Gangdanthekchenling Monastery,

Centre of the Mongolian Buddhists

^BUDDHISM
IN MONGOLIA
(Historical Survey)
Second Ediliou

Edited by
the Section of Studies of
the Gangdanthekchenling Monastery
ULAN BATOR
198 1

CONTENTS

Chapter I.
The Spread of Buddhism Among The Ancient Mongols
(from ancient times to the 14th century)
1. The Hun (Hsiung-nu) State (3rd Century BC
2nd Century A D ) ........................................................................
2. States of Hsien-pi (2-4 Centuries A D ) ...............................
3. Turkish State (6-9 Centuries) ................................................
4. Kitan State (9-11 Centuries) ...................................................
5. The Mongolian United State (1206-1270) .......................
6. The Mongolian Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) ..................

1
2
4
5
5
8

Chapter II.
Yellow Sect of Buddhism in Mongolia as The Great
Vehicle of Buddhism
(from the second half of the 16th century up to the
present time)
I. Beginning of spread of the Yellow Sect of
Buddhism in M o n g o lia .................................................................
2. Monasteries and their Economies ............................................
3. Monks, Saints and Incarnations ..............................................
4. Buddhist Education .......................................................................
5. Buddhism in Mongolia (19-20 Centuries) ..........................
6. Buddhism in Present-day M o n g o lia .........................................

11
22
24
27
32
37

I O RE WORD

The late Most Venerable Khanibo Lama, Doctor of Buddhist

Philosophy, Head of the Gangdanthekchenling Monastery
Centre of the Mongolian Buddhists, S. Gombojav said, Mon
golia is not only one of the countries of Buddhism of long tradi
tion, but a country in which Buddhism, Buddhist monasteries
and lamas still exist today. Foreign friends in the Dharrna and
visitors to Mongolia, are interested in Buddhism in this country
and want to know more about it. Many books on ancient and
contemporary history of Buddhism in Mongolia written in Mon
golian and Tibetan, are available now. However, in view of the
fact that books on Buddhism published in English, French and
other languages are few, it appears to be timely and necessary
to publish a brochure on Buddhism in English to give, at least,
a general survey of it.
We gratefully acknowledge the asssitance of the late Most
Venerable Khanibo Lama, who tirelessly checked the manuscript
draft and offered his invaluable suggestions concerning this
brochure on Mongolian Buddhism.
Section of Studies of
Gangdanthekchenling Monastery

CHAPTER I

THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM

AMONG THE ANCIENT MONGOLS
(from ancient times to the 14 century)

1. The IIuii (Hsiung-nu) state (3rd Century BC

2nd Century AD)
The first Mongol state the Hun state was established in 209
BC on the present territory of Mongolia. Being one of the
powerful states in Central Asia of that time, in 198 BC it con
cluded an agreement with the Chinese Han Dynasty. According
to the agreement, the border-line between the two countries was
drawn along the Great Wall and the Han Dynasty recognized
the Hun state as its equal. The ruling elite of the Hun state
headed by Shanyu-Khan believed in Shamanism. However, in
remote parts of the country, Buddhism began to spread, which
was closely connected with the development of Buddhism in the
neighbouring countries.
The history of Buddhism in Central Asia can be traced to
the time of Achaemenid Era (4th century BC-approximately 330
BC) and this is related to the fact that Central Asia had ancient
traditional relations with India. King Asoka (274-237 BC) of
the Mauri Dynasty, paid considerable attention to the propaga
tion of Buddhism in his own country and in the neighbouring
countries. From the second half of the 3rd cent., Buddhism
began to spread over the territories of present Afghanistan, Iran,
Western and Eastern Turkestan. A bilingual edict of King
Asoka was discovered in Jandhara (now South Afghanistan).
The spread of Buddhism in Central Asia had naturally influenced
the neighbouring countries. An Ancient Mongolian tribe the
Huns had direct relations with the peoples of Central Asia. As
Shanyu Maodun (209-174 BC), the King of Hun state conquer
ed Lou-Lan (Kroraina) of Lob Lake, Usuni of Semirechye

linclie of Altai. From the 2nd cent. I3C the Huns had broad
political and economic relations with the countries where Bud
dhism was well established. Kucha, subjected to the Hun state,
became a Buddhist country as early as 102 BC. According to
Mongolian historical sources, the main object of worship of the
South West Huns was a Golden Portrait of the Lord Buddha .
Such is the brief history of the spread of Buddhism in the Hun
state, Buddhism had an appreciable role to play among the
Mongolian nomads after the Huns.

2. State of Ilsien-pi (3-4 Centuries AD)

The Hun slate was succeeded by the state of Hsien-pi of
Mongol origin. Mujung (282-333 A D ), the head of the Hsienpi state, issued an edict saying, we shall pile up good luck and
accumulate goodnees by meritorious deeds.
In the 3-4 Centuries Buddhism also spread to some extent
in the state of Tughuhun which was formed in the area of
Khukhe Nur. Tughuhun was the son of Mujung. In 514, a
five-story stupa was erected in the Tughuhun area. Some of
the kings of Tughuhun were given Buddhist names. For instance,
name of King Fofu (530-534) seems to be the translation of
a religious name meaning supporter of the Buddha. The
Tughuhuns maintained broad economic relations with the Tur
kestan countries and Jujan existed on the territory of Mongolia.
One of the centres of Buddhism was the Tobas Wei Dynasty
(386-535) of Hsien-pi origin which existed in the Southern part
of Inner Mongolia. Tao-Wu-ti or Tobaku (386409), the first
emperor of the Wei Danasty, by his decree of 398-399 supported
the dissemination of the Buddhist religion and he himself read
books on the Buddhist teaching and sutras. During that period,
a five-story stupa was built. At the time of the Wei Dynasty
12 shramas (monks) translated 83 Buddhist books and sutras
and some foreign monks also translated books and sent them
to the Turkestan countries, Indian monks visited rulers of the
Toba Dynasty and translated religious books. Many relics of
the Toba Buddhist religion and art objects have been preserved
in the Tunhuang cave.
Jujan state. The Jujan state (4-6 Centuries) of the Mongol

origin existed on the present-day territory of the MPR. Its

original name was Mongol of Tatar, and it adopted Bud
dhism as a state religion. A monk named Dharmapriya (Za Ai),
who lived in the Western part of the present Kansu in 420-450
and who possessed a profound knowledge of religious sutras,
shastras and astrology was promoted to the post of the state
teacher (in Sanskrit Purohita). Ordinary people too, for exam
ple, the bestowed people of Dharmapriya, began to believe in
Buddhism, and the ancient Indian principles of unity of the
state and religion, dating back to the time of Asoka of India
and Kaniska of Kusan, began to be recognized among the
nomads.
Chounu, the Khan of Jujan, in 511 sent to the emperor of
the Toba Dynasty a pearl statue of Buddha by a shraman named
Hung Hsuan. It appears that the statue had come from Central
Asia, namely from Khotan. In 475, a monk Shih-Fa-hsian
(died in 494), came to Khotan through Jujan, and from where
he brought a Buddhas tooth (in Sanskrit deladi) and other
relics. A fragment of Saddharmapundarlka sutra (White
Lotus of the Good L ord), was dated by the 5th year of Young
Kang (468) of the Jujan state. At that time Turf an was ruled
by the Jujan state, and the sutra was dated this way.
Buddhism spread to Jujan from the Tarim River basin,
Khotan (Yutien), Karashahr (Yanchi), and the Sulei states. The
spread of Buddhism was promoted by contacts between people
from Jujan and India, which also promoted the spread of secular
culture from India to Mongolia. In 552, Narenda-Yasa, a
monk from Northern India, together with his 6 friends travelled
to the territory of Jujan, Ratanamanti (Lenamanti) a shraman
from India, lived in the Yunning temple of Loyang town, the
capital of Toba. He was well familiar with the five Indian
sciences (Panca vidya sthana) and art (Silpasthana vidiya). A
Jujan pilgrim, who got acquainted with that Indian shraman
when he lived in Central Asia, in Loyang, met him every day
and talked with him all day long, laughing and clapping his
hands. A Chinese official, who did not know what language
they were talking in, asked the shraman why he was talking to
this northern barbarian with such respect, The shraman an-

swcred: You would not be able to defeat this Jujan, although

youve read thousands of books. The arrogant Chinese official
betted to give the Jujan his horse if the Jujan could give the
exact number of ripe fruits on a plum-tree. The Jujan took out
a tool with five colours of thread and measured the tree from
all sides, calculating the exact number of ripe fruits. The Chi
nese lost the bet and he had to part with his horse.
No monuments of Jujan Buddhism have been found yet on
the territory of the MPR. However, scholars believe that brahma
monuments (stone inscriptions) recently found on the territory
of our country may belong to the time of the Jujan state.

