), the third and fourth terms result from the changing electrostatic field
due
to changingelectromagneticor electrostaticfields.
which themselvesare
The program used to simulatethe three dimensionalmodel of the transformer is based
on the solution of the equation ( 4.11 ). It containsboth eddy current and displacement
currents effects. The displacementcurrent is introduced to account for the production
of the electrostaticfields in empty space( betweenconductors ), where the conduction
current in this spaceis equal to zero. The total of electromagneticfields between any
two conductorsis due to three componentsof current, namelythe external source, eddy
current, and finally displacementcurrent as shown in the equationbelow,

4-6

Jtot.

Jdisp
Jcond
+
*"=

OA_
= -a 91 avv+
,

dD
dt

........................

(4.12)

Jcondis
including
density
the
source and eddy
the
conductor
within
current
where
between
in
is
the
through
the
the
the
capacitor
gap
current
secondpart
current, while
conductors.

4.5: GAUGE AND FORMULATION

The magneticvector potential (A)

defined only by equation ( 4.11 ) is not unique,

i.e. its divergence

mustalsobe defined.The definitionof divergenceis calledthe gauge
condition, which is imposedtogether with a proper selection of the boundary
conditions.
The gaugewhichcommonlyusedis the Coulombgauge[25], wherethe divergenceof
A is madeequalto zero. Arguablythis is the mostnaturalform of A, sinceit makesA
responsibleonly for circulatingeffects,it also resultsin the simplestformulationfor
establishinginterfaceconditions.Other gaugescan lead to potential efficienciesin
formulationbut experiments
showthat largenumericaldifficultiesresult,which largely
offsetsthe gainin thenumberof unknowns[74]. Havingselectedthe term V0A=0 we
canwrite 4.11as:
VX1 VxA-V
P

1V*A
IU

i9A +UVV-6
cr
19t

d'A
, -t2

OV
(4.13)
-F.0t ..............

Providing u is taken as a preciseconstant,equation(4.13) can be written with the

assumptionof harmonictime variation as

Vx

VxA-V

VA=

(a + fto v)A-jo)

4-7

(a + fto
e)VV.................

(4.14)

Equation (4,14) fixes three of the unknowns, the other must come from the electric
field. The choiceis madeto use the current continuity equation, i. e. :

v.

(j+

D
19
)=o
9

(4.15)
............................

The first term inside the bracket of equation ( 4.15 ) is given in equation ( 4.10 ), and
is
(4.16)
(4.9
),
(4.6)
is
defined
by
the second term
so equation
and
equations
transformedto :

0 (_e 0 A_
t

V(. VV)) =0..................

(4.16)

Finally, equation(4.16) canbe written in the complex form :

V. (a +jcoc ) VV+jco V. (u +jco--) A= 0

.............................

(4.17)

The abovetwo equations( 4.14 ) and ( 4.17 ) are the fundamentalfield analysis
equationsnecessaryto determinethe vector potential and the scalar potential
displacement
distributionsfor the combinations
effects.
and
of eddycurrents
In order to obtain a finite elementsolution,the weighted residualmethod can be
applied,andby usingGalerkin'smethod,wherethe shapefunctionN is consideredas
theweightingfunction,equations( 4.14) and( 4.17) arereplacedby:
f, Ni Vx1 VxA-V

Vo A +ja) (u+jwe)ANi-(u+jcos)VV

N, dv=O

(4.18)
.............

f4j[V-(u

)VV+jw
+jcoe

V. (u +jco6) A] dv=0

wherev is the volume.

4-8

(4.19)
.........................

follow
identities,
:
which are as
By using Green's function and the vector
(V
(V
(A
becomes
(
)
4.18
N),
A.
A)
N.
V. x N) =
equation
x
x
-

fv N,

+JNj

(V

(u +jo-) c) AN,
-(a

xVx

A)+jco

VxA

(V. A) n ds=O
ds+JN,
xn

+jo) -6) VV N, dv

(4.20)
.......................

The same procedure can be applied to equation ( 4.19 ), by using again Green's
function and the vector identity, V. (NA) = N(V. A) + VN. A, which gives :
ly Ni'[(u

+ jo) c)VV+

Ni (a +jw

c)0v

jo) V. (u + jw c) A] dv

ds

(
jo)N,
a +jw6)A.

n ds=0

.................

(4.21)

Wheren in both equations( 4.20 ) and( 4.21 representsthe normaldirectionto the

boundarysurface.Also from equation( 4.20) it maybe noticedthat the fourth term
fifth
intensity,
field
term
the
the
the
tangential
while
of
magnetic
component
represents
is zerofrom the definitionof the coulombgauge. In the sameway, the last two terms
(
density
(
)
4.21
the
total
the
eddy
current
of equation
represent normalcomponentof
currentsanddisplacement
currents).
The globalsystemmatrix equationis obtainedby integratingthe two equations(4.20,
4.21) over the elementsof the model. Various solversare available,but the most
incorporating
is
the
common solver
preconditionedconjugate gradient method,
incompletecholeskydecomposition
to carryout the precondition[66].

4-9

4.6: PROGRAM

VALIDITY

In order to validate the procedurea simple model is used first to examinethe basic
backgroundfor this 3D analysis. This model consists of two rectangular coils which
ferrite
).
Air
in
(
i.
transformer
core
and
core transformersare used
are air e. an air cored
for high frequencyapplicationsand consist of windings on an insulating shell which is
(91m)-'conductivity,
5.711+07
and
air. Both coils consist of two copper wires with
0.9999 relative permeability. The wire cross section area is 0.5mm and the dimensions
by
)
breadth
(
3cm
2.5cm width. The length of the
the
turns
the
of
around
peripheral are
gap betweenthe turns is 0.2mm. This model is usedto calculateresults to comparewith
is
by
first
(
[75].
The
ten
turns
coil
primary) supplied a voltage of
a
experimentalsystem
10 volts, the secondcoil ( secondary) which is placed above the first one is left open
circuit.
The graph of impedanceis drawn for both the measured,and calculatedresults for the
driven coil. The results are shown in Fig.(4.5), where three modes of resonanceare
clearly seen.Two of the modesare seriesresonanceat 188 KHz, 7.8 MHz, and one is
parallelresonanceat 1.87MHz.. Another observationfrom the impedancecurve is that
the equivalentcircuit can be found easily. Each of the two seriesresonantpoints can be
representedby LC components,and at resonantfrequencythe impedancesfall to near
zero. The impedanceat resonanceis due to the existenceof resistancein each series
resonantbranch.Thesetwo seriesbranchesare placed in parallel producing the parallel
resonantpoint on the impedancecurve. Physically, the behaviour of such a system is
dominatedby absenceof the core. Usually, the closest ground for the winding is the
core and hence the capacitanceto the core is dominant. Without a core, the only
ground available, is the ground of the actual winding. The ground capacitance is
therefore small in comparisonwith the casewere the core exists, and the first cut off
frequencyis thereforevery high.

4-10

The fact that the two results (measuredand calculated) comparewell gives confidence
in the method. At low frequencies,the most important parameter is the magnetising
reactancethat draws a large current that flows through primary winding winding.
Magnetising inductanceis a function of the magnetisationcurrent, as the magnetising
current increasesthe value of this inductance is decreasesuntil saturation when its
value reaches a minimum corresponding to an air core. An air core has higher
magnetising current and so a smaller magnetising inductance.The above figure (4.5)
shows that at low frequency the magnetising reactance is dominated by high
reluctance air core. The figure also shows that the first cut off frequency (parallel
resonance)no longer exist and that due to the lower ground capacitance(as no ferrite
core exist) together with less magnetising inductance. Therefore, the first cut off
frequency is very high.
4.7: OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE
CALCULATIONS BY 3D FEM

Open and short circuit impedance calculations are the main consideration in the
presentwork. Thesetwo impedancesprovide enoughinformation to build the required
elements of an equivalent circuit of the transformer, and hence to give a good
equivalent representationof the windings.
The 3D-FE modelling of the transformer is difficuilt in respectof the representationof
winding turns. In the 2D model, the turns of the serieswinding are joined together by
an external equation so as to form one single winding. In the 3D such an equation is
not available and it is not an easy task to apply in this program. In the actual
transformerthere are 26 secondaryturns and 14 primary turns. Each turn is comprised
of 64 fine wires. That makes a total of 2560 fine wires. In addition, the 64 fine wires
are in four bundles of 16. Each set of 16 are twisted together, and the four sets of 16
are twisted together. Clearly, it is a practical impossibility to fully represent that
arrangement.It is the case that the twisted 64 wires force an even distribution of
current over all operating frequencies amongst the substrandsand hence it is not
necessaryto model the detail of every strands.It is also possibleto model less than the

4-11

full number of turns provided that the turns which are modelled have the correct
spacingone with the other and with the respectto the core. Following these arguments
three turns of the primary and three of the secondaryhave been modelled in the half
section of the transformer ( implying 6 turns each for primary and secondary via
symmetry). Therefore, turns are of smaller cross section than the full 64 wire bundle
and with an adjusted conductivity to get the dc resistance correct. The turn cross
section is necessarilysolid in the model (rather than subdividedinto the 64 substrands)
and the dimensionof the turns is chosenso that skin limited eddy currents are not set up
over the frequencyrangemodelled.
It is clear that this representationis far from perfect but it does preserveclearancesand
henceturn to turn and turn to ground capacitanceis reasonablyfaithfully modelled as
are leakage flux paths. The results to compare with the actual transformer are then
obtained from the model by reflecting through the respectiveturns ratio i. e. 6: 14 and
6:26. This techniqueis adoptedin the presentwork as for exampleby the model shown
in Fig.(4.2). More elementshaveto be placedin the conductor areato achievesufficient
accuracy. The number of these elements depends on the skin depth (as discussed
previously). They need to be quite fine in the conductor spaceand they may be five
times less dense in the region of the core due to the different material properties
involved.
The whole model is placed inside a box to represent an air space around the
transformer. The actual Ferrite E core has 0.25mm air gap in the centre limb. In
practice, this gap size is obtained by grinding. Another procedure that could be used
involves moving the core halves apart by half the size of the required air gap. That
meanshalf of the required gap will be in the centre and the other half in the outer legs
of the core ( assumingthe total outer leg cross sectionareais equal to the centre part of
the core ). This is the procedurethat has beenused during the finite elementmodelling
of the air space. Practically this could be an EMI source due to the external magnetic
field, particularly at high frequency. The assumptionis madethat the
x,y,z components
of the magnetic vector potential, and scalar voltage are equal to zero for all of the
4-12

back
front
back.
front
The
box
the
surfacesare
and
the
and
except
surfacesnodes of
is
forcing
driven
by
The
electrostatic
the
solution
where
conductor ends emerge.
).
full
face,
in
fact
(
the
other
and
value at
zero at one
potential acrossthe conductor
The rest of electrostaticpotentials and the z-component of the magnetic potential are
left floating on these surfaces.Effectively, the boundary condition chosen restrain the
magnetic fields to excite only inside the box and through the ground the sides of the
box. The normal component of electric flux is forced to zero on the front and back
surfacesexceptingwithin the conductor.
The flux distribution for various frequency components are given in Fig.(4.6) and
Fig.(4.7), for open and short circuit casesrespectively.The field plots shown in these
figures only have limited objective value, but there is considerabletutorial content and
an understandingof their meaningaddsconsiderablyto the subjectvia validation of the
calculations.There are two tests involved. The first short circuit and the second open
circuit. For each test there are four components of field, "N'
potentidls,"Ax", "Ay",

and "Az"., and the electric potentials "V".

the vector
The easiest

understandingof the vector potential is as quantifying the flux-linkage per unit length in
each co-ordinate direction. Given sinusoidal excitation they therefore indicate
componentsof induced voltage. The real componentis effectively the induced voltage
at 900 to the datum of the source,and the imaginary componentis the induced voltage
in phasewith the datum of the source.
In the short circuit test, the source is an electrostatic potential applied across the
terminalsof the primary winding. In fact V.,,.,+j0

to the input terminal and 0+j0

to

the terminal on the place of symmetry.The result is an alternating current through the
primary which inducesa nearly equal and opposite mmf in the secondary.The induced
voltages in the primary and secondarywill tend to be at 90' to the source and hence
components of vector potential can be expected to be maximal in the imaginary
components,althoughthe presenceof resistancemight be expectedto give rise to phase
shift and hencereal components.

4-13

"Z"
the
(4.6a),
of
vector
component
first
Fig.
Starting
of
contours
shows
which
with
forced
their
to
All
on
zero
are
components
the
other
the
model.
outsidesof
potential on
is
itself.
This
in
is
rather
be
"AZ'
the
case
As
conductor
maximal
seen
can
surface.
interpretation
"N'
because
allows simple
the single componentof
easierthan the others
be
flux
lines
to
flux
"AZ'
the
circulate around
seen
can
clearly
and
the
as
of
contour
of
the conductor. As expectedthe imaginary componentshave higher values than the real
components.
Turning now to Fig.(4.6 - 4.7 b,c,d) which show contours of vector potential plotted on
the exposed surfaces once the air has been removed from the model a number of
featurescan be seen:I- Voltage is induced in the conductors according to the direction e.g. a "Y" directed
hence
"y"
flux
hence
"zx7'
directed
"y"
receives
plane
and
current and
conductor carries
directedinducedvoltage.
2- It is not easy to see but the pattern of vector potential rising across the excited
in
fields
is
highest
falling
the
the
also
visible with
shorted secondary
winding and
across
the spacebetweenthe windings.
3- Highest vector potentialsare mainly in the imaginarycomponents.
4- The vector potential ( and henceinduced voltage ) falls quite markedly towards the
corners.
5- The "z" directed potential is found mostly by the input lead but also has secondary
effects due to transition between one turn and the next. In fact this is artificial because
the real turns will lie in a true spiral whereashere the turns are essentiallyplanar with
axial transition at comers.
The input impedancefor both cases,which is found from the ratio of the imposed
is
in
(4.8)
by
Fig.
the
the
voltage and
given
and
primary
calculated current carried
Fig.(4.9)

for open and short circuit respectively. Measured and calculated results
,
show a satisfactoryagreementfor both cases.

4-14

4.8: COMMENT

ON THE RESULTS

An examinationof the impedancecurves of Fig.(4.8) and Fig.(4.9) showed relatively

in
better
between
the short circuit
and
calculation
rather
measurement
good agreement
in
is
found
The
the
than
that
than
the
agreement also slightly worse
open circuit.
case
difficulty
(Fig.
This
4.5).
to
the
of accurately
probably
points
air cored coil example
representingthe ferrite core at high frequency.
In the open circuit case, the magnetising components dominate the results. These
components( magnetising) have both real and imaginary parts. The real part is a
by
hence
loss
is
very
core
conductivity
and
reflection of core
which representedentirely
has
inductive
imaginary
The
two
terms;
to
the
part
an
element
sensitive
value chosen.
which is sensitiveto the core permeability,and a capacitive elementwhich is sensitive
to the core permitivitty. But, due to the frequency dependencyof all of the core
propertiesin real life, the single value which is used for each property can be expected
to result in the differencesin the results [18,41]. The values of these properties that is
taken in the program are:- the conductivity is 2(fl. m)-% the permeability is 2200, and
the relative permitivitty is 10.
The basic shapeof Fig.(4.8) and Fig.(4.9) may best be explainedwith referenceto the
high frequency equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.(4.10). The resistanceshave been
excludedfrom this model for the reasonwhich will be madeclear later. Consideringthe
open circuit case,it can be seenthat the impedancewill becomevery high when either
the leakagebranch or the magnetisingbranch reach resonance.The combination of the
two branches could be considered, each has an inductance and capacitance, and
therefore a simple port of zero impedancemight be expected.Therefore, there are two
zeros and one pole.

4-15

CIRCUIT

EQUIVALENT

4.9: TRANSFORMER

From the open circuit impedancecurve, one series and two parallel resonance
frequenciescan be recognised. The series is at 751.3 KHz, and the parallel are at,
In order to simplify determinationof the equivalent circuit

105.5 K]Hlzand 2.4 MHz

in
derivation
inductances
be
the
the
the
and
of
neglected
resistances will
elements,
capacitances.They can be addedlater to model the full equivalentcircuit.
The equivalent circuit model and it's parameters are based on the measured and
calculatedcurvesof the open and short circuit impedances.The reasonfor using such a
methodis the difficulty of calculatingall the equivalentcircuit parametersdirectly from
the 3DFE model. This difficulty is coming mainly from the hopelessly complex
distribution of different elementsof capacitancewithin the model.
The proposedseries-parallelequivalentcircuit is shown in Fig.(4.10). This is a standard
form f6r a high frequency transformer model. The equations to represent the
impedancescan be derived and given by :
[I_
+

co
[Z.

If =-

C02
)

(I _0)24C

lf =

(c,

+ CJ

Ll + L.

LI

Iz.

LIL.

(1_0

)1

4L
M

+
4+L.

L, L.

(1-02
-

(cl

1-0)2
4Lm

(1

..............

LmgC
_)2

+ cg

(4.25)

+ c2)

+ Lm L2 + LIL2
44

(C2

+ Cg)

............

L2 + Lm

4.26)

Examiningthe polesandzerosof equation(4.25)resultsin the conclusionthat the two

frequenciesat which equation( 4.25 ) approachinfinity ( parallel resonance) are:

03P

....................

4-16

(4.27)

1- co'L. Cg =0

IL--. Cg

=> cvp =1/

...................

(4.28)

)
is:
(
)
(
4.25
frequency
approachzero seriesresonance
at which equation
and the one
(c,

(02
A

+ C,

+L

+ Lm

(0,1-,
--->

......