3. Turkish states (G-8 Centuries)

The Turkish state was formed on the territory of the MPR
after the Jujans. Tabo, the Kh6n of Turkish state (57 3 -58 1 ),
accepted Buddhism, built Buddhist temples (samgharama) and
sent an envoy to the Chi Dynasty, asking for such sutras as
Vimalaklrti nirdesa, Nirvana sutra, Avatamsaka sutra and
Sarva-stivftda vinaya. Liu Shihching of the Chi Dynasty,
who knew 4 languages, translated the Nirvana sutra into the
Turkish language by the decree of the sovereign to be sent to
the Tabo Kh6n. Jinagupta, a monk of Jandhara, who visited
the Turkish state on the way from China to India, and Tabo,
were received by the Khdn with great respect. Jinagupta, to
gether with his 11 friends from the Chi Dynasty, lived in the
Turkish state for a short time and translated sutras. In 575,
10 monks of the Chi Dynasty, made a journey to the Central
Asian countries where they collected 260 Sanskrit books. On
the way back, they stayed in the Turkish state because the Chi
Dynasty had collapsed. In 581, Tabo Kh6n died, and since
then the influence of Buddhism in the Turkish state was greatly
reduced. Bileg Khan of the Turkish state (716-734) intended
to build Buddhist and Shaman monasteries, but the work was
stopped on the advice of Tonyukyuk the consultant. At the
early stage of the Turkish state, Buddhism spread to some extent.
At the time of the Uighur state (8-9 Centuries), which
succeeded the Turkish state, the Uighurs, starting from 763 till
the 10th century, or in other words until the time they moved

to Kanchovv, believed in Manichaeism. So, from the middle of

the Turkish domination to the time of decline of the Uighur
state (9th century), Buddhism failed to win support from the
state and its spread nearly stopped. Thus it is correct to say
that Buddhism declined in Mongolia between the first period
beginning from the time of the Huns and the second period
beginning from the time of Chinghis Khan. This conclusion is
drawn by Sh. Damdin (1867-1937) a leading Mongolian Bud
dhist.

4. The Kitan state (9-11 Centuries)

After the collapse of the Jujan state, when the Turks states
(Turks, Uighurs) dominated in Mongolia, there still existed
small states and khanates in the north-eastern part of Mongolia.
At the time of the Kitan Dynasty, Buddhism spread rapidly
in Mongolia. In 902, before the establishment of its dynasty,
the Kitans built their first Buddhist temple. In 916, Abaochi,
the first emperor of Kitan, and his people proclaimed their readi
ness to follow the Buddhist teaching. Some noblemen of the
Gelii clan possessed 5048 chapters of religious sutras, and it
appears that Buddhism had a considerable influence among the
Kitans.
Inscriptions of the Kitan period that have been preserved to
our time were written in Chinese and Sanskrit. However, since
the Kitan inscriptions could not be read, it is difficult to say
whether they are related to Buddhism. As for the Kitan Bud
dhist monument found in Mongolia, there are a stOpa and frag
ments from the ruins of the town of Kerulen Bara Khoto in the
territory of Tsagan-Obo somon of the Eastern aimak of the
MPR. As scholars point out, the Buddhist art of the Kitans is
similar to the later Mongolian art. Scholars are of the opinion
that all fragments with Buddha pictures found in the excavations
of Kara-Korum, the capital of Ancient Mongolia established in
1235, could be related to the time of the Kitans.
5. The Mongolian United State (12061270)
After the Kitans, there appeared on the territory of Mongolia
a number of Khanates, which were all united by Chinghis Khan.

In 1206, Chingiiis Khan sent a letter to the Tibetan Khambo

Lama of Saja saying I want to invite you to my country, but
my stale aliairs have not been finished yet, so pray for my vic
tory . Chinghis Khan mentioned in one of his letters that he
freed the Tibetan religious leader from tax duty.
Mongolian conquerers headed by Chinghis Khan intended to
use religion to promote their political objectives. It seems that
some of the top military leaders and consultants were familiar
with Buddhism. Prince Gombojav, a well-known Mongolian
scholar of the late 17th century and the beginning of 18th cen
tury, in his work on the history of the Buddhist religion in China
wrote that Tsu, the wise adviser of Chinghis Khan, a Kitan of
Mongol origin, had a deep knowledge of Buddhism. The second
great Khan Ogodei, the son of Chinghis Khan (1229-1241),
also supported Buddhism and began to build Buddhist temples
and a big stupa in the city of Kara-Korum, which was proclaimed
by Chinghis Khan the capital of Mongolia in 1220. The big
stupa was completed in 256, in the time of Monkhe Khan
(1251-1258). Later, in 1311, 1342-1346, it was restored and
redecorated. It was a five-story stupa. On the ground floor,
at each corner there was a room, and Buddhist statues and pic
tures were displayed in proper orders in each room. William
of Rubruck a Minorite monk, and an envoy of Louis the 9th,
the King of France, who visited Mongolia in 1253-1255, wrote:
In a big temple there were many lamas sitting in two rows,
holding beads in their hands, wearing yellow gowns. Their hair
and beards were close cut and they were reciting Buddhist books
chanting Om mani padme hum (May happiness prevail).
In Mongolian literary sources about monument erected in the
second half of the 14th Century in Kara-Korum, the Tsogt the
Great Temple, the temple of praying, or Chitayan temple, and
others were mentioned, and it was also reported that 120 tem
ples were built for lamas.
All these facts show that Kara-Korum, starting from the be
ginning of the 13th Century and to 1380, for over 100 years,
was a big administrative and religious centre on the territory of
the MPR. In 1380, Chinese troops invaded Mongolia and cap
tured Kara-Korum, burned it down and looted its treasures.

Since then the city was never restored. The emergence of KaraKorum as a major centre of Buddhism was closely connected
with the internal and external policy of the Mongolian Khans
of that time who wanted to strengthen their rule and to consoli
date the independence of their country. Godon, a minister of
the Great Khan who lived in Khukhe Nor, invited head Khambo
Lama, Saja Pandit Kungagyaltsan (1182-1251) of the Sakiya
sect in 1257, and met him in 1251, asking him to teach the
Mahayana Buddhism which he himself adopted.
Monkhe Khan (1251-1258) had no less important role to
play in the propagation of Buddhism in the Mongolian United
State. In 1251 he became khan and invited Maniba Lama of
the Karmaba sect of Buddhism and Choigyon, who was famous
as Karma-the Teacher, and set up the Lhadin temple. Later on
the Karma-the Teacher in the time of Hubilai Khan, was equally
respected as Pag-pa Lama. According to Chinese sources,
Monkhe Khan promoted a Lama named Guru as a state
teacher and he probably was the above mentioned Maniba.
So, the two principles used in the time of the Jujans-an authen
tic Mongol tribe, were revized in the period of the Mongolian
United State, and although during the Manchurian colonization
their use was discontinued, they were observed in fact, until the
beginning of the 20th century in the traditional Mongolian sys
tem of government. Mongolian Buddhists praying for the long
life of Monkhe Khan, erected in 1257 a stone monument on
the bank of the Ider River in the Khubsugul aimak. The Great
Khans of Mongolia who supported Buddhism, making it state
religion, also took interest in the Indian and Tibetan cultures.
Iphtikhir Eddin Mukhamed, a Persian scholar and a tutor
of Monkhe Khan, translating the tales of Calila and Dimna, a
part of the Indian Pancatantra, from Persian into Mongolian
and made Monkhe read them.
Sonom-Gara, a well-known translator, long before 1269
translated a philosophical and moral book Subashid or Subbasitaratnanidhi by Saja Pandito Kunga-gyaltsan from Tibet.
Having spread among Mongolian rulers and nobilites at the
time of the United Mongolian State, Buddhism developed further
during the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty.

f. The Mongolian Yiian Dynasty <1271-1308)

Hubilai Khan, the founder of the Mongolian Yiian Dynasty
in China, continued the policy of the Mongolian Great Khans
and vigorously supported the development of Buddhism. In
1260, he invited Pagpa Lama Lodoigyalsan, Sakiya sect of Tibet,
and in 1264 when he was in Shangdu (Kai-pin), lie proclaimed
in his Suvdan jarlig edict the Lama as the religious leader of
the Yiian Dynasty, gave him the seal of Purocita (state teacher)
and freed Lamas who served the Mongolian Khans from horse
post service and other taxes. He also decreed that the land and
property of the monasteries should be protected by law.
Hubilai Khan promoted the policy of unity of state and
religion the two principles, inherited from Mnkhe Khan.
Pagpa Lama wrote many letters to promote the spread of Bud
dhism in Mongolia and China and also his book Shes-bya
Rab-gsal, which was written in 1278 at the request of Chinghim
Taizi, a son of Hubilai Khan, dignified Chinghis Khan and other
khans with the titles of great khans who were chakravarti
'1urners of the wheel of Dharma, like ancient Indian and "Tibetan
Monarch.
The square letter alphabet compiled by Pagpa Lama oii the
basis of the Tibetan script was proclaimed in 1269 the state
script of the Mongolian Yiian Dynasty. The policy on religion
pursued by the Yiian Dynasty was not only aimed at maintain
ing domination over the occupied territory of China, but also at
keeping control over Tibet and other countries. For example,
Hubilai Khan repeatedly invited the Khambo Lama of the Tsan
Guntan Monastery to his palace, and apart from nominating him
a sacrificer also appointed him chief of Tumetu (ten thousand
people).
The Decree of Mangal of 1276, the Buyant Khan Decree of
1314, and the Decree of Daimapala Khan of 1321, indicate that
the Mongolian khans resumed the policy of Hubilai Khan in
support of religion (and of the successors to Hubilai Khan)
and invited Dharmapala (1268-1283), Choigi-Odser (12141294), Sodnamgyalsan, Ishrinchen, Kunga-lodoi of the Sakiya
sect and Lama Urjinpa (1230-1296) of Sanjabal Brugba sect
and Ranjundorje (1284-1327), Rolbidorje (1340-1383) of

Karmapa sect and granted them the traditional title of state

preacher or Purohito .
The Khans of the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty restored old
temples and monasteries, built new ones in Peking and other
cities. Hubilai Khan erected several temples and monasteries
in Peking named after Chinghis, Ogodei, Guyug, Monkhe Khan,
Esugei, the father of Chinghis Khan, Zuchi, Tsagaadai and Tului,
the sons of Chinghis Khan.
One significant effort in the field of dissemination of Bud
dhism in the Yuan Dynasty was the translation of books on
Buddhism from the Tibetan, Sanscrit and Uighur into the Mon
golian language and printing them. In the beginning of the 14th
century, almost all books on Buddhas Teachings were translated
into the Mongolian language. Choigi-Odser, a Mongolian schol
ar, philosopher and poet, accomplished an important work on
translating books on Buddhism, dessiminating them among the
believers and providing his own commentaries to those books.
In 1305 Choigi-Odser translated BodhicarySvatara (7th
century) by Santideva, an ancient Indian philosopher, in 1308
translated Panca raksa from Sanscrit and also translated
Saddharma Pundarlka Sutra in a poetic form.
One of the remarkable stages in history of dissemination of
Buddhism in Mongolia began, according to reliable sources,
from the 14th century. At that stage the Mongolians translated
Buddhist Books into their own language, made commentaries to
them, wrote many books of their own and printed them. It can
be said that the Buddhist thought started to develop among the
Mongols from this period. Choigi-Odser was one of the found
ers of the Buddhist thought in Mongolia. In 1312 he wrote 300
pages of commentaries to Bodhicaryavatara and printed this
work in 1000 copies, wrote a long verse for Pancaraksa
Mahakala nama stuti, or praise of four-handed Lhamo in the
Indian poetic style, and Twelve deeds of Buddha in Indian
writers Jatak Style. The famous translator, Ses-rab Sen-ge,
translated Altangerel (Subarnaprabhasa sutra) before 1328,
and he also translated Manjusri Nama Samghlti.
In the beginning of the 14th century, such works as Shirnen-Maha prajna-paramita-hrdaya, a philosophical book, San-

jodmonlam-(Ariya Saniantabhadra caryapranidhana) work by

Samatidapadra, one of eight disciples of Buddha, also Jagun
uilti (a hundred causes and effects) which deals with the laws
for monks1 and priests, compared with the ancient fairy tales
and legends, related with the Vinaya, were translated and printed.
Books on Buddhism were also translated into foreign languages,
in 1328, t)bgen-ii odon-u sudar (Sme-bdun-skar-mai-indo),
which was printed in 1000 copies by xylograph, was translated
from Mongolian into Uighur and Tibetan. At the beginning of
the 14th century principal works of Buddha were translated, and
printed in 1000-2000 copies. Over 20 pages of a book, written
in Mongolian were found among the well-known Turphan col
lections unearthed in Eastern Turkestan at the beginning of
the 20th century. All this proves that Buddhism spread not
only among the nobility of Mongolia, but that it exerted its
influence on peoples in the remote region controlled by the
Yuan Dynasty.
In the 14th century, Budon Rinchendub, a Tibetan scholar,
collected into separate volumes the great Kanjur and Tanjur,
and at the time of Ligden Khan (1592-1636), Kanjur was com
pletely translated into Mongolian.
However, Jambaltsanjod (Manjustri-jnauas sattvasya paraniartha nama-sangitih, Shirnen-(Bhagvati~prajnapramitahridaya, Sanjod Monlam - (Samandabhadracarya-pranidhanaraja
Doloon urgen-u odun-u sudar (Sme-bdun-skar-mai-mdo),
which had been translated at the beginning of the 14th century,
were included into volumes 89, 92, 108 Kanjur Tsahar1 and
kings were still worshipping as an amulet Gombo Gur-u
(Mahakala) introduced by Phag-pa Lama by 1629.