(4.29)

By consideringthe open and short circuit impedancecurves, it can be found which of

the two equations ( 4.27 & 4.28 ) representsthe first and second parallel resonant
frequency. At the first "parallel" frequency( 105.5 KHz ), an effect is seenon the open
circuit curve only. On short circuit the magnetisingbranch is maskedby the secondary
impedanceand so, the first parallel resonanceis related to equation (4.28) and the
secondto equation(4.27).
Therefore,all of the aboveequationscan be identified as

fp

fP

I=I/2

=I
2

VT,,, C-g
7r

(4.30)
...........................

/ 2; JCI
r

2 7r

LI

(4.31)
...........................

L'.

-(+CLI+

................

cgj

(4.32)

f2

Z.

If
f
fill

) 21

f2

(4.33)
.

fp2

Equations ( 4.30 - 4.33 ) can be used to calculate the value of L(

inductance),L(

primary leakage

magnetisinginductance), C( primary distributioncapacitance),

4-17
?I

impedance
by
the
circuit
the
open
value of
ground capacitance) considering

C
and

is
The
then
IKHz.
are:
frequency
lowest
values
parameter
the
which
at
Li=

3.36 PH

L. = 187PH

1.3 nF

Cg = 12.3 nF

inductance
leakage
L2
C2(
and
determine
the values of
secondary
In order to
2
is
between
turns),
the
distribution capacitance
the secondary
sameprocedure applied.

fp

I=

fP

21r

Ij

1/
2

2 7r

f, =1/2

ir

VTqCq

V-4C,

L2 L

where

Cq

C2+ Cg and
,

L,
q

L2

+Lm

Thesevaluesthen are,
L2 = 0.86 pH

C2 = 5.11 nF

The valuesof the aboveparameterscan then be used with the equations( 4.25 ) and (
4.26 ) to recalculatethe frequencyresponse. The curves shown in Fig.(4.11 & 4.12)
are compared with that of the measurementsand the FE calculation. The good
far
larger
inductive
than the
that
the
componentsare
capacitive and
agreementshows
have
inductances
The
and
capacitances
compensatedthe value of
resistivecomponents.
be
hence
difference
in
branches,
seen when
can
and
not much
resistances certain
in
is
fully
discussed
This
the coming chapter
observation
resistancesare neglected.
wherethe resistancesare taken into account.

4-18

4.10: SUMMARY

The full set of Maxwell's equationshave beenused to model the transformer. Both
been
The
have
displacement
existence of the
considered.
currents
conduction and
displacementcurrents causesa reduction in the voltage between turns away from the
terminals of the winding. Therefore; this voltage is not going to be constant as in the
in
discussed
in
dimensional
the previous chapter.
the
two
case
model
The open and short circuit impedancecalculationsare made,by solving three turns with
half of the E core by 3D FEM. The differencein the results (which is rather masked
due to the high value of the y-axis) can be explainedwith respectto the core properties.
In this program, just a real part of these properties is considered,but the fact is that
frequency
be
important
better
deal
high
likely
to
to
complex properties are more
with
full
full
Maxwell's
difficulty
The
the
set
of
equation
with
account
problems.
of solving
taken of the complex properties of the core taken into account is beyond the scope of
this thesis. However, the existence of the imaginary part of the conductivity,
permeability,and permitivitty representadditional dielectric losses,magneticlosses,and
dielectric lossesrespectively.
Because of the complex arrangement and distribution of the capacitances and
inductancesthroughout the model, a simple method is used to predict the equivalent
circuit. This method is basedon the resonantfrequencies. The elementsof the circuit
can be found from the knowledge of the parallel and seriesfrequenciesthat are located
on both the open and short circuit impedancescurves. These elementscan be used
again with the equivalentcircuit to predict the open and short circuit impedances.By
comparingthe resultswith the measuredand FE calculation,the good agreementshows
that this equivalentcircuit can be usedfor a wide frequencyrange.

4-19

12 3456789
2222222222

10 1112 13 14 15 16 17 If2D material NO.

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Core

11121322122

1 1 2 2 2

Air-gap between core & winding

11222322222

T
-2]
7
2 2 2 2 2

11232332324

4 2 4 4 2 2 4 4
Windings

11222232222

2 2 2 4 2 2 4 21

11223333222

2 4 4 4 4 2 4 21

FIG. (4--j): Diagram to Form 3D with single wire of both primary and secondary windings
mesh from 2D mesh

-0

Fig. ( 4.2 )AD

Finite Element mesh a:- $hort circuit

b: -Opencircuit

12 3456789

38
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1920 2122 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3132 33 3-4-3-53-6-N

323 22 22 2222

2 .2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1313222222

22

2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1

1313222222

22

711 2
2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 -2- 2- 2F

1323333323

22

2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 2 2

1322222322

22

2 2 2 3 2 2 3 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2

21

1323333332

22

2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 2

21 2

1222223322

22

2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2

1323223322

23

3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 4 4

- 3 -lq 2

1323223322

22

1323223322

32

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 T -T - 2 - q 2
3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 2 2 -4
4 -4-3, Iq 2

Fig.( 4.3 ): Diagram and Table of 3D, four fine wires FE Transformermodel

1 2
2

Fig.( 4.4 ): 3D transformermodel with four fine wires

100000
10000

1000
100

10

10

100

1000

10000

Frequency( KHz )
I-L-measured -calculated

Fig. ( 4.5 ): ImpedanceFrequencyResponceof the examplemodel

Az(inlag) 1.0 Nfflz (Open Circuit)

Az(maj) 1.0 Nffh (Open Circuit)

Az(rc&, 1.5 MHz (Open Circuit)

)
Fig.( 4.6 ): Electromagneticfield distributions at different frequencycomponents
A )D
(Open Circuit)
Ck CAYI

Ax (real)

Ay

I-5

HEIz (Open Circuit)

Ax

1.5 MHz (Open Circuit)

(real)

1
Nfflz
(Open
Circuit)
(rew) .0

Ay

(Open Circuit)
1.0
Nffh
(_, )

Az(_ag. 1.0 MHz (Short Circuit)

)

Vi,.. 1.0 Nffh (Short Circuit)

&.

Circuit)
(Short
MHz
1.0
Az
(Te4j)

V,.., 1.0 NHU (Short Circuit)

Fig. ( 4.7 ): Electromagnetic field distributions at Merent frequency components

(Short Circuit)
A CCL
cx YV.

Ay
(imag.)

Ax

1.0 MHz (Short Circuit)

A y (real) 1.0M& (short Circuit),

1.0 NlHz (Short Circuit)

(inwg)

Ax

(r"j)

1.0 MHz (Short Circuit)

V,,

2.0 Nfflz (Short Circuit)

Vi,.

&.

V,,. 2.0 MHz (Short Circuit)

4

I.

1.5 MHz (Short Circuit)

C-

i
V,
e

1.5MHz (Short Circuit)

Phase(deg.)

agnitude(Ohm)

100000

100

10000

--50

1000
100

10
1

--50

0.1

ins

0.01
1

100

10

1000

-100

Frequency(KHz)
F--*Mag. FE

-Mag.

measured -m-P

Fig.( 4.8): Open circuit impedancecalculatedusing 3D FE model

10000

Magnitude (Ohm)
F-

Phase(deg.)

1000

100
50

100

0
10

-50

0.1

10

100

1000

-100

Frequency(KHz)
-Mag.

FE -*- Mag. measured -m-Phase,FE

Fig.( 4.9 ): Short circuit impedancecalculatedusing 3D FE model

cl

C2

II

Ll

I/P

Cg

L2

Lm

Fig.( 4.10 ): Simplifiedtransformerequivalentcircuit

O/P

Magnitude( Ohm )

100000
10000
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01

1000

100

10

Frequency(KHz)
--Mag. EC -Mag.

measer7ed

(a)

Magnitude (Ohm)
10000
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
1

100

10

1000

Frequency(KHz)
I-Mag.

EC -*-Mag. measured

(b)
Fig.( 4.11 : Impedancefrequencyresponsecalculatedfrom the smplified equivalent
(b):
(a):
short circuit
circuit,
circuit.
open

100000

Magnitude Olun

10000
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
10

100

1000

Frequency(KHz)

1-*-Mag.
-Mag.
-EC

(4)
Magnitude (Ohni)
10000
1000
1po
10
1

0.1
0.01

10

100

1000

Frequency(KHz)

I -Mag. EC
-*-Mag.

(b)

Fig.( 4.12

Impedancefrequencyresponsecalculatedfrom the smplified equivalent

circuit comparedwith FE ( a) : open circuit, (b): short circuit

CHAPTER FIVE

PARAMETERS ESTIMATION AND

WINDING NETWORK ANALYSIS

5.1: INTRODUCTION.

The previous chapter has shown that good results can be obtained using a 31), full
electromagnetic,finite elementmodel, but it is also clear that this is a very difficult task
for eventhe few turn model attempted.The resulting model is also very unwieldy in use
it
is
design
it
be
Yet,
turm
tool.
around
and certainly could not
consideredas a rapid
clear that the true nature of the distributed capacitanceand inductancemust be captured
if reasonablehigh frequencymodelsare required.
Finite elementmodels can be seenas equivalentcircuit models with the circuit elements
related to the product of the number of nodes and degreesof freedom at each node. In
respect of terminal performance,the huge number of circuit elementsrepresentedby a
full 3D electromagneticfinite elementmodel can be distilled into far more compact form.
An automatic method to distil the principle modes of the performanceinvolves posing
the problem in Eigen form, and it is even more difficult than a straight forward finite
elementsolution.
This chapter aims to go partway to the full solution by identifying simplified per turn
equivalent circuits and seeking to establishthe parametersof these circuit using noncoupled electric and magnetic finite element models. By these means, it should be
possible.to obtain a sufficiently accuratemodel which is amenableto solution.
Later in this chapter,the developmentof what is known as a lumped circuit, in which the
winding is representedby a circuit network model is considered. The way this model is
analysedhas also been explained and applied using a trapezoidal rule of integration to
solve the main equationthat containsthe nodal conductancematrix [5]. The aim of this

5-1

different
due
capacitance
of
parts
to
the
is
of
the
existence
to
effects
examine
chapter
from
identified
be
the
[9,35].
This
voltage
can
effect
transformer
the
structure
within
these
The
[5,29,35,38].
of
effect
the
network
transient analysis at each node within
Later
is
impedance
input
the
chapter's concerns.
also one of
winding
capacitanceson the
in this chapter, attention is paid to check the possibility of using the sameprinciple of
the winding network representationto model the whole transformer.

5.2: NETWORK PARAMETERS.

At the design stage,it is common practice for the transformer designerto represent

the windingby an equivalentnetwork,andthis is usedfor the numericalcalculationof

is
first
[4,5,88].
The
in
the transientphenomena the transformerwinding
requirement to
computevery accuratelythe RL, and C elementsof this network. Theseparameters
werecomputedhereusinga 2D staticfield simplificationof Maxwell'sequationstaking
into accountthe third dimensionby equivalentlength,which is the turn meanlength
datasheet[5 1].
givenby the coremanufacturer's
Oneof the mainpointswhichneedsto be considered
calculation.
relatesto the resistance
When consideringthe static field, the resistancecan be found either from the loss
equation(magnetostatic
solution)or usingthe closedform givenlater in this chapter.In
both cases,the valueof this resistance
the dc component.If the valuesof the
represents
sections( nodes) inductancesand resistances
are relatedto the frequency,then time
varying2DEFMis required[15,69].In this casethe sameprocedureasthat explainedin
chapterthree is used to find the frequencydependenceof winding resistancesand
inductances
[39]. The capacitance
calculationis frequencyindependent
andcanbe found
from the electrostaticsolution [37]. If the values of capacitancesare considered
frequencydependent
full set of Maxwell equationsare usedas
thena threedimensional
discussed
in chapterfour.
5-2

However, the frequencydependentvalues of the inductances,and resistancesadd some

be
have
The
to
changedat each
to
the
values
parameter's
complexity
network solution.
frequencyduring the frequencyresponsecalculations.If a transient is being solved in the
time domain, frequency dependenceof parameters implies altering the parameters
in
be
A
transient
the
to
the
solved
can also
voltage/current.
rate of changeof
according
in
be
linearised
but
frequency
domain
the
techniques
transform
the
problem must
using
someway if nonlinearityis present.

5.2.1: CAPACITANCES.

Whenevertwo conductorsare brought near to eachother, a capacitanceexists between

them. In transformers,this effect is undesirable,sinceit placeslimits on the operation of
transformers at high frequency. Since the winding turns are conductors, there will be
many capacitancesbetween:- adjacentconductors, non adjacent conductors and ground
i. e. the core and support systems.
Researchers[4,35] usually compute capacitancevalues using the dimensionalapproach,
which is in terms of "a" the conductors cross section area, and t the distancebetween
them and is given by:
Ca(

Farad

This relationshipis not an exact representationof the value of capacitance,becauseof

the edgeeffect ( fringing field ) which is neglectedin this relation. The capacitor then is
treated asthough it is usedin conjunctionwith infinitely large conductors.
In order to take proper account of the capacitancedistribution within the winding, the
2D electrostaticequationin the previous section is solved using FEM [37]. In this case,
the boundaries of the 2D transformer model are limited to the transformer winding
window

( i. e. the core is ground or OV ). A capacitanceis defined as the ratio of the

stored chargeto the voltage applied, and this definition is used to build the capacitance

5-3

for
finite
In
the
the
the
conductor
solution starts with
potential
elementmodel
matrix.
"I" equal to V and the other conductorsleft to float. This procedure is used to find the
first column in the matrix accordingto the following relations:
q2
qn
q,
CIn
C11
C
=
V,

Fig.

S. I)

2=

shows

V,

the

.......

electric

V, ....

flux

distribution

due

to

placing

voltage

potential

in

different placeswithin the primary winding sections. The above procedure is repeated
for all of the

14 sections

of the primary

is found from the normal

conductor
j D.
9 ds =q5.1

winding.

component

The charge
of the electric

due to the potential

flux density

in any

via:

Using "the line optiore', the program calculatesand draws the required value of electric
flux density over the length of the line. On the conductor under considerationit is used
to draw the normal electric flux density "D" as shown in Fig.( 5.2

The value of the

normal flux density used to calculate the capacitanceis taken from the graph as the
average.

11

The value of all capacitancesin matrix form are given in Table ( 5.1
The mathematicalapproachfor computing the total series capacitancesin the winding
has alreadybeengiven [29], where the total capacitancebetween two conductors when
the potential placed individually on them is equal to the parallel combination of the
capacitancesbetweenthem, i. e. C,, //C,,

and so on.

Another way of calculatingthe capacitancebetweenadjacentsections,non-adjacent,

and
1
ground can be found directly from the energy relations ( W= V2C). The procedure
2
involvesplacing a voltage say on conductor "I" and "2", while the
rest of conductors are
left floating. The total energy is the sum of that in conductor one (
used to calculate
CI I), plus conductor two ( used to calculate C22), and that between them (
used to
calculateC12 ). Nevertheless,the former method is usedthroughout the presentwork.

5-4

5.2.2: INDUCTANCE.

In order to calculate the inductance the finite element magnetostatic equation is

is
known
is
in
The
this
technique
and
essentiallythe same
section
well
explained
solved.
asthat usedto calculatecapacitance[37,76].
In this techniquea current is placedin one of the conductors while the rest are left float
to calculatethe inductance.The main inductancecomponentsrequired to determinethe
transient responseof the equivalent circuit are the self and leakage inductancesof the
sectionand the mutual inductancesbetweensections.
The current is placed in each conductor, and the flux distribution in the transformer
in
model one of the conductorsis shown in Fig. ( 5.3 ). The inductancedue to placing
current in eachsectionindividually is calculatedfrom the flux relation given by :

(D

f B,
* ds
a

5.2

The tangential componentsof the magnetic flux density are calculated using the line
option, and the averagevalue of the results from the graph are used as explainedfor the
capacitancecalculations.
Therefore,placing current in conductor numberone causesflux to cut all the conductors
in the model, and the total flux producedby this conductor is
(DI = LI, I, +

L12

12 +

L13

13
"**"*"**

where L, j is the inductancein conductor one due to the current in this conductor and
L, is the inductance in conductor one due to the flux cutting this conductor from
2
current in conductor two, and so on, or in generalas:
(DI

"I

L12 =
11 ,
12

This meansthat the first column of the inductancematrix can be found due to placing
current in the first conductor within the 2D model. This procedureis repeatedfor all the
14 sectionsin the model. The values of the calculated model inductancesare given in
Table ( 5.1 ).

5-5

It should be noted that in reality skin effects causethe value of the inductancesto be a
function of dimension frequency and permeability L92], but as far as the simulation is
,
functionalities
in
form),
(which
these
are
the
none
of
model
static
solves
concerned
inductances
have
be
to
the
to
the
constant.
section
of
change,
so
value
subject

5.2.3: RESISTANCE.

Theresistance
of the conductordependsnot only on the type of materialfrom whichthe
conductoris made,but also on its shapeand size.It shouldbe observedfrom chapter
flow
frequency
due
threehow the resistance
to
the
the
the
current
of
of
conductorvaries
in the conductor.However,the modelin this sectionis solvedin static terms,which
is calculatedin the well known form of conductor
meansthat the valueof the resistance
length"t " andcrosssectionarea"a" andconductivitya
R=t
aa
Due to the conductorsbeingthe samesizeandthe frequencynot beingconsidered,the
resistance
valueswill bethe samefor all sectionsandgivenin a singlevalue.
R=0.0567 91
It shouldalsobe noticed,that the effectfrom the dielectriclossis negligible,otherwisea
hasto be placedin parallelwith eachcapacitance.
The reasonfor this
shuntconductance
beingneglectedis due to its dependence
conductance
on the bulk conductivityof the
interconnectingwire insulatorused. Sincethis FE model considersair an insulator,
is alsozero.However,the conductance
whoseconductivityis zero,the conductance
per
unit length"G" dependson the geometricalfeaturesof the conductorin the sameway as
the capacitance
per length"C", andit maybe givenas:

C*.61

5-6

Where a is the insulator conductivity ( typically between

10-12

10-1' siemens/cm),

).
(
between
I
10
its
is
typically
and
relativeperraitivity
and6r

L
PH

Branch
14
EU
k=l

4.713

13
T- Ak
k+l

k=l

12
F- Ak
k+2

k=l
11

5Ak
k-l
10
ZAkk,
k-=1

k+ 3

+4

9
F- Ak
k+5

k=l
8

Z: A
kk+6

I k--l

4.356

3 821
.

3.615

3 342
.

3 188
.

117
3
I .

L
R

C
pF

2.838

0.98

k+8

2.674

0.57

k+9

2.455

0.26

9 98
.

4
57 A
kk+lo
k-- I

2.089

0.15

4 88
.

3
Y- A
kk+ll
k-- 1

1.897

0.088

k+12

1.253

0.051

57 Ak
k+13

0.849

0.027

C
pF
40.73

30 45
.

16 56
.

2 79
.

1
89
I .

Branch
7
Y- Ak
k+7
k-- 1
6
F- Ak

k=l
5
Y- Ak

k= I

2
F- Ak

k=l
1
I k--I

II

Table (5.1) Dements values(Inductanceand Capacitance)for the winding

5-7

5.3: EQUIVALENT NETWORK OF THE

TRANSFORMER WINDING.

In general, a two winding single phaseHF transformer can be representedby a model

four
(
).
in
In
5.4
Fig.
turns of primary and secondary
this
that
model,
shown
such as
inductance
includes
distributed
The
and resistance,mutual
model
windings are shown.
inductance, and three capacitances including, inter- winding, self, and ground
capacitance.The model equivalentcircuit was chosenfrom the physical considerationof
the distribution of both the electric and magneticfield.
The difficulties in selecting a correct network lie in two factors mainly, the analytical
solution that is used to solve it, and the degreeof complexity. Many analytical methods
have been used to solve the network of the winding equivalent circuit. Some of these
methodsare, nodal method [35], nodal admittancematrix method [10,38], eigen values
and eigen vectors [77], series expansionof the state transition matrix [5] and others.
Each method has its own limitation regardingthe degreeof complexity of the equivalent
circuit. The adopted numerical method to solve the model should show accuracy,
stability, deal easily with complex structure of the winding network, and be fast in
execution.
In this chapter,the transientvoltage distribution hasbeencalculatedusing the trapezoidal
rule of integration. Fig.( 5.5 ) shows the equivalent network of a single winding of the
transformer [5], including the mutual coupling between sections ( nodes ). In fact, it is
not easy to solve such a network numerically; the difficulty comes from the mutual
coupling. An obvious solution to this problem is to transfer the original network to an
equivalent uncoupled network [5] as shown in Fig.( 5.6 ). In order to validate this
network for the high frequency calculations,it must contain the maximum number of
branches(sections)that is possiblein an actual transformermodel.

5-8

INTEGRATION.

5.4: TRAPEZOIDAL

be
in
discussed
integration
the
can
The numerical
preceding section
algorithms
by:
differential
first
by
given
equation
order
generalised a systemof
dx
5.3
=f (X, 1)
dI
There are manynumericalintegration methodswhich may be used to solve this equation,
for instance,Gear, forward Euler, backward Euler, trapezoidal, and many more [77,78].
The trapezoidal algorithm is the integration used currently due to its high stability in
transient simulation. It is recommendedas the best choice for solving winding network
from all other possiblemethods[5].
The general form of the trapezoidal rule of integration that is used to solve equation
(5.3) is given by:
X,.

X.
-"
+I

[f

+At

(Xn)

tn+l)+f(X.

".

)l

5.4

It is clear from equation 5.4 that this algorithm is a two time steps formula, where the
values of f (x, t) are neededat two instants of time t,, and t,,., . Hence equation (5.4)
can be solvedin a stepby step procedurewith a variable or fixed time step (At),

until

the maximum time required is reached.In general, at any instant of time 'It", the past
history of the solutions are known from the previous time step, i.e. at "t-AI".

The

initial condition is the past history for the first time step (first program iteration) in the
analysis.Before continuing with the programming details, It is better to introduce the
trapezoidalalgorithm to the network elementsas detail below.

5-9

5.4.1: TRAPEZOIDAL RULE FOR INDUCTANCE

The voltage acrossthe inductancedue to the time varying current flowing through
it, is a first order differential equation, and therefore; the trapezoidal rule of integration
can be applieddirectly. The inductancevoltage is given by:
VI(l)

VI

V2

=Ldi5.5
dI

If the currentneedsto befoundat time "t", the integrationhasto be carriedout from the
past history I-AI,
i(t-At)

which yields:
t
)dl
(v,
+If
-v,
Lt-At

5.6

where the first part of equation (5.6) is the initial condition at the past history time. By
applyingthe trapezoidalrule of integration, the current at any time instant "t" is:
At I (t)
(1)]
5.7
+
v - V,
2L
The known previous ( history ) current is :
At
+
2L

5.8

In order to simplify both equations(5.7) and (5.8), the voltage VL acrossthe inductance

is :
At [VL
2L

5-9

VL

This equation( 5.9 ) can be interpreted as being the.equivalent circuit for an inductance
as shown in Fig.( 5.7a ).

5.4.2: TRAPEZOIDAL RULE FOR CAPACITANCE.

The procedurefor applyingthe trapezoidalrule of integrationin a capacitanceis

not
differentto that.appliedto an inductance,where the first
order differentialequation
representsthe current through the capacitance,and is given by :

5-10

(v, V, )
cd
dt

5.10

The solution at any instant of time, is the integration from the past to the time required,

[v
(t
W=
t)
V,
V,
-A
I

5.11

i(t)dt

+cf
I-at

Using the trapezoidalrule of integrationthis gives :

(t-Al)

2C I
VI(t)-v2(t)]
+
At

5.12

and the past history current is :

2C [V, (t-At)-V,
At

(t-At)]

5.13

The composedform of thesetwo equations(5.12), (5.13) is :

2C [V,
AI

5.14

V,

This equationcan be transferredto the equivalentcircuit shown in Fig. ( 5.7b )

It shouldbe observed,that the resistancein the Ohm's law relationremainsthe same

without any conversion,
-

VR(t)

The winding network elementsin Fig.( 5.6 ), can be replacedaccording to the equivalent
trapezoidal representationfor each element.This network can then be representedby a
resistivecircuit that can be solved using the well known methods, which will obey both
Kirchhoff s current and voltage laws.

5-11

5.5: THE NUMERICAL SOLUTION.

A numerical solution to analyselinear or dynamic networks which contain many

elementsis a priority for many researchers.A dynamic network meansone that contains
at least one capacitor or inductor or both. The trapezoidal rule of integration transfers
this network to an equivalentlinear resistivenetwork, the concern must then be to solve
the linear network. There are many books on computer network aided design which can
offer much support in solving any network numerically. The general detail of the
numericalmethod that is currently used is given by Chua [78]. Other methods available
to solve the winding network can be found in many publications [5,35].
The common procedure in all referencessolving the winding network is the nodal
equation.This equationcan be derived from Kirchhoff s current law ( KCL ), or voltage
law ( KVL ) this dependson the source used for an input and the degree of network
complexity. The current law is the simpleoption used to solve the network in Fig.( 5.6
with an input current source,the KCL is that the sum of the currents entering a node is
equalto the sum of the currents leaving this node. The voltage at eachnode, is merely a
straight forward calculation from the current through the ground capacitance that
connectsthis node. The total node equationshas to be arranged in a matrix form. In
order to solve this matrix, many techniques are available, Guassian elimination is
probably the most popular. The technique that is used here to solve this matrix is LU
factorisation [79,80,81]( this is sometimes called Crout reduction, or triangularization
The reasonfor using sucha techniqueis discussedin the following
sections.

5-12

5.6.1: LU FACTOMATION.

In general,a set of simultaneouslinear equationsin the equivalentform is given

by:
+s12x..............
+S,
s21xi 2-2x"+**********'**'***+s

slixi

+slnXn2Pl
P2
Xn

2n

5.15
sixi

+sn2X2+****'**'*******..

+S..

X.

Wherex,p could be branchcurrentsor nodevoltagesrespectively,and s is the branch

), n is the numberof nodesor branches.In matrix
element( resistance,
or conductance
form, equation(5.15)is:
Sil

S12

xi

S'l

S-121

xP2

Pi

5.16
sni

Sn,

LX ni

-,

Or in general,

LP nJ

SX=P

The usual procedure using Gaussian elimination begins by eliminating xi from equation
(5.15). For instance, if the first part of equation (5.15) is divided by s,,, multiplied by
S21,
and subtracted from the second line in equation (5.15) x,

is eliminated, and so on to

This procedure can be written in general form for all the elements
eliminate X2
Xn
9-**'**** *
in the matrix as follows; to eliminate the Kth column
equation, multiply by sK I, and
subtract the result from the Kth equation. This kind of elimination will continue until the
matrix is in triangular form, where the lower triangle of the matrix is equal to zero. The
last step is to divide the results by the diagonal
values to yield unity diagonals. The
number of multiplication and division required to obtain a unit diagonal is high and the

5-13

Gaussordering of theseoperation is often too restrictive. Again, if the solution needsto

be repeated for an intermediate point, the S matrix needs to be re-factorised for any
changein P. In order to overcometheseproblems,a more flexible and realistic solution
is used,it is calledLU factorisation.
The LU factorisation techniquestarts with dividing the S matrix into a lower triangular
matrix L, and an upper triangular matrix with unit diagonal U. For equation (5.16), the S
matrix can be transferredinto L and U matricesas shown:
fl,

00

t2l

U12
0

Uln

U=

0
t"

tnn-

Uln

5.17

0001

The elementsin the LU matrices are to be found in a recursive way involving the first
column of L and the first row of U and so on. In general, the calculation at the Kth
column is:
i-I

llik

eik

Sik

=S ik

I:

kj<k

M=j
i-I Cj,.
1:

5.18
kjk

M=j

Following the determinationof matrix elements( eqn.5.18 ), the solution can be

carried
out using both forward solution and back substitution. During the forward calculation,
the equation to be solved is LY=P(

comparewith the original equation SX=P.

which yields, the values of y. The back substitution involves solving UX=Y,

),

which

yields the requiredx values.

The computer program using this technique is a direct implementation
of equation
(5-18). An important point which needsto be handled
is
carefully the division of tj, ,
where if the column involving this division is zero, the value of "J is infinity ( this
k

5-14

).
This
full
due
is
however
less
the
to
matrix
representation
of a possibility
problem
problem can be solved by a rearrangementof the row-column to avoid such an error.
This form of row-column interchangeto locate a non zero tij is necessary,and a
has
been
developed.
[77,78,82]
to
this
subroutine serve
purpose

5.5.2: ANALYSIS OF LINEAR NETWORK.

In this section, attention will be paid to describingthe rules of forming a system

of nodal equations( admittancematrix ) for a linear network, and how the computer can
be usedto generatethem.
The transient analysiscan be carried out in either of two ways, state equation or nodal
equation. The state equations for any electrical network are derived from capacitor
voltage and inductor current, sinceknowledgeof the energystored in the network can be
determinedsolely from these variables.The state equation has a drawback of instability
and restriction in complex network solution [5,77]. This difficulty is reflected in its
suitability to solve a smallnetwork analyticallybut not numerically.
The nodal equationis the well known relation definedby :
I- Kirchhoff s current andvoltage laws and the relationshipbetweenthem.
2- Methods of combining structural and elementalvalues to give the complete circuit
definition.
All the above steps are necessaryto formulate any general form of the equations for
computer analysis using graph theory [78,79].

This theory allows the node-branch

connectionsfor the network to be introduced to the computer program in the form of a

table. In a large network involving many elements,an alternative way of placing this
connectioninformation is in a matrix called the node-branchincident matrix (A).

The

size of this matrix is given by nodestimes branches,where the column shows the branch
5-15

that connectsto eachnode and the connectionpolarity. In general,this matrix is given by

[a,,
]
follows:
branch,
j
denotes
i
denotes
A=
the
the
and
specified
as
and
node
where
.
i(
i
ifj
incident
),
is
i(
"-I"
ifj
incident
"I"
to
equal
at current
aii
equal
at current out of
into i ), and equal "0" ifj is not incident at L In any considerednetwork, one of the nodes
is a referenceto scalethe rest of nodes,and has to be removed from this matrix, since it
is assumedto be ground (OV). In terms of the node-branchconnection matrix (A),
the primitive admittance( or conductance) matrix Y(
(I-YE)
A' YAC
5.19
=A'

and

or G ), the nodal equation is

Where e- is the vector of nodes of the referencevoltages, I is the vector of current

sources,and E is the vector of voltage sourcesin each branch. The matrix A' gives the
node-node relations, where two possibilities of

connection are available. First, the

branch connectionis from the i node to the reference,so the only non zero element in
column k of A is a, k =I

1 from reference to node i ). econd from node i to node j

either of nodes is not a reference ), the only two non zero elements in column k of A are.
ai k=I

and a, k

1, the voltage between ij nodes Vk = Vin - Vin (n

is the number of

nodes ).

The vector of elementvoltage is V=E+e, where e is the branchvoltage related to e- by:

5.20
e- , thereforeV=E+A
eWith respectto equation( 5.20 ), equation( 5.19 ) can be rewritten as
[Y
(A
A'
e- + E) - 11=0 or VY =15.21
e=A

Once the element voltage is known, e- can be computed and

so on for the branch
currentsand nodevoltages.

5.6: PROGRAM DESCRIPTION.

Fig.(5.8) shows the flow chart of the simulation

program. The program starts with
the information suppliedin an input data file. The input information includesthe

network

element values where each is specified with initial and final node, in addition, the
5-16

elementsconnectedto the datum node are required( OV or ground ). The time step,
input
in
is
the
time
the
required
also
provided
maximum
and

initial condition at t=0,

data. The program interpretseachof theseelementsand replacesthem with an equivalent

accordingto the trapezoidalrule of integration. Thus the whole network is changedinto
a linear resistive network with a set of linear equations. At any instant of time these
equationsare given in a matrix form as :
[Y] [V (1)] =[ i(l)] [1,1
-

5.21

Where [Y] is the nodal admittancematrix, [i, Q)j is the node's voltage, [i(t)] branches
[I.
]
is the known current from the past history. Since equation (5.22)
current, and
involves the past history term, some of the quantities in this equation are known and
somenot at any step of time. Therefore; equation(5.22) can be rewritten as
[YI
]
[Y121
['21
[12 1
VIW=
11
il (1)
5.23
[Y12]11
[Y2,
(t)_
(t)_ 1,2
I]

Where the nodal admittance matrix with "I" contains the unknown node voltage,
"2" contains the known node voltage, [vj(I)] is the required quantities, and
is

knownfrom the pasthistory,the solutionmaywritten thenas

ly,

[ly

II

(1)]
1

[[
=

i(t)]

[It

11

[YI2

I' [V" (1)]

5.24

As explainedearlier in this chapter,at any time step there are two

stepsto yield the final

solution using the LU factorisation technique, forward solution and back substitution.
Before the program goesinto the time step loop and forward solution,
some preparations
are necessary.Theseinclude:

I -Buildingthe upperpart of the conductance

matrixin the sameway asexplainedbefore,
[
]
[
]
Y,,
that
the
Y,,
so
matrices
and
are solvedonly once'.
2- The specifiedcurrentsource[i, (1)] andthe pasthistory [Ij
are enteredon the right
handside of equation(5.24).

5-17

The solution of equation(5.24) has to be repeatedat each time step until the maximum
time required is reached.In each time step, the first part of the right hand side of the
back
forward
(5.24)
is
found
then
through
substitution to obtain
solution, and
equation
[vj (t)]

[v2(t)]
before
be
has
to
enteringthe next time step.
and
updated

5.7: PROGRAM ACCURACY.

The numerical solution of any integration method is not exact, there will always be an
accompanyingerror, this is becausethe numerical solution transfers the function of a
continuous curve into a curve with discrete points. There are two types of errors that
form the total errors. The first type is the round off error, sometimescalled the machine
error which is due to the finite numberof digits and dependson the computer used. The
seconderror is the truncation error, which is the error that results when the arithmetic is
imprecise ( algorithm error ). The total error may increase or decrease as the
computationproceeds.If the error decreaseswith an increasein the number of steps,the
numericalsolution is called stable.If the error increasesas the number of stepsincreases
the numericalsolution is called unstableand has no meaningpractically. Hence, it is vital
to check the value of the error during the numerical solution to ensure the method's
validity.
The error analysisin a computer program is performed from Taylor's series formula
dx
(x, t) x(O) = xO, the
[78,82]. In the case of a differential equation given by
-=f
dt
truncation error (T) is
T=x

(Tn

+1)-X

n +1

The first term x(, r,,

secondterm x,,

is the exact solution of x(t) at point r between 1. and t,,

+ 1)
+

The

is the solution found at the next time step (t,, +A t).

+,

In the present program a linear interpolation [83] for a point T located between
tn and tn

is used to calculate this error. However, the mathematics and numerical

+I

approachof this error is discussedin much detail in many references[77,78,81,82]. The

5-18

important thing here is the application of this error in the case of inductance and
capacitancewhich is :

T
T

At (I
-) -i(t-At)l
2C[i
At

('I

2LIV

-V

(t-At)l

This error is alwaysusedas a referenceto be comparedwith the next time step. In order
to prove the accuracy of the trapezoidal method in comparison with the original
capacitoror inductor an exampleis considered.In this examplea simple seriesRC circuit
is used,with an initial condition of IV at t=0 on the capacitor. For simplicity, the values
of R and C are consideredM and IF respectively.The solution of this example is to
find the voltage acrossthe capacitor at any time ( v(t) for t>0).
problem with a computer, the voltage function (V)

In order to solve this

has to be discretizedby selecting a

finite numberof moments(m). The distancebetweentwo momentsis At, thereforethe

totaltimeis:

t=At.