Tsaher-one of the Mongolian national minorities

CHAPTER II

THE YELLOW SECT OF BUDDHISM

IN MONGOLIA AS THE GREATER
VEHICLE OF BUDDHISM
(from the second half of the 16th century
up to the present time)

1. Beginning of Spread of the Yellow Sect of

Buddhism in Mongolia
The period between the second half of the 14th century and
the 17th century was one of the most complicated ones in the
history of Mongolia. Buddhism the most ancient religion in
the world which originated in India and had spread to Tibet,
Nepal, Mongolia, China and other countries, rose and fell to
gether with the state systems of the above-mentioned states.
Therefore, a brief information on some historically important
events should be provided before going into the history of Bud
dhism in Mongolia during the period from the 14th century till
the end of the 17th century. As a result of the struggle of the
Chinese people the Mongolian Yan Empire in China was over
thrown and Togoon-Timr Khan (1333-1370)* the last Emperor
of the Yiian Empire, left Peking in 1368 and since that time the
centre of Mongolian Buddhism was transferred to Mongolia.
Bilegt Khan (1370-1378) ascended the throne in KaraKorum. From the end of the 14th century Mongolia became
involved in a period known as feudal disintegration, during
which Mongolian feudal rulers constantly fought among them
selves for power.
Between 1388-1400, five Khans had changed on the imperial
throne, and besides, in 1414 and 1422, the Kings of Oirats and
Mongolia fought against each other. However, the desire to
defend Mongolian unity constantly manifested itself and prevail
ed for a certain period.

hi 1466 1504, for instance, at the time of Batumonkhe

Dayan Khan, Mongolia was united and enjoyed temporary peace.
Internal conflicts in Mongolia created serious obstacles to the
development of economy and culture, arid many objects created
earlier were destroyed.
During the above-mentioned period the international position
of Mongolia was unstable because of the Mongolian rulers
continuous warring with China and Tibet. Gradually the coun
try came under the control of foreign invaders.
The Ming Dynasty of China, formed in 1368 after the defeat
of the Yuan Empire, conducted a policy of revenge and aggres
sion and caused a great deal of harm by eroding Mongolian
unity. Those unfortunate circumstances of Mongolias external
and internal position badly affected the development of Bud
dhism in Mongolia. As was mentioned above, at the time of
Togoon-Timur (1378-1388) who ruled the whole of Mongolia
in (380, large forces of the Ming Dynasty of China attacked
Mongolia and destroyed and plundered the city of Kara-Korum
causing a great damage to the Mongolian culture and religion.
Because of that invasion, the Buddhist centre that had ex
isted in Mongolia for nearly 150 years was destroyed. The
influence of Buddhism in Mongolia decreased from the end of
the 14th century to the second half of the 16th century, and at
the same time shamanism was revived to some extent. However,
Mongolian feudal rulers tried to sustain the influence of Bud
dhism for political reasons. In the middle of the 15th century,
Eseti Taizi tried to obtain Buddhist pictures from the Ming
Dynasty. As the Ming Dynasty was eager to promote the spread
of Buddhism in Mongolia, it sold Mongolian religious articles.
Articles made at the time of the Ming Dynasty in the year of
Syuan-de (1426-1435) are popular in Mongolia now. Fur
ther on, Jambaltsanjod (Manjusrljnanasattvasya paramartha
nama-samgiti) was printed in Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese and
Mongolian in 1502, by the order of the Emperor Ming.
Although the influence of Buddhism had decreased for a
certain period, in the second half of the 16th century Buddhism
began to spread among the ordinary people. Mongolian state
figures on the one hand and on the other hand religious dignita-

t ies of Tibet played an important role in the cause of dissemina

tion of Buddhism in Mongolia. We briefly mention here the
history of Mongolo-Tibetan relations of the 1617th centuries
to make it easier to understand the history of Buddhism in
Mongolia, particularly the history of the Yellow Sect of Bud
dhism.
One thing should be noted, however, before we go on. * From
the time of Srongtszan Gambo-Ruler of Tibet, who lived in the
middle of the 7th century, the Tibetans acquired their national
script and began to translate and write books on Buddhism in
great numbers. Thus, while Buddhism was developing rapidly
in Tibet, Buddhism in India was on the decline and its books
and sutras began to disappear. The most important achieve
ments of the Tibetans lies in the fact that they collected the
Buddhist sutras of India and translated them into their own
language, thus making it possible for their future generation to
inherit the cultural traditions of India.
Although Buddhism had disappeared in India where it was
born thanks to collections and translations of Buddhist books
and sutras by the Tibetans, it was possible for the Tibetans to
develop Buddhism for almost a thousand years.
In Tibet in the 14-17th cent., there were struggles for power
among the aristocrats. In the beginning of the 15th cent.
Tzong-ka-pa Luvsangdagba (1357-1419) a lama of the Amdu
region, developed a new trend of Buddhism the Yellow Sect
of Buddhism or the Gelug-ba Sect. From the 16th cent, the
head of the sect began to be honoured with the title of Dalai
Lam a given by Mongolia. During the 14-15th cent., in Tibet,
struggles were going on between the Yellow Hats1, or Gelug-ba,
and the Red Hats2), or Karma-ba. Religions leaders in Tibet
were supported by the Mongols and tried to defeat their rivals.
But Mongolian feudal lords had the intention to take Tibet
under their control, or to rule Mongolia with the help of Bud
dhism. Khutugtai Tsetsen Khung Taizi (15 4 0 -1 5 8 6), in 1566,
took under his control the Central Tibet. Altan Khan of Tumetu
(1507-1583) attacked Tibet in 1571 and 1573. At the request

n Yellow H ats-S h ar Malgaitan

2) Red Hats - Ulan Malgaitan

of Agwanglobsanggyamtso, the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682),

in 1642, Turbaih an oiral guushi Khan, a ruler of Khukhe Nur,
mounted a military expedition to Tibet, suppressed the Reds and
established once and for all the domination of the Yellow Sect.
Buddhism which spread in Mongolia a couple of centuries
ago, at the end of the 16th cent, became a public religion, and
during that period the struggle went on between the Reds and
the Yellows. In 1576, Tumenzasagu (1558-1593), the Em
peror of Mongolia, invited Karma Lama of the Red religion from
Tibet and promoted the development of religion.
Altan Khan Anand of Tumetu (15071583), Abtai Sain
Khan (1554-1586) of Khalkha Mongol, Khutugtai Tsetsen
Khun taizi of Ordos (1540-1586) played an important role in
the cause of propagation of Buddhism, namely one of its
branches the Sect of the Yellow Hats. In 1554, Altan Khan
set up Khukhe Khot town and in 1559 he attacked the Mongols
of Khukhe Nur. In 1571, 1573 when he invaded Tibet, he
brought back such lamas as Asin and Gumusoke as war prison
ers. Altan Khan invited Sodnomgyamtso, the head Lama of
Tibet, to the town of Khukhe Khot and proclaimed the Yellow
religion. Altan Khan was given the title The great Khan of
the Dharma and the heaven and in return he received the title
Vajradara Dalai Lama . In 1578, Khutugtai Tsetsen Khun
Taizi, by the order of Altan Khan and Sodnomgyamtso, the
Third Dalai Lama, drew7 up laws called Arban buyant nomyn
Tsagaza (a law of Ten Noble Teachings) in accordance with
the laws of the Tibetan three Chakravard Khans and Hubilai
Tsetsen Khan of Mongolia (1260-1299). Tn this law he in
cluded the following: prohibition of making khoilog-making
sacrifice with camels and horses for the dead, burning of tetom
of shamanism and worshiping of the image of Mahak5la a hope
of intellect instead of tetom and refrain from using animals for
fool all the year round, and using of dairy products. Religious
orders were made equal with secular ranks, for instance, Chorie
(master of Dharma) with ITungtaizi, Rabjamba, Gabju with
taizi, gelonp with tabnang honjing, toin, bhiksunl, upasaka and
upavasa with onigud (small taizi). If somebody insults them,
he should be punished as if he abused secular clerks, if a Lama

gets married he would be excluded from monastery, if upasaka,

upavasa kill animals they should be seized by monks, if toin,
upasaka take alcohol drinks, their properties would be confiscat
ed. Also in the law, there were cases for Lamas being exempted
from military service, hunting and taxes. Thus, shamanism was
eliminated by force and conditions for spreading Buddhism
among the people were created by the declaration commandment
of law to worship Buddhism.
Altan Khan presented to the Third Dalai Lama, Erdene
Mongon Mandala (gemed silver mandala offering) inlaid with
gerns and gold, 30 pure gold cups, ten white horses with golden
saddles decorated with jewels. A monastery was founded in
Khukhe Khot in 1579. By the order of Altan Khan, Altangerel (suvarnaprabhasa) was re-translated in 1579. The Thegchen Choinhorling temple was erected in Tsavchil of Khukhe
Nur, where Altan Khan first met the Third Dalai Lama. The
Third Dalai Lama visited Tumetu a second time in 1586, and
this time he inaugurated the Phuntsoghanphanling monastery in
Bintuu noyan khosun1 of Ordos Phuntsogdargyailing monastery
in Tsetsen Daichin khosun. The aristocrats of Tumetu declared
that the reincarnation of Sodnomgyamtso, the Third Dalai Lama
who died in 1588, was found in the family of Sumer Hungtaizi,
a younger brother of Altan Khan. Yondangyamtso the Fourth
Dalai Lama, head of the Buddhist religion of Tibet, became the
descendant of Altan Khan. Beyagud Bator hungtaizi, a grandson
of Altan Khan, reprinted in 1591 the Mongolian original of
Jambaltsanjod belonging to 1502.
The Chinese Ming Dynasty intended to use religion for its
policy to conquering Mongolia. Vanley the Emperor of Ming
Dynasty in 1588 sent to Mongolia a delegation of 1000 to invite
Sodnomgyamtso the Third Dalai Lama to his native land. He
also sent valuable gifts to draw them to his side following the
declaration of rebirth of the Third Dalai Lama in the family of
Sumer hungtaizi.
In 1581, 1583, Abtai Sain Khan (1554-1588) invited Lamas
called Gurmi Nansu, Samla Nansu from Turned, and in about
1578 he met with Dalai Lama and proclaimed the Yellow Sect
n Khosun - banner.

of Buddhism Ihe formal stale religion and was given the title
Vajra Khan". Abtai Sain Khan officially proclaimed the elimi
nation of shamanism. Abtai Sain Khan built the Erdene-Zlui
monastery between 1585 -1586, and in 1587 it was inaugurated.
The first Khambo l ama of Erdene-Zhu had the title of Pandit
(luushi Chorje and he himself made a statue of Sodnomgyamtso,
the Third Dalai Kama.
The monastery had images of Buddha of the past, present
and future and vajratara worship and others. Edrene-Zhu is
the very first Buddhist monastery set up on the territory of the
MPR and it was established on the basis of tradition of Bud
dhism in Mongolia. A Mongolian architect named Darkhan
I Hsen supervised the construction of Erdenc-Zhu, and Jamyanjodov wrote a book on the construction of the shrine. So it is
clear that Mongolia had a traditional architecture for monasteries.
Although Buddhist monasteries were built, certain Mongolian
princes, namely Tsogt Taizi (1581-1636), were still opposing
the Yellow Sect, believing in the Red Sect. In 1601, a monas
tery was built bv Tsogt, called the White House, on the bank
of the Tola River. The Red Sect of Buddhism was defeated in
Mongolia with the death of Tsogt Hungtaizi and the Yellow Sect
of Buddhism began to dominate. Religious dignitaries, like
Avuush .guushi of Khukhe-Khot and others, played important
roles in the development of the Yellow Sect of Buddhism.
Shrishilasvaraba, or Manjusri Guushi Chorje, a pandit of
Khukhe-Khot, between 1587 and 1620 translated such books on
religion as: Holy Images of Five Origins ; The Biography of
Milarepa Mani Kabum ; Jataka ; Cintamani-yin erike ;
Stories by Molom Toin in return of his mothers good deeds
and also did much work on translating and writing the Indian.
Tibetan and Mongolian history of religion. Ayuush guushi of
Khukhe-Khot wrote many fine verses on religion at the ends of
the books which he translated. Ayuush guushi in 1587, devel
oped a transcription for foreign writings and in the same year
he re-translated Pancaraksa , formerly interpreted by Shes-rab
Sen-ge, and Arya Tathagatasni-sasitata patranama , Qar-a
kcleti nere-tu .
One of the remarkable events of that period was that

such religious literatures for the common believer as Pagspa-dus-pa-chen-bai-byan-chub-sems-ba-modgal-gyi-bu-ma~la-pandogmdo, Jataka were translated into Mongolian.
Prince Kunga-nyambo (1573-1633) came to Mongolia from
Tibet, and he was presented a title Merciful saint Maidar (Arya
Maitreyah maha-karuna samanvagatah) by Jondangyamtso, the
Fourth Dalai Lama, and also was given the name Merciful
Teacher and Suvarna cakravarti, prince the wise . In 1632.
Kunganyambo finished writing Kanjur in gold.
At the end of the 16th cent, and in the beginning of the
17th cent., important roles were played by such state figures as
Legden Khan (1592-1634), Tumenhen sain noyan (1558-1640)
and by such religious dignitaries as Neij Toin (1557-1653),
Onder-gegeen-Zanabazar (1635-1723), Zaya Pandit Lobsangprinlai (1642-1716) Lamyn Gegeen (1639-1704). By the
order of Legden Khan, in 1628-1629, some 70 prominent cul
tural figures, including Danzindagva who wrote the grammar
Ogtorguin Maani (gnam-mkainorbu), Bilguun-Guushi (Bilguun
Dalai) of uras and Choigyamtso gelen, translated Kanjur in
108 volumes, and it was printed by xylographic means in 1720
under the title Golden Kanjur. 200 years later, a commission
consisting of dozens of famous scholars such as Rbyangya Rolbidorje (1717-1786) Guushi Shesrabyamtso, Gung Gombogyab,
Dai Guushi Agwandanpel (1690-1780), was formed to translate
the 226 volumes of Tanjur. In 1742 they complied a TibetanMongolian dictionary called Dag-yig-mkhas-bi-byun-gnas and
in 1749 they finished the translation of Tanjur. Altogether
over 5000 books were included in the 334 volumes of Kanjur
and Tanjur. It was a great achievement not only in the religious
but also in the cultural history of Mongolia.
Tumenhen Sain Noyan was awarded the title Nomyn Ezen
Sain Noyan (Good prince, a master of Dharma) by Yondangyamtso the Fourth Dalai Lama for setting up 2-3 monasteries
and for creating images of Buddha and silver Maidar after he
. visited Lhasa in 1617 and for supporting of Yellow Sect of
| Buddhism during the struggle against the Red Sect. It is clear
from the law written on the birch bark excavated fjom the ruins
in Khara-bukha Balgas, near the centre of Dashitj^tHilfeit^.somon

of Bulgan aimak (province), that he adopted a decree on the

internal order of temples and monasteries, giving rights and
privileges to lamas and monks.
In 1557, Neij toin or Avid of Oirat was born in the family
of Mergen (the wise) Noyan Tevnin. When he was young he
left his wife and children, went to Tibet and became a priest.
About 1638 he came back to Inner Mongolia from Tibet and
travelled through Onniud, Urad, Khorichin, Uzemchin, Jalais,
Harchiu, Achan, Bairin, Tsahar, Gorles, Khosuns, setting up
monasteries and translating books on religious rituals. He copied
108 volumes of Kanjur and distributed them to every Khosuns.
Thanks to the efforts exerted by Neij Toin, the religious cere
mony of meeting of Khorchum Tushietu Wang Khosun was held
in the Mongolian language.
Under gegeen (High Holiness) Zanabazar (1635-1723)
played an extremely important role in the history of the Bud
dhist religion of the 17th cent. The activities of Onder Gegeen
Lobsangdambigyaltsan or Jebzundamba Hutugtu, the first, were
devoted to religious organizational work development of religion,
and religious art. Onder Gegeen was born in 1635 in the family
of Tushietu Khan Gonibodorje, one of the most influential figures
of Khalkha. Agwan-lobsanggyamtso, the Fifth Dalai Lama,
awarded him the title Jebzundamba hutugtu, considering him
sanctity of Jonon Kunga-nyanibo. In 1639, Zanabazar was made
the head of the Mongolian religion. The appointment of the
head of a united religious leadership was of great importance
for further development of Buddhism. Zanabazar played an
important role in setting up temples and monasteries and in
particular in the establishment of future Ikhe-Khuriye, or Urge.
In 1651, Zanabazar returned from Tibet and set up the founda
tion of future Ikhe-Khuriye-Ripogejoi-Gangdan-shadubling in
1651 with the purpose of establishment of the Buddhist Centre
on the advice of Dalai Lama and Banchen Erdene Lobsangchoijigyaltsan.
In accordance with Tibetan tradition, Ikhe-Khuriye was given
7 aimaks: Amdu aimak, Jasiin aimak, Sangga aimak, Zoogoo
aimak, Darkhan emchiin aimak, Urluud aimak. It was a mov
ing town. In 1654, it moved to the front side of Kentei moun
ts