The exactsolution( stateequation) of this circuit V(t) =e Rc= e-' is comparedwith

the trapezoidalmethod.For this circuit the capacitordischargethroughthe resistor,the
dV
If the
voltageacrossthe resistorthenis V= -Ri, andthe capacitorcurrentis i=C
dt
voltagebelongingto rn ( V(m)) is found,the next stepvoltage(V(m+l)) canbe found.
Thetrapezoidalintegrationmethodfor the capacitorandresistoris asfollows
At
V( M+1 V (M) +
[i (m) +i m+1
capacitor)
2C
i m)

1/R) V (m)

i m+1

I/R)
V(
m+1
-(

resistor

Thetotal circuitvoltageis :
At
V( m+I
V (M) IV (M) +V( m+I
2CR
At
At
Consequently,
V( rn+I 1+
V (M) I), andthen:
2CR
2CR
I-At/2RC
V(m+, )=
V (M)
5.25
I+At/2RC

5-19

In order'to comparethe computedvalues from equation (5.25) with the exact solution,
the following table examinesdifferent time steps:

At

Exact Trapezoidal

0
0.2
0.4

0.82

0.82

0.67

0.67

0.6

0.55

0.55

0.8
1

4
5
10

0.45
0.37

0.45
0.37

0.14

0.13

* The valuesin this table are calculatedanalyticallyas follows, when the time step is 0.2
,
V( m+l) = (0.9 / 1.1 ) V(m), Therefore V(l) = (0.9/1.1)*V(O) = 0.82, and so on. These

described
different
found
the
to
those
using
program.
valuesarenot
numerically
Another way of examiningthe accuracy is for the voltage at a time of "I sec." to be
computed for different time steps. Fig.( 5.9) shows that the error which is generated
from 0.1 time step to 0.001. Sincethe error is reduced,the presentnumerical solution is
stable,so the time step shouldbe Ins.

5.8: NETWORK TRANSIENT RESULTS.

The whole network containing 14 sections is solved numerically. These sections

representingthe primary winding turns, and their elementvaluesare given in table 5.1.

Fig.( 5.10 ) showsthe voltagewaveformsat a numberof sectionswith respectto the

ground.It canbe seenfrom this figure that the voltageof one sectionis differentfrom
that of the next. If the network is resistive, there will be no voltage difference between
the sectionsexcept the resistive voltage drop. This case has been discussedin chapter
three when the model is solved for the magnetic field only (resistanceand inductance

5-20

hence
field
difference
to
Such
capacitive
and
set up
causesan electric
voltage
only).
(
due
drop
The
to
the
copper and eddy current winding
resistance
voltage
effects appear.
losses)follows a straight line reduction from a high value (supply voltage) to a low value
(ground). Since the network is dynamic,the voltage drop is not a linear reduction as in
the resistiveinductive network. The way this voltage reduces can show which of the
frequency.
If
dominates
(shunt
the
the
the
analysis
at
supply
or series)
capacitance
voltage drops in a curve that never exceedsthe supply voltage at any section, the series
in
has
the
than
the
the
shunt capacitance,otherwise
voltage
capacitance
more effect
middle sectionsof the winding goes higher than the voltage at the terminal. The series
capacitancemay causethe same effect if its value between adjacent conductors (only
while the rest of capacitancebetweennonadjacentconductors and ground are the same)
goes very low, in particular lower than five times than its original value. The additional
caseof winding overvoltage is by changingthe frequency of the input supply to double
the designfrequencyof the winding. In this case,the voltage in the middle section goes
higher than that at the terminal. These can be the main reasonswhy overstressingof the
winding occurs. If the applied voltage has the same frequency as one of the network
internal resonantfrequencies,then the winding experiencesan internal overvoltage. In
order to avoid and control an internal winding overvoltage, it is important to obtain the
winding internal resonant frequencies.These frequencies are vital for the transformer
designerat the designstage.
Fig.(5.11) shows the currents waveform in selected branches including adjacent,
nonadjacentconductors, and the load current. The current here is not as important as
voltage unlessanothertransientphenomenais consideredsuch as the inrush current. This
case is vital in particular at first switch on where the supply cu.ffent entering the
transformer is high and sometimesoverstressesthe winding. This case is vital to the
transformerdesignerso asto carefully consideredthe winding insulation thickness.
The resonant'frequencyof a winding dependson the self and mutual inductances,
and
capacitances.These frequencies can be clearly identified from the terminal network
winding) impedance.The frequencyresponseof the impedancecan be found from the
5-21

The
the
total
current.
terminal
the
network
voltage source and
network solution of
inverse Fourier transform [83] can be used to obtain the frequency responseof the
(
domain.
Fig.
in
frequency
but
directly
the
transientresults, or
using the sametechnique
5.12 ) showsthe network impedancefor the frequencyrange of I OKIU to 5OMHz. The
terminal resonant frequency is shown as a terminal maximum voltage and a terminal
impedanceminimum ( series resonance). The anti-resonanceof the parallel resonant
frequencyhasthe oppositeproperty. This calculationallows the determinationof the first
i.
impedance
(
first
frequencies.
The
e.
parallel resonance
resonant and anti resonant
by
found
is
by
Cg
Ll
The
to
the
are
n.
rest
of
parallel
resonances
caused
and
maximum)
LI to n with CI to n, and will therefore produce a further 14 principle resonant
frequencies(only the first six are presentin the graph shown). The seriesresonancesare
againthe combinationof LI to n with C1 to n, and they will produce 14 principle series
resonanceparts. The first two resonantfrequenciesdiffer as comparedto measurements
by 1.36 (parallel) and 1.19 (series).As a result, the transient responseof the network is
expectedto be different from that of the winding it represents[9]. The reasonsbehind
this could be that not enoughnetwork elementswere used in the analysis,or frequency
dependentvaluesshouldbe used.
The winding impedancecurve can also validate components of the proposed winding
equivalentcircuit. This allows the calculation of the total series equivalent and ground
capacitances.The equivalentserieswinding capacitanceis found to be of most concern
to researchers.The procedurefor finding the equivalent circuit of the winding from the
impedancecurve is explainedin detail in chapter four. For the first series and parallel
resonantfrequenciesand the lowest frequency range used in the curve, the equivalent
circuit could be representedby a seriesRL in parallel with a serieswinding capacitance,
and the whole is connectedto the ground capacitance.Using the chapter four procedure,
the equivalent series capacitanceis equal to 5.8pF in comparison to 4. IpF using the
mathematicalapproach [29]. The equivalent ground capacitanceis 1.25pF, inductance
4.2uH and resistance of 0.980hm. By examination of the impedance curve an
approximateequivalentcircuit can be constructed.At frequenciesbelow the first parallel
5-22

branches
RL
behaves
function
impedance
frequency,
as a combination of
the
resonant
frequency,
first
the
frequencies
At
the
resonant
parallel
above
without resonance.
capacitancecomesinto effect and a numberof resonancesare present.
Fig.( 5.13-to-5.16 ) shows,the network terminal impedancewhen the capacitancesof the
different network allocation are changed. By examining the capacitances between
five
decrease
increase
for
to
times their original values some
and
an
adjacentconductors
differencesare noticed. When adjacent capacitancevalues are increased(i. e. 0.152nF),
the frequency range between the series and parallel resonant frequencies decreases.In
between
impedance
falls
them, and corresponding parallel
the
sharply
addition,
curve
resonantfrequencies( secondparallel and over ) are well spacedwith respect to each
it
is
but
first
frequency
is
The
not easyto spot such a change
other.
also affected
parallel
in the figure due to the wide frequency range considered. The reduction in the first
is
is
because
the
parallel frequency small
adjacentconductors capacitanceonly changed(
part of seriescapacitance)and not the total capacitance( refer to Fig.(5.6)). Opposite
events occur when the capacitancevalues are decreased(6. IpF). When the ground
capacitanceis decreasedto five times its original value (i. e. 8.146pF), the frequency of
the first parallel resonanceis increased,but the first seriesresonantfrequency still has the
samevalue. When the ground capacitanceis increased(i. e. 0.203nF), both parallel and
seriesresonantfrequenciesare reduced and the number of internal resonant frequencies
are reduced.
This study of the capacitanceeffect has shown that the best response for the high
frequencywinding structure is obtained when the capacitanceis reduced. As was said
earlier, reducing the capacitancebetween adjacentconductors can increasethe stress of
the winding. Bearing in mind that the winding is part of the transformer and any
reduction in the capacitancereflects in an increasein the transformer size. The frequency
dependenceof the leakageinductanceand resistanceof the windings are also important
and needto be included.

5-23

5.9: MODELLING THE TRANSFORMER

BY NETWORK REPRESENTATION.

In this section, attention is paid in seeking the possibility of modelling the whole
has
been
discussed.
The
that
secondary
the
transformer using
network representation
in
to
be
that
the
used
way
as
network
same
equivalent
an
winding can modelled using
including
Indeed,
the mutual
the
the
elements
all
winding's
primary winding.
model
inductanceand distributed capacitanceof both windings can be found from FEM. This
if
but
it
is
has
transformer,
the
to
the
technique
suitable
most
possibility model
network
the primary winding turns are equal to the secondarywinding turns. Each turn of the
in
be
the secondary
the
turn
to
corresponding
primary winding can
connected easily
winding. In the casewhere the secondaryturns are more than primary turns ( as the case
),
/
26
14
turn
ratio
and the core window contains multiple
currently existing with a
layers of winding, such technique is hopelessly complex. In addition, modelling the
transformer by this technique needsa massivecapacity for the nodal matrix. For these
reasons,a model of this type has not been presentedfurther. It would be viable if the
calculationsnecessaryto produce equivalentcircuit terms could be automated.Adaptive
finite elementmethodtechniquesmight allow this.
Another approach which could be used instead is by modelling each of the windings
separatelyto calculate the input impedanceusing the same technique. The frequency
responseinput impedancecurve can be used to derive an equivalent circuit as discussed
earlier in this chapter. The elementsof the equivalent circuit can be found basedon the
resonantfrequency.The rest of magnetisingelementsand distribution capacitancemay
be found with the help of the FE program. In the ways described,it is clear that this
method lacks flexibility, becausea new model has to be built each time a new design is
required,and consequentlythis method is quite expensivein time.

5-24

5.10: SUMMARY

In the presentchapter,the approachhasbeentaken to model the transformerby the

equivalentnetwork representation.The procedurestarted with taking the primary
into
L,
R,
into
The
transferred
an
equivalent
winding
was
account.
primary
windingonly
finite
C
The
the
calculated
using
elementprogram
networkelementswere
and -network.
to solve both electrostaticand magnetostaticfields equationsindividually.Numerical
solutionof this networkwascarriedout usingthe trapezoidalrule of integration,where
eachelementis transferredinto an equivalentresistanceandindependent
currentsource.
Thewholenetworkthenappearsas a resistivenetworkwhich canbe solvedby the well
known method.The programusedhasbeendetailedand an examplehasbeengiven to
checkits accuracy.The transientanalysisis usedfirst to solvethe network numerically,
andan inverseform of fastFouriertransformis usedto obtainedthe frequencyresponse
of the input impedance.The effect due to the changesin the distributionand ground
havebeenintroduced.It wasobservedthat whatever
capacitance
on the inputimpedance
the numberof the network elementsused the actual resonantfrequencycannot be
reached.therefore,the methodlacks the flexibility and accuracyto model the whole
transformer.The method seemsmore suitable to study the transient.phenomena
associated
with singlewinding( overvoltage,surgecurrent,etc.).

5-25

.0:
dZ
.e
-0

W"
0

10

*r- E

to
tz

Oo fflBBOCIOCICIOL-i
C30cloclor--l

C308B

CIOD0800

008BBEBM00
EBEB938B
HE

20

Normal Flux Density Against Position

15
tf)

10

C)

-5
distancealong line(m)xlO**-4
0

20

Nonnal Flux Density Against Position

15
tn

10

1:

-5
distance along line (m) x 10 **-

Fig.(5.2): Normal electric flux densityat different winding

position.

on

BBBB
BBBBBB
BBBBBB
BHBC]Bn
cl 0
BBBHBH
BBB8B8
BBBHBB
BBBBBB
BBBBBS

BBBHBH
BHBBBB
BBBBBB
BBBBBB
HHH8

Fig.(5.3): Magnetic flux distribution, excitation at different

winding position.

SE

ctor cross section

Fig.( 5.4 ): Schematicmodel of two winding BF transformer

mi

-----------

n-1

Fig.( 5.5 ): Equivalent network of a transformerwinding

.1

C3n
n

i-i n
Cln-l

F-)
r

----------

------------

Of

162

'6n
C

Fig.( 5.6 ): Proposedwindingequivalentcircuit

I( t- At)
L
i(t)
::
-V2(
I( t-)F:
<
V(tj

>

t
R= 2L /A t
t -At)

C
i(t)
-W(t)
Vl(tf
<

V(t

>
R=A t/ 2C

Fig.( 5.7 ): Equivalent circuit of a) Inductance,b) Capacitor

start
Input data
prepare U-matrix
of LU factorisation
------------------------------------

is
t=0

print voltage and curr-ent

yed
yes

prepare
prepar L-matrix
of LU factorisation

.......... Fi
First
step
only
--------n
Update the first
right part of eSn. 5.,21tt

back substitution to obtain

v1(t) and v(t)

--------------------------------

i
forward solution on first righ
on eqn. 5.32, L-matrix

,'t=t,: \Yes
tmax>K!

stop

N
no

forward solution on first right

I
on eqn. 5.32, U-matrix

Fig.( 5.8 ): Program flowchart

0.018,
0.016-0.014-0.012-0.01
0.008
Ln
0.006-0.004-0.002-0--l
6qq

iii

U-)

C%j

CD

C=;

M
cm
R
co

0i
C: )

C3

CR
C)

CR
CD

Time step

Fig.( 5.9 ) Numerical error as a function of time step

150
100 .. I-,
50
0

5
-50
-100
-150
Time (us)
Node I

80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
0 -zu. uu
-40.00
-60.00
-80.00

Time (us)
Node6

40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00

0.00

ca
C -1 U.UU
-20.00
-30.00
-40.00
Time (us)
Node II

Fig.( 5.10 ): Voltage of the selectednodes

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
u

-0.50
-1.00
-1.50

Time (us)

(a)

0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

1
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
Time (us)

(b)

0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
U

0.10
-0.20
-0.30
Time (us)

Fig.( 5'AI

(c)

Branchescurrent, (a): Load, ( b): branch 1-7

(c): branch 1-14

1.OOE+05
I. OOE+04
1.OOE+03
1.OOE+02
CL

.9I.

I. OOE+01

OOE+OOL4mi66m
0.1
0.01

ii
1

10

100

( MHz )

Frequency

Fig. ( 5.12 ) Winding input Impedance

1.OOE+05 L-7::

-,
E
= 1.OOE+04
0
1.OOE+03

I. OOE+02
1.
OOE+01
4)
CL
1. OOE+00
0.01

0.1

Frequency(

10

100

MHz )

Fig. ( 5.13 ) Winding input impedanceWhen C between

Adjacent conductorsis increased( 0.152nF )

1. OOE+06
I. OOE+05
1. OOE+04
I. OOE+03
1. OOE+02
1.
OOE+01
CL

E 1.OOE+00
0.01

0.1

10

Frequency(

MHz )

100

Fig. ( 5.14 ) Winding input impedancewhen C between

is
adjacentconductors decreased(6.1pF)

1.OOE+05

,
E
= I. OOE+04
0
-V 1.OOE+03
1.OOE+02
M
1.OOE+01
10
CL
E

1. OOE+00
0.01

0.1

Frequency(

10

100

MHz )

Fig. ( 5.15 ) Winding input impedancewhen ground capacitances

decreased( 8.146pF)

1. OOE+04

I.
OOE+03
'r-,
0
1.OOE+02
"0
1.OOE+01
d)
'm
CL.
I. OOE+00
0.01

0.1

Frequency(

10

100

MHz )

Fig. ( 5.16 ) Winding input impedancewhen ground capacitances

increased( 0.203nF)

CHAPTER

SIX

TRANSFORMER ELEMENT SIMULATION

USING SPICE CONVERTER MODEL.

6.1: INTRODUCTION.

The Spice simulation program is a useful and important tool for power supply design.
This program can be consideredas an intermediate step between analytical design and
into
before
insight
design
It
their
testing.
problems
and
solution
practical
provides more
for
forms
basis
it
is
implemented.
Hence
time,
cost
and
a
system
saves
any practicalwork
improvement. Spice can also be used as a tool for evaluation of potential problems,
which could destroy the semiconductordevicesif a practical circuit was built without a
imbalance
instance,
For
that can
the
prior understandingof
volt-second and
problem.
pushthe transformerto work in the saturationarea.
The Spice program starts by placing the required circuit elementsbetween nodes. The
program reads all the circuit information through a file called the "net list" file. In this
file, the program translates the original circuit drawing, their elements, and initial
conditions. A circuit model can either be built from discrete componentsor using the
componentsthat already exist in its library. The computer run time tends to be long due
to the numberof iterations attempted. Of coursethis is aided through the use of a very
fast computer but Spice none the less can be very cumbersome.This problem will be
exacerbatedif many sub-circuits have'been selected and linked together to form the
whole circuit as is the case here, where a full bridge converter needsto be simulated.
Finally, the associatedanalysisspecifiedin the input net-list file will then be executedby
entering the "spice" command. The Spice program, stores the simulation results
requestedin either an output listing file, or as a graph data file. It has a complete set of
prints and graphscalled "probe" for viewing the analysisresults.
6-1

The main concernof this chapteris to examinethe transformer element's behaviour and
their interaction with the resonant tank elements during normal converter operation.
Generalinformation is given about this converterincluding its principles of operation, the
Nowadays,
in
it,
for
interest
the
transformer.
the
problems
associated
with
and
reasons
there is much interest in resonantconverters, series,parallel or a combination of seriesdc-dc
is
depends
being
The
the
on
whether
power
conversion
classification
parallel.
is
A
the
through
the
or
resonant
current
voltage.
called
converter
resonant
achieved
seriesloaded when the load is in serieswith the resonantcircuit elements( inductor and
in
capacitor series).The operatingcharacteristicof this type of converter tends towards a
current sourcewith a high output impedance( high output voltage ). A parallel loading
converter has the opposite characteristics. The series-parallelconverter combines the
operatingcharacteristicsof both types.
The magnetic components( transformer and inductor ) that exist in any power supply
unit reducethe opportunity for improvement.Therefore, a better understanding through
the simulationof thesecomponentscan turn theseundesiredeffectsto an advantage.
The work in this chapter is an extensionof previous researchin this area [44]. In this
reference,simulationwas carried out to examinethe transformer elementsfor a 20KHz
half bridge converter.'The ratio of the switching frequencyto the resonantfrequencywas
0.4. In the presentchapter,the work is extendedto simulatea full bridge seriesresonant
converter. The transformer equivalent circuit currently used is a high frequency
transformerand it obviously containsmore elementsthan that at 20KHz. In addition, the
simulation is carried out above and below resonant frequency and at a different
frequenciesratios. The simulation program used in this chapter is not the same as that
usedby [44].

6-2

6.2: SIMULATION ADVANTAGE.

Megahertz frequencypower supplieshave receiveda high amount of researchsattention

recently [33,48]. In this zone of operation, the resonant converter types are the only
frequency,
designed
(
The
two)
to
this
transformer
chapter
at
was
work
choice available.
finite
The
it
the
elements
program.
effects of the transformer
simulated
using
and was
elementsare the main concern of the presentwork. The transformer was designedas a
has
be
(
high
the
to
type
transformer,
therefore
converter
series
of
and
voltage
step up
converter ). The practical circuit of the presentpower supply ( chapter two) was given
frequency
[45].
below
500KHz
The same circuit
the
of
above
and
resonant
previously
has been improved and built here again at I MHz frequency operation. The results in
chapter two provide the basis of the simulation validity for the case currently studied.
Bearing in mind that the aim here is to examine the behaviour of the transformer
elements within the converter, the reasons behind not examining these elements
practically is as follows:
I- The principlesof the transformer equivalentcircuit is well known which simplifies the
analysis.It is difficult to implementpractically, unlessfive or more different transformers
are designed.Each of these transformerswill provide an examinationof a combination
such as high / low inductance( leakageand magnetising),and capacitance( ground and
distribution). This is rather difficult practically. Even assuming that all the above is
possible,difficulties still exist due to the following:
a- The difficulty of controlling the values of these elements,where examining these
elementspractically meansthere are some degreesof flexibility to change their values
within a specificrange.
b- Many converters have to be designed for different duties, so a different control
techniqueis required in each case.It is well known that each of these elementshas a
great influenceon the power supply particularly in resonantconverters.
2- The optimum power supply solution and performance is found when the supply
frequencymatchesthe transformerresonantfrequency.From the open circuit impedance
6-3

is
)
(
OOKHz
I
the
exists
either
about
which not
curve,
voltage resonant parallel resonant
is
2.4MEz,
the one currently
the
approximately
which
under
present concern or at
investigated in this chapter. Care must be taken at this frequency where the
if
destroyed
be
devices
could
semiconductor

resonant frequenq is approached too

closely.
In any case,the simulationcan provide a clear insight in the behaviour of the transformer
interaction
in
Megahertz
their
the
with the re',onant tank elements.
and
zone
elements
The existence of inductances ( leakage, magnetising ), and capacitances( ground,
distributed ) can turn to an advantage.Theseelementscan be arraiged to form a series
or parallel resonanttank, with no additional discretecomponentsmIquired.For instance,
many researchershave alreadyused the leakageinductance as a resonant tank element
[55]. The magnetisinginductancehas also been used as resonant alements[47,48], but
under specialtreatment.The treatmentwas basedon the fact that the primary winding is
shorted during the resonant stage due to the simultaneousconduction of the output
rectifier ( when a full bridge output rectifier is used).

6.3: CONVERTER

MODEL

The model used to simulate the converter above and below resonant frequency is not
significantly different to the practical model. The simulated model follows the same
stagesthat were discussedin chaptertwo. The simulation difficultias involved with each
stagewill be explained.Every effort hasbeenmadeto reducethe differencesbetweenthe
practiceand the simulation.In both resonantcases( aboveand below ) the resonanttank
inductor consistsof the reflected leakageinductanceof the transfojmer in the primary in
serieswith an external inductor. The transformer has been placed betweenthe resonant
inductor and the capacitor.Practically, this arrangementhas an ad-vantage,where in the
6-4

full bridge converter, an ON pair in one half cycle may have a different storagetime than
the secondhalf. This means,the on-voltage drop in both MOSFET legs may be unequal,
is
This
to
the
transformer
the
primary
unequal
as
well.
applied,
and
volt-second product
loop
hysteresis
to changewhich saturatesthe core and this
the
the
centre of
can cause
flux
imbalance
is
damage
device.
In
this
to
the
avoid
a
capacitor
order
usually placed
can
in serieswith the transformer.
It is obvious, that the switching signal of the present converter is arranged to give a
both
below
frequency.
tank
the
above
and
across
resonant
quasi-squarewave voltage
The inductor ( and/or transformer leakage inductance) and the capacitor forming
together the tank of the seriesresonantcircuit. Another advantageof the inductor is to
charge and dischargethe capacitanceof the devicesto achieve zero voltage switching
and hencereducethe switching losses.
In general,when any of the devices(MOSFET) is turned off, its capacitanceis charged
by the main supply dc voltage. This capacitancehas-tobe dischargedprior to turning the
device on to achievezero voltage switching, and this reducesthe switching losses.there
are two ways of doing this, either supplying a negative current to discharge the
capacitance,or to causeit to oscillatewith an externalinductor. The sametechniquecan
be employedto achievezero current switching, but'.instead of a capacitor an inductor is
used, and a negativevoltage applied to dischargethe inductor energy or to cause it to
oscillate with a capacitor. Thesetwo techniques( zero-current, zero-voltage ) are very
important for any converter operating in the Megahertz zone to damp the switching
losses.

6.3.1: INPUT STAGE.

'Theinput stagehasalreadybeendiscussedin chaptertwo and consistsof two parts, a

rectifier and a filter circuit. The simulatedinput dc voltage can be taken from a full
bridgerectifiermodelof a sinewavesourceinput.Thevoltagedrop in the input rectifier
diodescanalsobe takeninto account.For the bestaccuracy,the wholeconverterhasto
6-5

be simulatedin lessthan onenanosecond

time steps.Oneproblernthat arisesis that of
(
)
input
time
the
step
msec.
with the converter time step of
matching
rectifier
faster
Hence,
than the whole converter.
the
can
run
circuit
alone
rectifier
nanoseconds.
This problemmaybe overcomeby runningthe program to msec.,which allowsthe dc
is
it
large
build
However,
this
to
a
quite
expensive
way
as
requires'a
amount
up.
voltage
is
dc
input
An
time
to
time.
run
of
saving
E.
pure
source
alternative
way
use
of computing
that containsa completelyripplefreeoutput.

6.3.2: POWER, ISOLATING, AND CONTROL

STAGES.

The equivalentn-channelMOSFET circuit model that is used for the transient analysisis
shown in Fig.( 6.1 ), in which all the data can be obtained from the manufacturersdata
sheet. This model was given previously by Ram et al [84]. 'rhe drain to source
capacitance(Cds) is introducedin the presentwork for high frequencyvalidation [85]. In
this model, three capacitancesare typically used, and their values are given in the
manufacturersdata sheet.First is the gate to source capacitance,usually referred to in
the manufacturerdata sheetas the input capacitance( Ciss ). Secolid, is the gate to drain
capacitancereferred to as the reversetransfer capacitance( Crss ). Third, is the drain to
source capacitanceusually referred to as the output capacitancei. Coss ). The gate to
drain capacitance(Cgd) is equalto Crss at high Vds, Cgs is equal to Ciss minus Crss at
high Vds, and Cds is Coss minus Crss at zero Vds. A non-linear current source (J)

is

used to model the forward drain source current and the static body diode. The step by
stepdetail of calculatingthe elementsof the MOSFET equivalentc rcuit is given in many
references[85,86].
The clamped shotcky diode is available in the spice program lit rary. The rest of the
diodes are modelled by the diode model given in Fig.( 6.2 ) [8 4]. In this model the
parametersconsist of resistance,two non-linear current sources-:o model the forward
6-6

detail
The
layer
depletion
inductance,
leakage
capacitance.
and
and backward currents,
in
[85,86].
is
of the way to calculatetheseparameters explained
in
bridge
looks
MOSFETs
the
isolating
easier
converter
the two top
The problem of
of
be
the
in
There
this
using
two
either
achi.
can
-ved,
ways
than
are
practice.
simulation
Spicelibrary optoisolator model or assigningthe circuit to a different ground.
involving
by
is
a type three
control
circuit
The switching signal provided
a very simple
(6.4).
in
The-e
Fig.
six
unknown
are
shown
as
comparator
and
amplifier
error
be
By
two
the
in
of
resistances
to
choosing
any
selected.
the
amplifier
error
components
design
be
found
four
the
)
R3
Rl,
the
at
can
readily
remaining
arbitrarily,
and
say
frequency[50,85]. The four equationsrequired are two zero's frec.uenciesat C2 R3 and
RIR2CI, and two pole frequencies R3C2C3, and CIR2. The output of the error
be
5V
is
is
3V
to
sawtooth
a
compared
with
amplitude
within a
amplifier -which
four
hen,.
MOSFETs
the
During
and
e
rapidly,
changes
the
simulationnothing
waveform.
i.
the
from
different
be
control
c.
signals,
without
switching
as
sources
supplied
may
low
is
has
Nevertheless,
this
proved to give an error which 1elatively small at
circuit.
frequencybut grows asthe frequencygoeshigher.

6.3.3: TRANSFORMER

MODEL

The simplifiedtransformerequivalentcircuit model derived in chapterfour is used in this

hence
losses
In
this
the
no resistances
are neglected,and
core and copper
analysis.
model
heavily
in
known
has
However,
the
was
studied
effect
a well
which
exist.
resistance
chapterthree. The model consists of leakageinductancesand diaribution capacitances
for both primary and secondary windings, magnetising inductance, and ground
by
the turns ratio
All
to
the
the
side
primary
capacitance.
secondaryelementsare referred
of 14/26as explainedpreviously. Surprisingly,researchersin this a-ea [36,44], have been
in
their
transformer
value the audio
concernedabout
elementsand ways of estimating
frequencyrange ( 20KHz ), but no further study, very few have been concernedabout
6-7

theseelementsfor higher frequenciessuch as those in the megaher-:

z zone. It is logical to
think that the most visible effect of these elementsis present at this higher frequency.
Again, all the power suppliesoperating in the megahertzzone art: of the resonanttype,
be
This
the
tanlic
these
the
could
resonant
elements.
can
added
with
elements
and
value of
lead to a seriousconsequenceas it may push the power supply to work out of its design
frequency which can cause failure. A further study of these el4%,
ments can turn their
inductors
be
for
into
there
then
or
and
will
no
need
extra
an advantage,
undesiredeffect
capacitors.
The transformer simplified equivalent circuit replaces the origirial transformer of the
power supply circuit. However, the equivalentcircuit can be arrangedin a different way
if required using a, dependentcurrent and voltage source [84]. But in this case the
is
does
be-muse
this
transformer
the
elements
not
purpose of examining
possible,
circuit
not containtheseelements.

6.4: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION.

Fig.( 6.3-6.4 ) show a seriesresonantconverter and its gating ignals above resonant
frequency [45]. The converter circuit, gate signals, and principle of operation below
resonant frequency has already been discussedin chapter two. Hence, the operation
principle of this section is concernedwith the case where the switching frequency is
higher than the resonant tank frequency. The ratio of the switcling frequency to the
resonantfrequencyis consideredto be 1.2, in a similar mannerto tl le value of 0.8 for the
casebelow resonantfrequency.
The way of selectingL and C of the resonanttank is not arbitrary. During the resonant
frequencycalculation, the selection of any L or C will be at the expenseof the other.
Usually for optimum operation, the characteristicimpedanceof the resonanttank (Z)
has to be matched with the load impedance( Zload ), which I -.ads to the following
relationships:
6-8

J L
Zload,
2;
rf
coo
=
-,

L=

fLc
.,

ZI

C=
and
,
0)0
cooZ

The switchingfrequencycanbe selectedthen from eitherof 1.2 or 0.8 at the resonant

frequency(w,,
Although,the switchingsignalsin Fig.( 6.3 ) haveshownthe sequences
of operationof
be
further
here.
beginning
diodes,
At.
MOSFETs
the
point
will
mentioned
a
of a
and
all
new cycle, TI and T2 are conducting,and so the current is circulatingthrough the
diodes
( DI and D2 ), are conductinguntil the
inductor.
The
two
antiparallel
resonant
its
inductor
resonant
currentchanges polarity. At this momentthe resonantcapacitor
chargesto a maximumvoltage.WhenDI andD2 areturnedoff, the currentdischarges
the capacitorvoltage,whereit reacheszerowhenTI is turnedoff. The inductorcurrent
startsto flow throughT2 and D3 chargingthe capacitor.The negativecycle of the
resonanttank followsthe sameprocedure,andthe processrepeatsitself.
It clearlyfollowsthat the antiparalleldiodesof anytwo MOSFETsare conductingfor a
shortperioduntil the resonantcurrentchangesits polarity.Therefore,the principleis to
turn the devicesoff at zero voltage.This proceduremay not help to reducethe losses
Megahertzunlessa capacitoris placedacrosseach
practicallyat frequencies
approaching
of the MOSFETs.This capacitorcanhelpto force zero voltageswitchingto reducethe
turn on lossesof the device.Anothersolutionis to introducea short deadgap between
eachof the two legs of the MOSFETs,where the diode is conductingprior to its
MOSFET.ThezerovoltageswitchingON canthenbe forcedto work.
associated

6.5: TRANSFORMER ELEMENTS AND

POWER SUPPLY PERFORMANCE.

In the simplified transformer equivalentcircuit given in chapter four, some points are to

beobserved.Thelow cut off frequency( first parallelresonantfrequency) is determined

6-9

by the magnetisinginductanceand ground capacitance. The high cut off frequency (

second parallel resonant frequency ) is determined by the leakage inductance and
distribution capacitance. The arrangement of all the elements in the transformer
equivalent circuit determinesthe seriesresonantfrequency. Therefore, any changein the
values of theseelementswill reflect a changein the appropriate resonantfrequency. The
clear insight to the influenceof theseelementsthen is by examiningeach of the elements
individually.
Fig. ( 6.5 ) and Fig. ( 6.6 ) show the results of the power supply simulation. Since all of
the transformer elementsare referred to the primary side, the resonant voltages and
by
the turns ratio. These figures
currents are referred to the transformer primary side
show the resonant tank and resonant capacitor voltages. In addition, the figures also
show the resonantinductor

current ( primary current ), and the secondarycurrent of

the transformer.The results of thesetwo figures are calculatedfor both casesi.e. where
the switching frequency is above and below resonant frequency. The ratio of the
switching frequencyto the resonanttank frequency is consideredas 0.8 and 1.2 below
and above the resonantrespectively.The output load is assumedto match the resonant
_IC,
impedance
tank characteristic
(Z=J,
).
In order to show the effect of the transformer elements,waveforms under the normal
operation of the power supply are consideredfirst. The first element to be examinedis
the magnetisinginductance. When the magnetising inductance is removed ( i. e. open
circuited ) as shown in (b)

of both figures, the gFoundcapacitancenow is part of the

resonanttank capacitor. The voltage across-the resonant tank capacitor is reduced by

0.72 and increasedby 1.2 of the normal operation for below and above resonance
respectively. The reason is that as the resonant capacitor is increased, the resonant
frequencyis reduced,and hencethe resonantfrequencyis
away from the seriesresonant
frequencyof the transformer when working below resonant frequency,
and close to the
seriesresonantfrequencyin the caseof working above resonantfrequency.That means
referring to the impedancecurve in chapterfour), the voltage is reduced below resonant
and increased above resonant frequency. It should be noticed, that the switching
6-10

I
frequency
for
is
be
frequency
the
the
transformer
to
a
series
resonant
of
near
selected
better performance.

The observation of the currents in both windings indicates an

is
first
due
This
in
to
the
the
cut off
shifting
oscillation
secondary current.
oscillation
frequency to the value that it very close to the dc, by removing the magnetising
inductance. The switching frequency is far away from the series resonant frequency, and
the frequency ratio may be less than 0.05. The oscillation no longer exists in the above
indicates
inductance
has
fact
for
This
that
the
the
magnetising
resonant case
same reason.
the major effect in the below resonant case but not in the above resonant case.