tains in the Bast Khalkha territory, and it was built between

1654-1686 and was inaugurated. In 1706, it moved to the
place of JErdene tolgoi of Tsetserlig and a Tara temple was
built. So the Ikhe-Khuriye had been extended and it had a
monastery with over 2,000 monks. The Khalkha kings invited
Zanabazar to Erdene-Zhu and he made the monastery into a
permanent religious ceremony centre, with monastery treasury.
Zanabazar also took part in the establishments of other temples
and monasteries of Mongolia.
Originally the Indian, Tibetan and Chinese styles dominated
in the Mongolian monastery architecture, but at the end of the
16th cent, there came into existence a Mongolian architecture.
In 1688-1697, during the years of Oirat-Khalkha battles, ErdeneZhu and Ikhe-Khuriye suffered serious damage. But Zanabazar
built pagodas, shrines and Ripogejoigngdah-shadubling repaired
and built places for Lamas. Zanabazar brought from Tibet the
complete Tanjur in 1671, and Kanjur in 1683. He also made
a translation of some religious sutras, and in 1686 he devised
the Soyoinbo script. The Natha was translated in the Soyombo
scripts and printed. Zanabazar lived in Peking and often visited
Mongolia and took part in religious activities. Zanabazar was
a very skillful man. In 1651, he made statues of Vajratara
(now it is preserved in Gangdantheckchenling monastery)
Tavan yazguuriin burkhan (Holy images of five origins).
Mongolian historians consider Zanabazar to be the founder of
the Mongolian style of painting.
Zaya Pandit Lobsangprinlai (1642-1716) was born in the
family of Khundin Ubashi, a son of Tumenhen Sain Noyan, a
grandfather of Sain Noyan Khan . At the age of 5 he took the
monastic vows and at thirteen he was given the title Noyan
Hutugtu Holy prince by Zanabazar and then was presented the
name Zaya Pandit Hutugtu by the Fifth Dalai Lama. Lobsanprinlai in 1660-1679, studied in a Tibetan monastery called
Dashi-Lhumpo. In 1652, he laid the foundation of a monastery
Shaduppelgyaling of Zayin Khuriye on the front side of the
Bulgan mountain, and soon it became one of the biggest monas
teries of the Sain Noyan Khan aimak and followed the Buddhist
rituals established by him. Zaya Pandit between 1683-1700

set up a number of big and small monasteries in the tsahar,

uzemchin and tumetu knosuns of Inner Mongolia.
Lobsaugpriulai wrote in Tibetan Spyan-gi-bsans for replac
ing the traditional shaman rituals with Buddhist ones and Bolor
Toli (Tobyig-gsal-bahi-me-lon) in 4 volumes on the history of
Indian, 'Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhism as well as the bio
graphies of senior Lamas. Me also wrote in 'Tibetan his auto
biography called hor-bi-bya-brjid-tsul-snen-gsal-sgron-me .
Lobsangdanzin-choigi'gyaltsan (1639-1704), the first incar
nation of Erdene-pandit Hutugtu, was born in the family of
Erkhe-Tsunkher noyan, a direct descendant of Tushietu Khan,
and he was taught Tibetan and religious teachings to the age
of 17 by Lobsang Yarinpel Chorje Lama of Dashi-Lhumpo
monastery of Tibet, who was specially invited to teach him. In
1655 -1662 he went to Dashi-Lhumpo and other monasteries
and studied the Buddha's 'Teachings. When he came back to
his native place, he set up the BiiureljuUt monastery in the Sain
Noyan Khan khosun with 60 Lamas headed by Dashisambuu
and arranged religious worship according to the ritual system of
the Dashi-Lhumpo monastery in "Tibet. He, at the request of
Onder Gegeen Zanabazar, translated Samdag from Tibetan
into Mongolian in 1674 and wrote a number of religious rituals.
Several times he gave lectures to monks of Ikhe-Khuriye on the
Buddha's Teachings and for all these deeds he was awarded the
title Khambo Nomun Khan. By 1690s, his own monastery
had over 700 Lamas and turned into Datsun, becoming one
of the influential monasteries in the South of the Sain Noyan
Khan aimak. Erdene Pandit Hutugtu also set up monasteries
and temples in some areas of Ordos, apart from Mongolia. Zaya
Pandit Namkhaigyamtso (1599-1662) the adopted son of Baibagal, the father of Tsetsen-Khan, performed many meritorious
deeds in the cause of development of Buddhism in Oirat. Zaya
Pandit took the monastic vows and in his youth studied Buddhist
Teachings in Tibet. In 1639, he came to Oirat and inaugurated
moving temples and pagodas, and starting from 1644 he trans
lated Mani Ka-bum, A History of Milarepa and in 1648 he
devised (Clear Script) the Kalmick Mongol Alphabet, making
a slight change in the Mongolian Uighur script, and translated

and printed in the Kalmich-Mongol alphabet over 100 books

and sutras including Suvarnaprabhasa , Paricaraksa, and
Bodhisattvacarya.
At the beginning of the 17th Century such moving and settled
monasteries were set up as the Bulnai pagoda, Daichun Khosun
pagoda, Erchis Temple and Boroo Talyn Temple in Oirat.
Galdan Boshigtu Khan (1650-1697), extended the Boroo
Talyn Temple into a monastery with dozens of datsuns (tem
ples), Galdun Boshigtu set up Gurjaa (Gulz) and Khainuke
(Khainik) monasteries on the Southern and Northern banks of
the Ili River and also built 9 jasu (monastery treasury) for
6,000 Lamas. Later, in 1757, the Manchu aggressors burnt
down the Gurjaa Monastery.
Since Buddhism has spread all over Mongolia at the end of
16th and at the beginning of the 17th Century, in 1640 it was
proclaimed as the state religion by the law of Mongol-Oirat
Code and monasteries and high Lamas were given extensive
rights and privileges. With the development of Buddhism shama
nism was eliminated oil the one hand and on the other hand
some ritual systems of it were changed.
As we briefly mentioned above, starting from the second half
of the 17th cent., the Manchu aggressors attacked Mongolia
continually and in 1691 Khalkha Mongolia came under the con
trol of the Manchu. From that time the Manchu dominated
Mongolia for more than 200 years. As a rule, the Manchu
aggressors denied making any conquest, and they declared dur
ing the seizure of Mongolia in 1691 that Mongolia offered its
submission to Manchuria . The Manchu aggressors divided
Mongolia into dozens of small khosuns, relying on their own
administrative rule and military force, and the sacred rituals of
Buddha were used in their policy of colonisation.
In 1652, the Manchu Emperor invited Agwanlobsanggyamtso,
the Fifth Dalai Lama, to his palace and presented to him the
seal and other articles.
A large number of people, from ordinary monks famous
religious dignitaries, lost their lives because of disagreement
with the Manchurian aggressive policy.
However, the policy pursued by the Manchurian conquerors