The samesituation is shown in the casewhen the ground capacitanceis removed (c

For the samereasonabove,the voltage acrossthe resonanttank is increasedby 1.1 and
is
frequency
by
The
below
0.7
oscillation
respectively.
reduced
and above resonant
reducedby 50% as comparedto that when the magnetisinginductanceis removed. This
oscillation no longer exists in the casewhen the switching frequency is higher than the
resonanttank frequency.
Neglecting the distribution capacitancebetweenthe winding turns has not introduced any
resonant tank voltage effect in both casesunder study ( above and below ). This is
becauseit has nothing to do with the resonanttank frequency, but this effect becomes
greater if the converter is parallel loaded rather.than series.Therefore, it can be used as
resonanttank element in the parallel resonant converter but not in a series converter.
However, in the case under study the waveforms given in (d)

of both figures have

shown a large reduction in the secondarycurrent oscillation when this capacitanceis

removed. Practically, this reduction in the capacitancewill be at the expense of an
increasedleakageinductance.

Throughthe examinationof the aboveandbelow resonantcases,it seemsthat the best

caseis the aboveresonantcase.Thetransformerelementshaveshowna limited effecton
the power supplyin comparisonwith the below resonantcase.In the below resonant
inductanceandthe groundcapacitance
casewhenboth the magnetising
areremoved,the
result is shownin (e). Removingthe magnetisinginductancemeansno magnetising
first
Here,
the
currenti.e. aninfinitelypermeable
cut off frequencyno longerexists.
core
6-11

The seriesresonantfrequencyof the transformer is dominatedby the leakageinductance

both
distribution
the
primary and secondarywindings. It should be
and
capacitanceof
is
An
transformer.
to
this
that
core
an
air
air core will
equivalent
noticed
case not
increase the magnetising current i.e. make the magnetising inductance smaller. The
ground capacitancecannotbe removedby an air core due to the existenceof the winding
ground, but this is lessthan using a core. Usually the closest ground is the core, and the
problem of increasingthe leakagewill be much higher in the air core than when using a
core. It would be better if the reduction of the ground capacitancewas of the same
magnitudeas the reduction in the distribution capacitanceas shown in (f)

of the same

figures. This can be consideredasthe best caseof working below resonantfrequency.

The ratio of the switching frequency to the resonant frequency has also been under
attention. The simulationhas shown that when the ratio is reducedto 0.4 insteadof 0.8,
a change is introduced to the resonant tank voltage. Within the normal tank voltage
waveform there is a partial chargeand discharge.In addition the oscillation gets worse as
the ratio is reducedlower than 0.8. When the ratio goes higher than 1.2 above resonant,
the low frequencyoscillation (a little bit is shown in the secondarycurrent in Fig. ( 6.6 ))
is getting worse. In this case,the resonant tank capacitor has to be split between the
primary and secondaryto reducethe low frequencyoscillation [36].

6.6: EFFECTS OF TRANSFORMER ELEMENTS

ON THE OUTPUT.

In this section, the investigation is continued to study the effect of the elementson the
output voltage of the power supply. The examinationtook place by changingthe values
of each of the elementsindividually. The calculated results.are given in normalised
values.The normalisedrelation of ( Vo/nVin ), where n is the turns ratio is used for this
6.12

in
0.4,0.8,
1.2
frequency
Three
are
considered
as
shown
of
and
ratios
casesat
purpose.
Fig. (6.7abc).
In Fig.( 6.7 a ), the value of the distribution capacitanceis changedto higher and lower
by
is
different
1.65
its
The
to
at
a
value
than
reduced
output
original value.
-which
frequency ratio of 0.8, compared with a frequency ratio of 0.4 at below resonant
frequency. At one value of the distribution capacitancethe output reachesthe minimum
is
level
the
indicates
to
the
The
that
the
maximum
minimum
of
magnitude
graph
value.
best at 0.8 rather than that at 0.4. As previously discussed,the distribution capacitance
determines the second cut off frequency, where as its value increases the cut off
frequencyis reduced.Therefore, the minimum value of the curve representsthe point at
The
frequency
the
transformer.
the
of
resonance
switching
matches with parallel
which
frequency
1.2
in
happens
the
the
above
of
ratio
of
case
same and opposite situation
both
inductance
frequency.
If
are
the magnetising
and ground capacitance
resonant
is
1.8%
drop
4.2%,
2.3%,
is
The
drop
at
and
the
small.
removed,
output voltage
frequencyratio of 0.4,0.8 and 1.2 respectively.
Fig.( 6.7 b) shows the case of changing the value of the ground capacitance.In both
below resonant cases ( 0.4, and 0.8 ), the output is reduced as the capacitance is
increased.The reduction is steeperat a frequencyratio of 0.4 but less of a reduction at a'
frequencyratio of 0.8. The effect of changingthe capacitanceis less at the ratio of 1.2,
and the output increasesas the ratio is increasedabove the resonant frequency. If the
magnetisinginductance is removed, the voltage drop on the output is greater. At a
ground capacitanceof 12nF, the drop is 17%, 11.3%, and 7.5% at frequency ratios of
0.4,0.8, and 1.2 respectively.
In Fig.( 6.7 c), the magnetisinginductancevalue is plotted againstthe output voltage. As
is well known this inductanceis a function of the core current. As -the core current is
increased,the value of this inductanceis decreaseduntil saturationwhen its value is zero.
Practically this inductancevalue can be changedwithout affecting the other transformer
elementsby changingthe core air gap. In both below resonantcases,the output reaches
a maximumat one value of the magnetisinginductance,this is called the optimum value
6-13

[44]. The magnetisinginductanceat which this maximum value occurs is different at 0.8
than at 0.4. This meansthat less air gap is required as the ratio is increased.The same
effect can be seen in the ratio of 1.2, but the output voltage is increased as the
for
is
inductance
increases.
The
this
that as
reason
maximum
occurring
magnetising
value
the magnetisinginductancevalue is reduced from that originally used by the equivalent
increases
frequency.
first
frequency
to
that
the
the
match
circuit,
cut off
of
switching
This meansthat the switching power supply is working in the area of resonance.If the
ground capacitanceis removed,the effect of the magnetisinginductanceon the output is
negligible. the voltage drop with respect to the normal operation is 2.2%, 4.1%, and
1.8% at the frequencyratios of 0.4,0.8 below, and 1.2 aboveresonantrespectively.

6.7: SUMMARY.

The simulationwas carriedout to studythe effect of the transformerelementson the

Many caseshavebeenconsideredby examiningeachof the
powersupplyperformance.
transformerelementsindividually. The full circuit was simulatedin a step by step
procedureusingthewell knownSpiceprogram.Thetwo casesat whichthe simulationis
performedarewherethe switchingfrequencyof the powersupplyis higherandwhereit
is lowerthanresonanttank frequency.
It was found that the best performanceis achievedat frequencyratio of 0.8 below
resonantand 1.2 aboveresonant.As the switchingfrequencyis increasedto megahertz
for instance,the best choiceavailableis the caseof 1.2 aboveresonant.This casehas
shown a stablepower supply performanceand a very limited deteriorationof the
transformerelements.If the below resonantpower supplyrequiredthen the frequency
ratio of 0.8 is advisable.Whenthis is requiredat a higherfrequencyoperation,more
A circuit requiring
effort is requiredto reduceboth groundanddistributioncapacitances.
low capacitance
to groundpresentsa specialchallengeto the transformerdesigner.In
orderto reducethis capacitance
a corewith a largewindowis required.In this casethere
is no point in increasingthe frequencyto achievelower sizedmagneticcomponents.
The
6-14

results also show that reducing this capacitancecan causean undesiredoscillation in the
distribution
Reducing
the
capacitanceis a better choice than reducing
secondarycurrent.
the ground capacitance.The distribution capacitancecan be reduced by increasingthe
by
dielectric
dielectric
between
lower
to
and
changing
a
space
conductors
material with
constant. There is an unavoidable increase in the leakage inductance when the
is
between
decreased.
turns
capacitance
winding
In order to avoid all of these difficulties, the above resonantfrequencyratio of 1.2 is the
best solution at higher frequencies( above500KHz ).

6-15

drain
Ld

Staticbodydiode
-------------------------

Rd
I
Cgd

gate Rg

Rb

Jm Cd'
Cgs

Jd
Rs,

Rgs

Ls

Cbl

'Ro

Cb2

--------------------------

source

Fig.( 6.1 ): High frequencyMOSFET model

Fig.( 6.2 ): Diode model

Tl
T2
E- T3
: T4

:; F--j

--I

1 TI T2 D3 T41T4
_4

-2

VU
tank

3
D3
4
D,
2':
Vcr

Ir
--I.

Fig. ( 6.3 ): Switching signals

Cs

Cp

Cr

Lr
Co

Vin
CgIlLm

3 33pF

RI IK
KCI
R3 c- R2

SwitcFingsignals(B-ase
Z

llocl
oci

Fig.( 6.4 ): Spicepower supply model

3300fl 03uF
.
.
+ - Vreference

Below resonant, simulated waveforms: (a) Normal operation,

(b) no Lm, (c) no Cg, (d) no Cd, (e) no Lm, and no Cg, (f) no
C9, and no Cd

Fig-(6-5).

(a)
2101

..........................

.......................

-too-

.........................................

-U,

.....

...............................
2..
V(a2)
-V(,. 1 . V2(Cr)

op, r, -. L,. -

4-1

"It

...................

.................

....

- l (Ct)

..............

"t.,
T-

(b)

P:

* -------------

* ............

-------------------------

--------------------------

* ...................

----------

-----------------...........................
V2 (C.. ) -1 ic')

M. )

IL"

(c)

2007,2

17

-----------

----------------------------------------

--------

P, L-y

.....

------------------------

d.. y
ji

\\,;

1001-

J,
lr

-0.34i:
-----

------------

-----------------

.......

----------

V(.2) -J, J) VZ(Cr)- VI(C,j 06U. TILII - ZILIP

S..

-------------------

................

(d)
2 OOV

'A --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2,

ry

pri..

-----

cu--

...

------

-d-y

'A

-O.Sh"

-low

W .........
-2.01

-V(.

-------------------

-------------------------

--------------------V(21

Cd

2..
. VZ (Cr)

1)

- VI(C,

(l

...

-----------

6.1

----

--------------

(e)

....

..................................................................................................

P. 1-.

y C. 'r-t

0. !A

", t
tV-

CA. '

..........
---------------

----------------------------------------------------

Vf, 2)-

V(, I)

- VZ(C, ) -VI(C,

(f)
211-

0N

01-

----

-------------------------------------------------------------------------

0.5A,

Ok

v lo,
.

Oovi

-0.5A

L-J
--l

- 11 C9,

Ild

----------------------------(Ill

V2(CI)

VIKI)

Cd
............

-------------

Fig,.(6-6) Above resonant, simulated waveforms.. (a) Normal operation,

(b) no Lm, (c) no Cg, (d) no Cd, (e) no Lm, and no Cg, (0 no
Cg, and no Cd
I

(a)
2

5-

loov -0

I-jI---I.,.

\0i

.I.

IW7U.

7-

. V2(C. ) -

- 11.1

..

............................................................................

...................
2,2,. V
I-.

1-

6-

1%.

(b)
I

'IJV-.

1. "7

* ..............

-------------------------------------------------------------------------

**

0. SA

0.

cv
cov

-200,

q-

-0 SA

-1 oAo3

--------------

-------------

[71

v(, 2)

-v(,

i i

V2 (c,

......

...............................

10-

vi (cr;

(c)

200"

------------

--------------------------------------------------------------

...................

5A

v"LL. LJ
Ci

------------------------------------------------------------",
11
-----------V(62)

-V(,

Il

- VZ(C-)

- VI(Cr)

.............

NUI

- . 11.1
Ti..

(d)

.............................................

!C -I -

0. sx,

..........................

...........................

74

------------------Vf, 2)

------------------------------------------------------------2
. V2(C, ) - vl(C)

-1,11

-----------------

(e)

* ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------

12

-1"

"

J\
}'
iK,,
;
:
I'

.
V;. 2)

2K

-V(11)

------------

.......................

........................
l (C.

--------------------

(L I
Ti-

(f)
22!.:

17

----------------------------------------------------------------------

ci

---------------

................
2..

V112)

-V(11)

V21CI)

-V. Kr

..........

-----------------------;, IILII

---------

--

...

Vo /n Vin

1
0.9
0.8

0.7
0.6
1-fo/fs=0.8

-*-fo/fs=0.4

0.5

15

10

05

fo/fs=1.2
20

/- U

Cd (nF)

L, = 3.36pH, 4=0.8 6pH, L. = 187pH, Cs = 12.3nF

(a)
Vo/nVin

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

3.36pH,

1.2

30

20

10

40

50

Cg (nF)
0.86pH, L. = 187,uH, Cd = C, 1.3nF& C, 5.1InF
(b)

Vo/nVin

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-fo/fs=0.8

0
100

200

-*-fo/fs=0.4 -n-fo/fs=1.2
300

400

500

600

Lm (uH)

4=3.36pH, 4 =0.86pH, Cg = 12.3nF, Cd =C, 1.3nF&C25.llnF

(C)
Fig.( 6.7 Output voltage againstthe transformerelements

luu

CHAPTERSEVEN
"EXACT" TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

7.1: INTRODUCTION.
In any circuit, the behaviour of the transformer can be found from its dimensionsand
the material properties, by meansof solving the electromagneticfield equations as
previously discussed.An alternativeway of predicting such behaviour is by using an
equivalent circuit representation. There are many advantages of treating the
transformer by meansof an equivalent circuit. The simultaneouspartial differential
equationsthat describethe electromagneticfield can be avoided and the equivalent
circuit gives an alternative method of solving these equations. In addition, the
imagination
is
than differential'
to
the
equivalent circuit
scale of practical
closer
equations,aswell as easyto use and remember.
A given transformer may be representedby many equivalent circuits depending on
the required purpose. Usually the approximation is considered to avoid analysis
complexity. For instance, in an actual transformer, the existence of capacitances
betweenwindings and to earth are not important at low frequencybut are significant
at high frequency.Nevertheless,the "exact" equivalentcircuit at very high frequency
( Megahertz ) could never be achieved as it would be too complicated. In this
chapter, the exact does not means an exact practical representationbut an exact
physicaldefinition of the transformer elements.In fact, the presenceof an elementis
a sign of comparison wit an ideal transformer. The ideal transformer is not a
practical state but only a convenientway of comparing the actual transformer with
the ideal. The ideal transformer could possibly be realised at low frequency by the
use of a very high permeability core material and an arrangement'allowing both
primary and secondarywindings to be very close to each other. The samemagnetic
field is then led through the windings, and the capacitivereactanceis so high as to be
7-1

frequency,
in
high
is
The
the
that
as
as
at
any
reduction
neglected:
case not as simple
leakageflux will be at the.expenseof increasedcapacitance.
Electrostatic coupling is the phenomenabehind the appearanceof capacitance.It
resides between the componentswithin the actual transformer such as the core,
desirable
it
is
Theoretically,
to treat the transformer
turns,
shields etc.
winding
basis
for
but
the
of
on
separation
simplicity,
aspects
electromagneticand electrostatic
in practice,the caseis far away from this simpleassumption.
In the present chapter, care is taken to derive the circuit in such a way that its
elementshave a physical meaning. A three dimensional FE model could be used
directly to build a highly accurate equivalent circuit, although, there are still many
difficulties with calculating the capacitanceof the different parts. This could be
solved by using the electrostatic energy calculation by means of treating the
transformer as a three port network [87]. This technique attempts to model the
whole transformerwhich is very time consumingand expensiveas it requires a huge
computer memory to model the transformer FE mesh, and much preparation and
computationtime. Therefore, although the later techniqueis just about practicable,it
is not used as researchersare usually looking for a simple and general method that
can be used to derive the circuit. A model derived from calculation has a great
meaning practically since a computer can be used instead of building prototypes.
Nevertheless, a 3D finite element program is not generally available in many
institutions and companies.
One of the well establishedmethods to derive equivalent circuits is by fitting
elementsto match the performance measured(or calculated) in short circuit and
open circuit tests (or calculations).In analysisterms this approach has the merit of
simplifying the field model that must be solved from a 3D transient load model to the
open and short circuit results at fixed frequency.The equivalentcircuit is also easier
to solve for transientanalysisthan trying to time step a 3D finite elementmodel. This
chapter persuesthis approachby using the open and short circuit input impedance

7-2

measured(or calculated) across a range of frequencies to obtain parametersin a

selectedequivalentcircuit topology.

7.2: PHYSICAL MEANING OF ELEMENTS

Fig.(7.1) shows the proposed equivalent circuit of the high frequency transformer.
The circuit elementsshown are referred to the primary winding using the transformer
turns ratio. The circuit elementswill be explainedfrom the physicalpoint of view.
The primary and secondarywindings are madefrom conductors, and lossesexist due
to the finite copper conductivity ( 5.7 x 107 mho.m-1). The windings losses can be
modelledusing two resistancesone eachto representthe two windings. The primary
winding resistance( Rp) carries both load and no load ( magnetising) current, and
hence it has to be placed prior to the magnetisingbranch. The secondarywinding
it
is
in
(
load
)
Rs
the
so
and
a serieswith the load. In
resistance
current,
carriesonly
addition to the winding losses,there are anothertwo kinds of lossesthat exist in the
core, eddy and hysteresislosses.The combinationof both eddy and hysteresislosses
are called the transformercore loss. The core loss can be modelled by a resistancein
parallel with the magnetisingbranch.
In simplistic terms, it could be assumedthat the flux generated by the primary
winding links all the turns in the secondary.Practically, there is an amount of flux
that does not link the secondary(and vice versa), and so it is consideredas a leakage
flux. In order to model the leakageflux two inductances(Lp & Ls

are placed in

serieswith the two windings resistances( Rp & Rs ) respectively.

If these inductancesdid not exist the input / output voltage ratio would equal the
transformerturns ratio (ideal transformer ). In the sameway, if the no-load current
did not pxist or it is not taken into account, the input / output current ratio would
equal the reciprocal of the turns ratio (ideal). Practically both load and no load
currents are presentand they flow in the primary winding. If the core is made from a
very high permeabilitymaterial, then the no load current is negligible in comparison7-3

with the load current, but it will be quite appreciableif the core has an air gap. This
no load ( magnetising) current can be modelledby an inductance( Lm ).
The presenceof conductors within the actual transformer separatedwith respect to
eachother and to the core makescapacitancebetweenthem. In this equivalentcircuit
representation,there are two types of capacitance namely, the distribution and
ground capacitances.The distribution capacitancesare either those belonging to
successiveturns of the samewinding (CI&

C2 ), or that betweenwindings ( C12 ).

The ground capacitance( Cg) is the capacitanceappearingbetweenthe total winding

turns and earth. The core representsthe closest ground for both windings, and so
capacitancemay be placed in parallel with the magnetisingbranch. Nevertheless,the
modelling of these capacitancesin the equivalent circuit does not in general
correspondexactly to any actual transformer capacitance,they are only a convenient
way of approximation.All these elementscan be justified from the physical point of
view, but the reality is very complicated.It should be rememberedthat the main issue
here is to generalisethe prediction of the equivalent circuit. Since, the impedance
curves are the only data being considered,the equivalent circuit can be built for any
transformer regardlessof differencesin design.

7.3: EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

CALCULATIONS

The equivalent circuit can provide a reasonabletool for finding the

magnetic field
characteristics( flux density, field intensity, etc.), as well as currents 'andvoltages. In
the first instance,the main two questionsthat may be raised and needto be explained
are as follows: First, supposethe flux in the core is calculated using the inductive
elementsof the equivalent circuit. The single value obtained is assumedto be the
sameat all points within the core. Second,in an actual transformer, the magnetising
inductance will fall
its
is
linear within the equivalent
saturation
while
value
-with
7-4

circuit. At high frequency,the capacitancehas the effect of shunting the current to

ground and transferring current between primary and secondary. Clearly the
distribution of the magneticfield is affected and the results implied by the equivalent
circuit can only provide answersfor local field distribution within the limits of the
topology chosenfor the circuit. It is in thesedetails that finite elementmodelling can
provide further insight.
Fortunately, due to the high permeabilityFerrite core material used, the magnetising
current is small, and hencethe assumptionof linearity does not create much error in
the calculations.The previous 3D finite element impedancecalculations provide a
basis to validatethe linear model.
The problem in any proposed equivalent circuit parameter derivation is the
complexity of deriving the equations that represent both impedances( open and
short) to specify adequatelythe poles and zeros. These points are vital to estimate
the resonant and anti-resonant frequencies. Once these points are found, the
equivalent circuit elementsestimation follows a straight forward procedure. The
proceduregiven here is in easy stepsthat avoids such complexity. The assumptions
madefrom the point of view of Fig.(7.1) is that the current in the capacitanceof the
samewinding is negligible comparedwith that flowing in the capacitancebetween
windings during the short circuit. In the sameway, the opposite assumptioncan be
madeduring the open circuit. During the open circuit, the secondarywinding current
is zero and so the capacitancebetween windings is part of the capacitanceof the
samewinding and it leaks current through the ground capacitance.
During the short circuit, the equivalent circuit can be reduced to the one shown in
Fig.(7.2 a&b)

[88]. The winding to winding capacitancecan be referred to the

primary winding using the turns ratio as shown in the Fig.(7.2 b ). Since the flux
required to induce a certain voltage is inversely proportional to the frequency, as the
frequencygoes higher, the assumptionof neglecting the magnetisingbranch during
the short circuit is increasingly valid [88]. In general, the magnetising current is
negligible in comparison with the load current during the short circuit. Using
7-5

Fig.(7.2b), where both winding resistanceand inductance are in series, the short
circuit impedanceis given by:
ZSC

..............................

+j

Req

W C112 2PS

where

Rq

0)

2 OP.

R
Lcq

and

Rps

+w

ps

Vps

2 Lp.
0)

The parallel resonant frequency can be found by setting the imaginary part of
is
(7.1
)
the
to
equation
result
zero, and
Rp

0-) p

(7.2)
..............................

C12/
PS
Is

and

s2

z,

cl",

= Req =

R'P. + (t)

2. Ops

Lps

Rps c

Rps

I
12

Where the magnitude of the short circuit impedance at the parallel resonant
frequencyis equalto 12M.
The total of the primary and secondary windings resistance (Rps) can now be
deduced directly from the short circuit impedance curve at low frequency. This
is
if
impedance
is
the
to
the
curve found
resistance automatically referred
primary
2
(N,
)
(N2
ZL
fl.
Rs
0.2
Rp
from the primary winding side, and hence Z
+
=
sc =
j
From equations(7.1, and 7.2 ), the elementsof the circuit shown in Fig.(7.2b) are
calculateddirectly at a resonantfrequencyof 2.408 MHz, and are given by :
Lps = 3.24 pH, and C, = 1.34 nF
21
It is well known ( as previously discussedin chapter four ) that the highest cut off
frequency obtained is due to the leakage inductanceand distribution capacitanceof
the winding. In the same way the lowest cut off frequency is due 'to the ground
capacitance,becausethe ground capacitanceis usually bigger than the distribution
capacitance.Hence, the parallel resonantfrequency of 2.408 N1Hzis used to predict
the leakageinductanceand distribution capacitance.
During the open circuit., it is assumedthat the current leaking to the secondary
through C12 is small in comparison with the current through Cl, and hence the

7-6

circuit shown in Fig.(7.3) is the equivalent circuit during an open circuit. Following
the sameprocedure as the short circuit, the open circuit impedanceis the total of
primary and magnetisingimpedancesin a seriesconnection as shown in the figure.
The resonantfrequencyrelationshipis given by :
Rc
=
OCI.PI

a) PI =IIZ--C-9
L
(ETP
(R'p
0)

(7.3)
.....................

) 2

Lp

IZOCI
P2

LP

=
O)P1

Rp

C,

PCI

Where the magnitudeof the open circuit impedanceat the first and second parallel
resonantfrequenciesare about 32 KIQ and 22 KfI respectively.The seriesresonant
frequencyis equalto :
Lm

Leq

=
40 SELC
+
m

where

(7.4)
.........................

Cg)

eq
A- Ct) 2 Vp

L,
q

=R2p

2 Lp
o)

and cos=2;

r x 751 KHz

The value of the open circuit impedancecurve at low frequency gives Rp only.
Because Rc is compensatedby Lm and Cg [87], its value only appears at the
resonantfrequencyof Lm and Cg, and so Rp is equal to 0.09 C1at low frequency.
Using equations(7-3) and (7.4) leadsdirectly to the following :

Rc = 32 M

C1 = 1.49 nF

Rs = Rps - Rp = 0.11 f2

Lp = 2.9 ffl

Lm = 161 ffl

Cg = 14.3 nF

and Ls = Lps - Lp = 0.34 ffl.

C2 can be estimatedfrom the resonantfrequency,when Rs and Ls are known, or by

referring the open circuit impedancecurve to the secondaryusing the turns ratio.
The sameprocedure that is used to estimate Cl can then be applied. If the later is
used, its value has to be referred again to the primary, and then C2 is equal to 12.9
nF.

7-7

7.4: OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE

CALCULATIONS

The proposed equivalent circuit together with it estimated elementsis used to reit
is
is
impedances.
Because
the
simple,
circuit
predict the open and short circuit
frequencies
by
the
impedances
both
determine
within
at
all
point
to
point
easy
(
)
)
(
7.5
7.4
Fig.
the
frequency
open and short circuit
show
and
range.
required
impedancecurvesrespectively,given in phaseand magnitudein comparisonwith the
in
both
figures
is
The
finite
3D
seen
clearly
agreement
elementmodel.
results of the
be
follows:
in
both
noted
as
curves,a numberof observationscan
and
I- If the windings resistancesare neglectedand keeping the elementvalues as they
is
MHz
2.408
frequency
the
which
are,
parallel resonant
PLIC2.413
PI

changes to:

M]Hz, with a difference of 5.1 KHz. In the megahertz

In
is
difference
the circuit previously
this
unrecognisable.
clearly
as
zone such a
have
doesnot appearwherethe resistances
derivedin chapterfour, sucha difTerence
been neglected.This is because,the values of the windings resistancesare
distribution
inductance
leakage
by
and
capacitance
at the resonant
the
compensated
frequencies[87). Comparingthe elementvaluesderivedin this chapterwith that in
how
four
thesevalues changewhen the winding
of
chapter
gives a clear view
is considered.
resistance
into account,both impedance
2- By takingthe windingresistance
curveshavea finite
infinity
do
( parallelresonance) or
frequency
to
not
go
and
valueat eachresonant
) asis the casederivedin chapterfour.
zero( seriesresonance
3- At very low frequencythe impedancecurves are constantwhich give the
resistancevalue. At a certainfrequency,where the curves start to increase,the
inductance
beginsto appear,andsothe impedance
valueat this frequencyis the total
it
into
Whenthe capacitance
of resistance
with
andinductance.
comes play, resonates
the inductanceat a certain frequency,which dependson which of them is

7-8

inductive
be
for
to
the
or capacitive and then the resonant
predominant
circuit
frequencyis either seriesor parallel. 4- If the lossesare not considered,the real part of the impedancesis equal to zero,
and so the phaseis a straight line alwaysequal to 900 .

7.5: TRANSIENT RESPONSE

Transformers are subject to many transient phenomenaduring their working life.

Theseinclude surges,inrush current, suddenshort circuit, etc. During the transient a
high frequencyoscillation occurs and thesecan result in an over voltage stresson the
windings. Such stress can be enough to destroy the insulation of the windings. A
large amount of work has beendirected towards modelling the transient responseof
transformers[9,39,63,89]. These efforts were mainly devoted to modelling the over
voltage transient response in the windings ( as discussed in chapter five ).
Measurementof the transformertransientresponseis the most reliable method that is
difficulties
involved
in
There
this measurement
the
time.
used at
are many
present
[9]. These difficulties are increased as the frequency rises, for instance the high
sampling rates of the measuring instruments required, therefore an adequate
transformer model is unquestionablyrequired to determine the transient response
numericallyand analytically.
Current attention is being concentrated on a high frequency transformer model
suitablefor transientcalculation.The determinationof the equivalentcircuit elements
from the transient response at 100 KHz was found previously [90]. At high
frequencies, the capacitancebecomes predominant, and it is harder to use the
transient responseto obtain these elements.Therefore, researchershave paid more
attention to modelling the frequency response rather than the transient response
[9,35,87,90]. Using the frequency response,the transformer can be modelled for a
7-9

certain frequency range. The transient waveforms ( currents or voltages) in the

transformer compriseall the frequency components,and there will be no frequency
range specified. All the frequency components are excited at once during the
transientresponse.The-difficulty in the time responsesis then clear and the question
it
frequencies
is
left
is
how
the
to
transformer
the
to
covering all
which
model
which
is subject.
In order to avoid such a difficulty, the transformer is modelled first in the frequency
domain. The frequency response characteristics have been calculated for the
proposed equivalent circuit. These characteristicsfor the open and short circuit
impedancesare given as follows:
Vin

0C

V.

in
Vin

ZS.
C

ISEC

in

Two methodsare availableto determinethe transient response.First by transferring

the frequency responsecharacteristicsinto the time domain using a well known
method, such as Fourier transformer (83], state space[l 1,77] etc. The input voltage
or current can usually be consideredas a step changefunction. Mathematically, the
step changein the frequency domain gives an impulse function in the time domain
and vice versa. These relationshipsbetween step change and impulse functions are
given by Gupta [91]. The secondmethod is that the equivalent circuit can be time
stepped directly (as detailed in chapter five). The present transient simulation is
based on using the trapezoidal rule of integration. Each of the equivalent circuit
elements is transferred to an equivalent of a current source and a resistance.
Appendix B shows the way of applying this method to the proposed equivalent
circuit.
The I-IP348I OA Bench link software can provides a communicationlink betweenthe
PC andthe IIP54500 Oscilloscope.The results can be stored as a table of data which
is easy to use and compare with the calculated results. Fig.(7.6)

7-10

shows the

comparisonof the actual and calculated transient responsesof the primary voltage
during the short circuit at high frequencyexcitation. In order to simplify the analysis,
it is assumedthat the step occurred at t=O. This can be clearly recognisedfrom the
is
instant
fault
if
the
However,
this
cycle
not required another
the
of
ac
at
curves.
instant can be analysed. The small differences shown could be caused by the
insufficient
in
is
the transient
devices
the
sampling rate
or
sampling rate of the
is
fairly
Nevertheless,
the
acceptable.
agreement
simulationresults.

This techniquehastwo advantages.It is a generalsolution so that it could be applied

to any circuit regardlessof the design differences.The accuracy of the simulation
dependson the accuracyof the proposed equivalentcircuit and its elementsand the
in
directly
found
be
is
Second
a numerical or
the
either
that
can
results
samplingrate.
by an analyticalsolution.

7.6: SUMMARY

This chapter presentsa method to calculate the frequency responsecharacteristics

for a lumped parameter transformer model. Previous characteristics of open and
The
impedances
these
the
to
of
values
elements.
existenceof
short
are used predict
theseelementsin the proposedequivalentcircuit is justified at high frequency from a
physical point of view. The circuit is reused to. compare the predicted frequency
responseswith the actual.
This chapter has also paid attention to the transient response for the proposed
equivalent circuit. During the transient responsea time stepping technique is used
which transformsthe differential equationsinto equationsin which eachof the circuit
elementsis transferred into an equivalentcurrent source and constant resistance(as
discussedin chapterfive). The circuit is used to predict the transient primary voltage
due to a step changefunction in the input of the primary.

7-11

C12

C2

cl

Lp

Rp
.41%
lip

Rc

Lm'

Ls

Rs

.11%
O/F

C9

Fig.(7.1): The proposedIHFtransformer model

C12
nl: n2

AA-

.4.

612

Rps Lps

Rp
OYP

Ip
/ :)

. Lp

I/P

(b)

(a)

Fig.(7.2) : Equivalentcircuit during shortcircuit of the secondary

winding

cl

Rp
UP

Fig.( 7.3

Lp

Rc Lm: Cg

O/P

Equivalent circuit during open circuit of the secondarywinding

100000

Phasc(dcg.)

Magnitude Olun

100

10000

50

1000
100

10
1

-50

0.1
0.01
1

10

100

-100

1000

Frcquency(KHz)
I-Mag.

FE -Mag.

EC -a-Phase,FE -*-P:h7a7s7e,
EC

Fig.( 7.4 ): Calculatedopen circuit impedance

Magnitude(Olun)

Phase(deg.

10000
1000

100

11

A, -

tij

.1--

50

100

0
10

-50

1
0.1
10

100

1000

Frequency(KHz)

I-Mag. FE
FE -4-*-Mag. EC -m-Phase,

Fig.( 7.5 ): Calculatedshort circuit impedance

-100

80 1
60
40
20
>o
%
(D -20
E
r. -40

0.

VVVVVVVV
10

-60
-80
Tirm us

(a)

(b)

Fig. ( 7.6

Primaryvoltageduringthe shortcircuit dueto a unit stepprimarycurrent

(a): Calculated (b) : Measured

CHAPTER EIGHT
CONCLUSION

The transformer is a device that is present in all power supplies serving many
down
isolation,
up
and
step
power
etc. The size of the power
purposes,such as
supply is reduced with an increase in the switching frequency. Increasing the
switching frequencycan lead to a large reduction in the magnetic componentssizes
and hence a smaller power supply unit. Nevertheless, high frequency operation
meanshigher lossesin the power supply both from device switching lossesand in the
transformer from eddy currents. The switching losseshave been reduced by using a
resonant type converter and other techniques such as zero voltage and / or zero
current switching. As the power transformer size is reduced by increasing the
frequency,eddy currentsbecomeone of the major limiting factors. Eddy currents in
the transformer'core can be reducedto an acceptablelevel by using high quality core
materials.The windings eddy currents are the most complex to analyse.
The winding ac resistanceand leakage inductanceare strongly related to the eddy
current effects. The term ac inductanceis used to point to the fact that effective
inductance( self and mutual ) is reducedas the frequencyrises.Practically, there will
alwaysbe a frequencyat which eddy currents becomesignificant, and the conductor
current is forced by its own magneticfield towards the surf ace.When the inductance
falls becausethe areaof the flux path is reduced,the resistanceincreases.
The two main effects that dominate winding eddy currents losses are skin and
proximity effects. The self induced eddy currents in one conductor is called the skin
effect eddy current. The proximity effect is due to the flux linking surrounding
conductors which causesa circulating current in adjacent conductors. In addition,
since the power supply topology at high frequency is resonant, the transformer
parasitic elementsform the secondmajor design challenge.These elementsare also
resonantin nature and their minimisationis vital to reducenoise,EMI, and stress.