led to unexpected consequences. Since Buddhism in Mongolia

was well established the Chinese and Manchurian aggressors
acted arbitrarily in pursuing their policy of colonisation in the
country. The Mongolians used Buddhism in the state machinery
as an ideological weapon and it had contributed to the strength
ening of the feudal relations and feudal state and to the con
solidation of the contacts of Mongolia with Eastern countries,
which were more culturally developed. Buddhist temples and
monasteries turned into social and spiritual centres of the Mon
gols and became the main places of development of the social
thought.
Compared to shamanism, Buddhism played a much more
important role in the development of enlightment of the Mon
golian society of that period. Replacing the shamanist backward
rituals, Buddhism helped to spread the cultural achievements of
India and Tibet in the Mongolian land.
The spread of Buddhism in Mongolia helped to foil the
strong influence of the Chinese ideology and served as one of
the main factors in preventing the assimilation of the Mongols
into China.
Due to the adoption of Buddhism, the sparsely populated
Mongolia was connected spiritually in one worship and at times
it also served as an important factor in promoting the unification
of the country politically.

2. Monasteries and their Economies

Nearly until the end of the 17th cent., the Red Sect of
Buddhism and the traditional Mongolian Shamanism continued
to exist side by side. But in the beginning of the 18th cent.,
the Yellow Sect of Buddhism became the main religion and
began to spread intensively. Dozens of monasteries were set
up and the number of Lamas grew sharply.
Ordinary people were attracted to Buddhism, for it was
different from Shamanism with its severe and inhuman rituals.
One of the reasons for the victory of Buddhism over Shamanism
lies in its character. On the other hand, Shamanism was re
pressed by the Manchu rulers and Mongolian noblemen, and
they both actively propagated Buddhism.

By the decree of the Manchu Emperor at the end of the

17th century, they set-up the Buyun-ig Badargulagchi Sum
(the Temple for the development of meritorious deeds) in DoloNur for Mongolian believers, in 1727-1736 Amur-Bayasgalantu monastery devoted to Jebzundamba Hutugtu and in
1760s Danibadargya (a temple for flourishing religion). The
Manchus rendered their support to Mongolia to set up new
temples and monasteries in their khosuns. As a result of this
in the end of the 18th century monasteries were built in every
khosun and there were nearly 120 monasteries altogether.
Among them, were such big monasteries as Ikhe Khuriye, Zaya
Pandit, Erdene Pandit Hutugtu with dozens of temples, pagodas
and with thousands of Lamas.
With the development of monasteries, their property and
economic potential were strengthened considerably. While in
the middle of the 17th cent, the number of monasteries was not
more than one hundred, in the beginning of the 20th cent, it
reached approximately 700. Only, the Ikhe Khuriye, had 244
monastery treasuries. The Tsetsen Beis Khosun Monastery in
1828, had 21,754 heads of cattle but in 1918 this number in
creased to 126,000. A monastery treasury of Bator Wang
Khosun of Zasagtu Khan was established in 1784, with 400
heads of cattle and in 1924 this number was 23,503.
The Jasu (monastery treasury) is a monastery economy
designated to meet the demands of the monastery and the cost
of religious services. The Jasu included considerable amount
of movable and immovable property, which mainly consisted of
cattle. As early as the beginning of the 18th cent., the monas
tery treasury, apart from keeping cattle, began to engage in land
cultivation. In the beginning of the 20th cent., over 60 monas
tery treasuries were engaged in agriculture, cultivating thousands
of acres of land. From the 18th cent., the monastery treasury
of Ikhe Khuriye and other towns engaged in business activities
and began to lend money. These activities were intensified
from the 19th cent. Certain big monastery treasuries began to
issue paper notes, called Piu, instead of paper money. Many
monastery treasuries were engaged in caravan transport and
horse post service. Such activities of the monastery treasuries

increased their property. At first, the property of the monastery

treasury mainly consisted of offerings and contributions, but
gradually it began to depend on its business activities.

3. Monks, Saints and Incarnations

In connection with the increase of the number of monasteries
and temples in 1 8 -19th Cent, monks grew rapidly in number.
In 1785 only in Great Shabi, monks at monasteries and temples
numbered 15,000. In entire Khalkha Mongolia there were
approximately 70,000 monks. In 1868 only in Ikhe Kuriye
(Great Enclosure) there were over 10,000 monks.
Such rapid increase in the number of monks had some
economic reasons besides their religious conviction of the need
for becoming a monk and performing good deeds. If one took
the vows of monkhood, he was freed from military service and
also from official obligation and services of other ordinary sub
jects. Monks enjoyed certain privileges over laymen because
they got alms and in society they held a more respected position.
By their position in society, property status and rank, monks
were not equal. They were divided into the higher, middle and
lower groups.
Saints, incarnations, khambos, dharmasvamins, chief lamas,
scholarly degree holders, lama-teachers, cantours and super
intendents of temple ceremonies and other higher rank holders
managed all affairs of monasteries and temples, supervised mid
dle and lower group lamas, and controlled the incomes and
treasury of monasteries and were in charge of alms. Learned
monks, stewards of middle and lower rank, business managerlamas (major-domo), secretary-lamas, physicians, religious cere
mony performers were in a position between the higher and
lower ranking of lamas. The overwhelming majority of lamas
were lower group lamas who had no title and they were called
disciples or monks. Lower lamas were subject to higher lamas
and did all kinds of odd jobs at monasteries and temples and
lived on money received for performing their religious ceremo
nies and on meals given by believers. 10 per cent out of the
entire monkhood were higher ranking lamas, the rest were middle
and lower ranking lamas.

Higher ranking lamas were subdivided into several groups

among which saints and incarnations enjoyed special rights.
Saints and incarnations were considered Boddhi-satvas that em
bodied on the earth in the form of human beings in order to
save the living beings from sufferings. Saints and incarnations
were also considered reborn ever since Buddhism was established
in Mongolia. Saints and incarnations were very esteemed and
authoritative people among believers. In particular the Holy
Jebzundamba, who was famed among Mongols as the Bogda, or
living Buddha, was especially influential. In the book entitled
Source of the Highest on the genealogical table of the Holy
Jebzundamba it is written that the previous incarnations of
Tibetan Tarnata incarnation of the Holy Jebzundamba of
Khalkha were reborn five times in India, ten times in Tibet, twice
in Mongolia and then later six times in Tibet. Totally he was
incarnated 23 times. The last eight incarnations of the Jebzun
damba were at the top of the Mongolian Yellow Sect of Bud
dhism for about 300 years and revered as the Holy Bogda.
The first incarnation of the Bogda Jebzundamba, the Under
Gegeen (High Holiness) Zanabazar, remained as the head of
the Mongolia Yellow Sect of Buddhism even after Mongolia was
conquered by the Manchus, and he was considered and revered
as the Holiest of the Holy Lamas in Khalkha Mongolia.
In 1723, the Holy Jebzundamba was conferred upon by the
Manchu Emperor the title of the promoter of Religion and
presented with a gold seal, a diploma on golden leaves. A
special ministry was set up Erdene shanzodba, to administer
the Onder Gegeen Jebzundambas subjects. The Under Gegeen
passed away in Peking in 1723 at the age of 88. Then the
Manchu Emperor promoted to the second incarnation of Jeb
zundamba son of Darkhan Ching Wang Dondubdorji, his sonin-law and close relative of Tusiyetu Khan Gombodorji. All
the titles, distinctions and privileges conferred upon His Holiness
the Onder Gegeen were passed to the Second Bogda so it be
came tradition that later incarnations inherited the titles, distinc
tions and privileges of the previous ones. Pretending to show
their respect for the Second Bogda for his service in suppressing
the national liberation movement of Mongols in 1755-1757, the