8-1

Attempts to obtain an accuratefrequencyresponseby detailed transformer modelling

has attracted the attention of researchers.In parallel to experiment developments
level
high
is
of
a
with various test methods, numerical computation also attracting
field
is
One
computation using
of the computing methods electromagnetic
interest..
the finite elementmethod.
Returning to the main purpose of this work which is to study the winding eddy
The
to
their
effects.
transformer
nihmise
so
as
elements
parasitic
currents and
high
frequency
implementation
power supply and transformer testing
a
of
practical
built
in
A
two.
mode
series
resonant
converter
was
clamped
was carried out chapter
to justify the simulation results. Full design of transformer and power supply was
given in this chapter as well as a linear power amplifier which was used to test the
high frequencytransformerpractically.
The magnetic field is the main source of eddy current generation and so two
dimensional finite element analysis was used (chapter three). Two dimensional
analysiscan analysethe effects of eddy currents, but for a limited bands only, or
more specificallyuntil the appearanceof the capacitive effect. The conductors in the
model were consideredas having a squarecross sectionalarea equal to that of round
from
to
the
manageable
a meshingview point. In this
wire so as make
problem more
analysis care had be taken to model correctly the rapid decay in the field at the
conductors boundaries.These boundarieshave to be modelled with as many small
elementsas possible.Again, the depth of the modelledE-core viewed from the fr6nt
is larger than that viewed from the sides. That means the area available for the
magneticpath is different. Therefore, two modelswere used within the finite element
computation. This has lead to the numericalresults to be improved by 2% at 1KHz,
and 8% at IMHz in comparisonwith using one model only.
The transformer elements( resistanceand inductance) can be computed both from
short and open secondarywinding computations. The finite element derived short
circuit flux distribution (chapter three) shows that as the frequency is increased,the
flux is concentratedin the spacebetween the windings ( primary and secondary).
8-2

This reflects losses due to the proximity effect and also changes in the leakage
inductance.Two dimensionalanalysiscan be used within the frequency range of dcMHz. At higher frequencies,the capacitive effect cannot be neglected and so two
dimensionalanalysisis no longer valid. The results also show that when the space
between windings is half of a certain limit, the losses will be three times more
(chapter three). When the spaceis doubled, the proximity effect is reduced but the
leakageinductanceis increasedby almost one and half times its original value. The
investigationcontinuesto suggestthat the best spacebetweenboth windings so as to
optimisethe conditions and reduceto a minimum the lossesand leakage,is when the
space (between windings) is equal to or less than the thickness of the windings
conductors.The investigation also includes the skin depth effect in the conductor (
wire ). The results show that when this depth is much greater than the depth of the
wire, the magnetic field varies across the conductor. This field causesdifferential
voltage in the wire and the resultant eddy currents are insufficient to redistribute the
field. When the frequencyincreasesto the level that the skin depth is much smaller
than the wire thickness,the current inside the wire will be non uniformly distributed.
Hence, the current density falls exponentially within the wire. In addition, as the
frequencyis increased,the actual area of the wire that carries current is reduced and
then the ac resistanceis far higher than dc. The finite elementtechniquewas used to
estimatean optimum value of wire size that provides the best compromisebetween
the numberof wires and ac resistance.The investigationhas lead to the point that the
best ac to dc resistanceratio is achievedwhen the wire thicknessis 1.2 times the skin
depth. This result is supportedanalytically.It is vital to subdividethe wire into
many
fine wires so as to keep the eddy currentsto a minimum, and then
eachof thesewires
is to occupy equally every position in the bundle.
The problem of keeping both the leakageinductanceand ac resistanceto reasonable
limits at a certain frequency was also investigated. During the
examination of this
effect due to the increasingthe numberof layers, curves were computed to show the
ratio of ac to dc components of leakage inductance and resistance.These values
8-3

in
frequency,
term of conductor size as a ratio to
presented
and
were given against
the skin depth. Using thesecurvesis vital for the pre-designstage of the transformer.
From these curves the required number of layers and how many fine wires at a
certain frequencycan found directly. The results show that an increasein the number
inductance
in
in
layers
increase
the
the
ac
resistance
and
a
reduction
of
can give an
ac;
per turn as comparedto dc values.It should be noticed that increasingthe number of
layers actually increasesthe copper content with respect to the air gap in the
transformer window. When the field becomes skin limited there is less space
available for the leakageflux and so it gives a reduction in the inductance. In the
sameway, the layerswill lie close to eachother and so the ac resistancewill increase
due to the proximity effects.
The core properties were also investigated with the secondarywinding was open
circuited. The results (not surprisingly) show that the self inductance is sensitiveto
the core permeability, while the resistanceis sensitiveto the core conductivity. As
the permeabilitywas reduced,the frequencyat which the gelf inductancecurve falls
is reduced. This frequency representsthe maximum frequency at which the core
could realisticallybe used, and also showsthat skin effect starts to dominate.For the
best materialsavailable,the megahertzzone representsthe areawhere the skin effect
eventuallysetsin.
At a certain operating frequency(say I M11z),two dimensionalanalysisis no longer
useful. Becausethe transformeris a three dimensionaldevice in nature where there is
almost no axis of symmetry,both magneticand electric fields are required to model
the transformer, and they are working in a normal senseto each other. A three
dimensionaltransformer model was built and solved using the full set Maxwell's
of
equation,this was describedin chapter four. It is believedthat this model is original.
The transformer parasitic elementsand their effects was the next concern of this
work, where this three dimensional model was used to compute the frequency
responsecharacteristicsof the transformer. These characteristicsinclude the open
and short circuit impedancecomputation.The computed results were comparedwith
8-4

is
it
This
that
model proves
the actual results and good agreementwas achieved.
in
be
investigation
tool
future
to
a good
and promises
capable of handling any
designinghigher frequencytransformers.
The modellingof the transformertransient characteristicwas given as much attention
frequency
high
frequencies,
five).
At
(chapter
frequency
response
as was given to the
due
the
is
transient,
to
the
than
of
appearance
more
effective
responsecomputation
capacitive effects. During the frequency response, the transformer was modelled
during
be
frequency
This
the transientwhere all
rangecannot specified
across
range.
the transformernatural frequenciesare excited at once. Therefore a very high rate of
instruments
limits
is
the
the
this
analysis
as
well
as
practical
sampling required and
introducing
frequency
As
time
the
without
and
steps
available. an example, maximum
150Hz
frequency,
0.008psec
low
3Hz
2psec
at
and
and
aliasing error was
at
and
high frequency. If this figure is considered, the number of samples required for
transientcalculationis about 500000 ( this figure is approximatedwhere the number
is
high
by
),
be
two
any means.
very
of samples should
which
a power of
Nevertheless,the transient computation method used currently can easily handle a
for
This
the equivalentnetwork solution
time
nanosecond
method
step computation.
usesthe trapezoidalrule of integration. Each of the !nductancesor capacitancesthat
exist in the network is transferred to an equivalent circuit of current source and
resistance.The whole network looks like a resistive network that can be solved by
well known methods. The winding is divided into a number of sections, each is
representedby self and mutual inductances,distribution and ground capacitances,
and resistancesto take the lossesinto account. Theseelementswere calculatedusing
the finite element method. The transformer winding was transferred into an
equivalentnetwork. The first transient effect to be examinedin this network was the
over voltage stress. This stress is well known in industry and is subjected to an
impulse signal to examining the winding insulation. The results showed that the
voltage in the mid point of winding goes higher than the terminal voltage. It was
believed that this resonant phengmenais related to the relative location of the
8-5

to
Reducing
stress
the
voltage
allows
over
can
capacitance
winding poles and zeros.
be reduced. The ground capacitancecannot be reduced much because it would
involve using a bigger core, and,so it is meaninglessto increasethe frequency for
frequency
terminal
the
The
of
computation
response
transformers.
size
small
impedanceconfirms the need to reduce both ground and distribution capacitances.
This response calculation also shows that the network response at which the
Nevertheless,
from
is
different
the accuracy of
the
actual.
resonanceoccurs always
the calculationis believedto be limited by the way of representingthe winding by an
equivalent circuit and the number of elementsinvolved. The disadvantageof this
include
huge
is
it
to
the
that
capacity
admittance
method
requires more computer
it
but
is
The
transformer,
to
the
whole
matrix.
method expensivewhen used model
can be usedto study the transientphenomenain the winding.
The frequencyresponsecharacteristicswere used to derive an equivalent circuit of
the transformer. The elementsof this circuit were found from the poles and zeros
that the impedancecurves have shown. The simplified equivalentcircuit was derived
(chapter four) first and under the sameprinciple, a wide frequencyband transformer
equivalentcircuit was derived (chapter seven).The simplified equivalent circuit was
used to examinethe effect of transfqrmer parasitic elementson the power. supply
performance(chapter six). The Spice program was used to simulate the converter
model and to examinethe transformer element'sbehaviour and their interaction with
the resonant tank. Since the transformer elements are resonant elements, any
reduction of any of them will be at the expenseof the others, and so the elements
need to be examinedindividually during the simulation. The transformer equivalent
circuit was placedin series,and betweenthe resonanttank elementsof the converter.
The normal operatin'gwaveformsof the converter during the simulation is justified as
it correspondedwith that actually obtained using the practical power supply. The
converterwas simulatedaboveand below resonantfrequencyoperation
When the magnetising inductance ( Lm ) was removed, the voltage across the
resonanttank was reducedto 72% and increasedto 120% of the normal operation at
8-6

below and above resonant respectively. When Lm is removed, the ground

capacitance( Cg ) becomespart of resonanttank capacitor (Cr) and so the resonant
frequencyis reduceddue to the increasein the capacitancevalue. This frequency is
then further away from the series resonant frequency for the below resonant case,
in
This
it
for
to
the
results the voltage decreasingand
and close
aboveresonantcase.
increasingfor the below and above casesrespectively.Removing Lm also shows that
an oscillation exists in the winding current, where the resonantfrequency is near to
dc, and so the operating frequency is much lower than resonant. The same and
opposite situation happens when Cg is removed. The resonant tank voltage is
increased to 110% and reduced to 70% below and above resonant frequency
respectively.Removing Cg has shown a reduction in the winding current oscillation
and it no longer existsabovethe resonantfrequency.
The simulation waveforms of input/ output currents and voltages have shown less
transformer elementseffect on the power supply performance above resonancein
comparisonwith below resonance.The ratio of switching to resonantfrequency has
also beenconsidered,where the current researchsupports using a ratio of 0.8 below
resonantand 1.2 above resonant.When the ratio is reduced further than 0.8, partial
charge and discharge (which can be seen clearly in the resonant.tank voltage
waveform) will increase.In the same way, as the ratio goes higher than 1.2, the
oscillation in the winding current will increase.
The effects of eachof the elementson the output voltage have been investigatedand
given as graphs. These graphs have shown that any increasesin Cg will result in a
reduction in the output voltage. This reduction is greater as the frequencyratio goes
lower than 0.8, but above resonanceit is much lower than below
resonance.When
Lm is changingat a resonantratio of 0.8 and 0.4, both caseshave
shown a point at
which the output reachesa maximum.This point is different at the resonantratio of
0.8 than it is at 0.4 and this meansless air gap in the
core is required as the ratio
increases.This does not occur in the case where the
converter is operating above
resonant frequency. There is no significant effect on Lm if Cg is removed. The
8-7

simulation results confirm that for the best performance the reduction in the
distribution capacitancehasto be linked with a correspondingreduction in Cg.
The frequencyresponseimpedancescan give all the information required to derive
an equivalent circuit of the wide frequency band transformer (chapter seven). The
equivalentcircuit is used to reproduce the frequency responseand good agreement
was clearly obtainedwith the measuredand finite elementresults.

8-8

APPENDIX

A. l: TWO DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT

PROGRAM

is
in
finite
The magneticvector potential (A) w1-:
the
tool
the
main
tich
elementprogram can
be expressedin two equations.One from the divergenceof A which is always equal to zero
everywhere,and secondas the curl of anothervector function which is the flux density.
VxA=B

(1)

V. A=O

(2)

By taking the curl of equation ( 1) and consideringthe relation between flux density B and
flux intensityH as B=pH(

is
hystereses
),
the
result
neglect

VxVxA=VxB=pVxH=pJ

(3)

The equationto be solvedthen is

VxI

VxA

=J

(4)

J is the current density and an important equationcan be derived to representits value. The
,0B which
differential form of Maxwell's equation describingthe electric field is VxE=
-,
t
10
states that the curl of E is not zero, therefore E= -V V is not enough as the case of
Electrostaticfield. So this equationcan be arrangedto
0 A)
VxE= -V x0A
E+
=0
=>Vx
,9tat
The curl of the terms in the parenthesesequal to zero, therefore, it equalsto the gradient of
a scalarfunction.
E+0A=
0t0t

E0A_VV
V
=>
-V

(6)

In the conductor,the relationbetweenthe electricfield intensityandcurrentdensitycanbe

definedby ohm'slaw (J=
A
*?
c
j=_a
UVV

aE ). Equation 6 can be written as:

(7)

The final equationto be solvedthen is

Vx

VxA)=

0A
-cr

avv

In orderto solvethis equation,the methodof Weightedresidualwasusedin the program.

Togetherwith the integrationoverthe volumeof the problemwhichis givenas
fff WVx
(9)
dV=O
VxA-J
9
have.
J
A
dimensions
equation
In the two
only z-direction components,
and
where
length
to :
equivalentper unit
ffw
Vx VxA. -J, dxdy=O
VxVxA-

6 (. 0 Az
19xy0 '0

0
v

(10)
(46 A,

By integratingthe aboveequations( 10 &II) by parts ( Green!s Theorem ), the result is :

I
ffw
(12)
dt =0
w10A'
Vx VxA, -J. dxdy+f
On
Pp
a
boundary
Where
the
to
the
surfaceof the xy plane, so
represent normal component
On
I OA,
I
(13)
Ht
-, On = -B,, =
p
P
Within equation(12), the componentof the current density can be simplified using the third
is:
Maxwell,
equationof
which
0B
(V x A)
VxE=0tt

(14)

The integration of this equationfor a singlefrequencyvariation is :

E=-j o)A +VV
Where V is the integration constant. This equation shows that the electrical field comes
from two components,one induced in a conductor by changein the magneticfield which is
the first part of equation(15), and the secondarisefrom immersionin the electrostaticfield.
The basic step of the finite elementis to break up the area of interest into small elements,

is
the
within eachof which
vector potential definedat the vertices( nodes). In the case
I
the shapeof elementsare triangular, the vector potential is:
whereZNkAk
A, =
(16)
k-1.3

ii

by
the
to
consideringthe weighted term
Galerkin
problem
The
techniquewas used simplify
formulation
The
the
of
whole
the
considered.
element
of

W as the shapefunction (N)

is
region that containsm numberof elements :
[ff I ONj
P

elemen

all

OX

ff Njaj
1:
co

. 11element

NkAk

PY

49X

dx dy

I] k-1,3 19Y
1: ff Nia VV dx dy

dx dy +

k-1,3

element
all

Eff
+

k-1,3

ON kkA

ON

ON AI

all element

Ni J,. dx dy -

Eff

Ni H, dC -=0

all element

A. 2: THE USEFULNESS OF THE MAGNETIC

VECTOR POTENTIAL.
As explainedearlier in chapterthree, the main parameterto be solved for by FE analysisis
the magnetic vector potential (A),

and all of the calculated quantities required can be

found directly from it. The singlevalue of A( in z direction ) can be calculatedat each node
is
induced
from
flux
The
then
the
the
current
resulting
easily
obtained
and
within
model.
definition of A. The magneticflux can then be usedto predict voltage and inductance. The
relationshipbetweenthe magneticflux and A can be given as:
f
T" =fB. ds= VxA

............

(I)

This surface integral can be replaced by a line integral enclosing the surface
theorem),
T, =fA. dt

(2)
..................

iii

Stokes

In the caseof steadystate two-dimensional analysiswith no capacitive effect, the complex

(
Faraday's
Law,
be
together
with equation
which
value of the voltage can calculatedusing
2) gives:
A. df
V= -N 40v
'= -N
01
01
.
.

..............

(3)

whereN is the numberof turns.

The inductance can be found from the definition of the flux linkage due to the current
flowing in the conductor.
L=AII=Nlll

...................

If bothcurrentandflux in equation(4) belongto the samecoil, the inductanceterm is the

0
self inductance.If the flux in the coil is due to the anothercoil current,it is the mutual
inductance.
The resistancecomponentsof either dc or ac can be found from the value of A. The dc
component does,not need to be found by FEA, since it is given in the wire specification
data. However, it can be calculatedby consideringthe frequencyto be zero ( i.e. static ) for
a uniform conductor cross section area. In the case where the conductor area is not
uniform, then a steadycurrent solution is required.
The ac component due to

frequency increases,can be found from the losses in the

conductor,wherethe conductorcurrentdensity(J) is:

PotOA_VV

J=aE=u

....................

(5)

Thepowerlossperunit metrein the two dimensional

is
analysis. then:
'
P=lj2

ds

......................

(6)

iv

APPENDIX

The figure shows a simplified equivalentcircuit suitable for transient analysis.The winding
to winding capacitanceis not included for simplicity. During the simulation of any circuit,
into
is
transferred
the
an equivalent current source and constant
each of
circuit elements
in
detail
in
it
is
here
for
five,
This
technique
explained
chapter
resistance.
was
and
repeated
completeness.
il

12
nl

22

44ZD12--li12-11-ZDI3
"' vi
Rl

EI

11

E2
1

R2

V2

The circuit can be analysedusing the input output relations as follow:

ijR, + E, = V, +IIRI
'2R2+
n, i,

E2
+

V2
i.

n.

n2E, - n,

E2

+ I2R2

=0
=0

Theserelationscan be arrangedin a matrix form as follow

[II
10
[1 1] [RI
R, 0]I
I]
0
R2
[i(t)]
R2
[0
=I10
[0n, n2]
01 [0 0
E(t)
0

n2

n0000
-01]

[1 V(t)
(t - At)]

-j

-[0

If the input voltage is given, the matrix can be used to solve for input and output current.
The matrix can be simplified in final form and given as
NO]=

[YI[V(t)]+[I(t-At)]

Where Y is a matrix contain the known resistancesand turn ratios. Further details of this
method can be found in many publicationsas for instanceChimklai, et al [12].

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