Manchus conferred upon the Second Bogda the title Promoter

of Happiness for All Living Beings in addition to the previous
one the Promoter of the Religion .
However later on, in 1758, they had him murdered as soon
as they knew that the Second Bogda was on the side of the
national liberation movement.
The anti-Manchu national liberation movement of 1755-1757
was launched by the Mongols, and the Manchus were aware of
the influence of the Bogda and others who could be able to
attract others towards themselves and unite the forces of the
Mongols to resist the Manchus. So all the later incarnations
of Jebzundamba were from Tibet.
As the Yellow Sect of Buddhism spread, there was observed
a growing number of saints and incarnations. In tl\e middle of
the 18th cent, there were about 50 saints and incarfiations, but
in the middle of the 19th century the number reached 120 and
by early 20th century it jumped up to 150. Out of them the
most popular and influential were Zaya Pandit, Erdene Pandit,
Ching Suscgt, Nomun Khan, Nar Wangchen, Erdene Mergen
Noyan Ilutugtu, Naran flutugtu, Khambo Nomun Khan all from
the Sain Noyan Khan aimak, llgagugsan Hutugtu, Zhalkhenze
Hutugtu and Nomun Khan from the Zasagt Khan aimak, and
Egzur Hutugtu of the Tsetsen Khan aimak.
All saints and incarnations possessed great amount of private
property and enormous number of serfs shabi. Shabis are
serfs of saints and incarnations. Their origin is closely con
nected with the spread of Buddhism. In 1639 feudals presented
the First Incarnation of Jebzundamba the Onder Gegeen 32
families out of their own subjects, and in this way the ecclesiastic
serfs shabi, emerged for the first time in Mongolia. Prior to
that there was not serfdom in Mongolia. The shabis were divid
ed into two categories shabis of the Jebzundamba Hutugtu and
shabis of other incarnations and saints. So in order to distin
guish the shabis of the Jebzundamba Hutugtu from others shabis,
the formers shabis used to be called Great shabis .
As the Yellow Sect of Buddhism flourished, the authority
of the incarnations and saints grew and more and more new
incarnations and saints appeared. Shabis increased in number.

The number of people in Great sliabi was 20,000 in 1764 and

it grew to 110,000 in 1825.
In connection with the increase of the number of shabis, the
number of incarnations with seals entitled to rule over shabis
also grew. The seal of ruling the shabis was received by Zaya
Pandit and Erdene Pandit in 1739 Ching Susegt Nomun Khan
in 1751, Erdene Mergen Noyan Hutugtu in 1772, Ilgagugsan
Ilutugtu in 1821 and Zhalkhanze Hutugtu in 1824.
The Great shabis were supervised by Shanodba Ministry
which had equal rights with the chairman of the aimak assembly,
and shabis of other incarnations and saints with seals by
Shanzodba who had equal rights with hereditary ruling prince
or banner administrators under whose supervision there were
functionaries such as chief lamas, chiefs of clans.
In their turn the shabis were divided into subgroups of tribe
and bagh (administrative unit in Mongolia).
Since the end of the 17th century shabis were freed from
state duty and they served only their masters. Shabis had to
look after the cattle of their masters, to grow grain, to conduct
caravan, to run horse-relay service, to prepare fuel, to erect and
to repair temples and dwelling houses, and in one word to do
every household odd work. Jebzundamba, other incarnations,
saints and high ranking monks possessed enormous property,
serfs who were called shabi, and had their own special ad
ministration to rule over the serfs as well as fixed system of
tax collection.
Manchus treated intimately Jebzundamba and other influen
tial saints, incarnations and high ranking monks, confirming
upon them higher titles, and bestowing every kind of favour.
In 1736, when Jebzundamba Hutugtu visited Peking, the Manchu
Emperor, showing great respect, personally paid a visit of cour
tesy to the residence of Jebzundamba and presented him rich
gifts.

4. Buddist Education
In Mongolia, the Great Vehicle of Buddhism (Mahayana)
was Lamaism, which is basically much the same as the early
Buddhist teaching of India. If one examines thoroughly Bud

dhism in Tibet and Mongolia and its fundamental teachings, one

will come to a conclusion that thought Buddhism spread at
various times in different countries in different forms, it has
preserved the fundamental principles of the ancient religious
philosophy.
Mongolian Buddhists chiefly studied and commented on
theoretical works on religious philosophy, logic, psychology and
literature by famous thinkers of ancient India such as Ngarjuna,
Asanga, Ariyadva, Vasubandu, Chandrakirti, Dignagi, Dharmaklrti, Buddhapftlita and others.
2,500 years ago in India there emerged various philosophi
cal schools which were counteracting each other and were divided
into two major groups as perpetual conception holders who con
sidered various universal objects and phenomena as indestruc
tible, inseparable, not passing, uninterrupted, and the transitory
conception holders who considered various universal objects and
phenomena as unfeasible, disconnected, non-arriving, non-continuous. When the Holy Buddha delivered His sermons and
pointed out that the perpetual conception and the transitory
conception are based on the surface structure of objects and
phenomena so thev are not the perfect conceptions. He said
that all universal objects and phenomena are indestructible, and
unfeasible, inseparable atid disconnected, not going and not com
ing, uninterrupted and non-continuous, they should enter the
state of quietude (attain nirvana). He preached the con
ception of the perfect middle path based on inner structure of
objects and phenomena. Thus the Enlightened Buddha initiat
ed the great compassion to remove sufferings of the samsara,
which is destructible and feasible, separable and connected,
going and coming, interrupted and continuous. So the concep
tion of the middle path was not only a teaching by which to
compromise the perpetucal conception and the transitory con
ception, but it replaced the imperfect conception based on the
surface structure of objects and phenomena by the perfect con
ception based on the inner structure of objects and phenomena.
Out of the eight negations of the conception of the middle pathundestructible, inseparable, not going, uninterrupted are called
the existence and unfeasible disconnecting, not coming and not

continuous are called the absence. So the motionless aspect of

objects and phenomena is the existence and motional aspect is
the absence. So the understructible and unfeasible express the
relations of quality, the inseparable and disconnecting-relations
of quantity, not going and not coming the relations of place,
and uninterrupting and not continuous-the relations of time.
On the whole Mongolian Buddhists have been adhering to the
conception of the middle path.
If the majority of various philosophical trends of ancient
India justified the division of mankind by the noble and the
inferior origin, as well as into the rich and the poor, the Bud
dhist doctrine opposed this division and propagated the equality
of mankind.
From the second half of the 17th century, when Ikhe Kuriye
was founded, Buddhist education in Mongolia was systematized.
Ikhe Kuriye was a major centre of Buddhist culture in Mongolia
for several centuries. There were over ten thousand monks
studying in Ikhe Kuriye. In general at each monastery in
Mongolia there existed a Buddhist school where, besides the
Buddhist teaching, they taught the language, theory of literature,
medicine, astrology, history and art. Among the Mongolian
Buddhist schools the Buddhist University at Gangdan, founded
in 1739, was very popular not only in Mongolia but in all of
the East. Mongolian Ikhe Kuriye was the official religious
centre. But Gangdan was different from it by its liberal refor
mation. Gangdan was set up as a philosophical school to teach
the highest doctrine of Buddhism. In fact, most prominent
scholars of Buddhism graduated from this University and spiri
tual life at Gangdan was conducted in the form of lively dis
cussions and debates. At that time in Buddhist schools of Mon
golia the Buddhist teaching was the major subject of study.
Besides that it was of primary importance to train monks to
perform all kinds of religious rituals at numerous monasteries,
and they were taught the five great sciences and the five small
sciences which were introduced in Mongolia simultaneously with
Buddhism. According to the ancient Indian, Tibetan and Mon
golian tradition the five great sciences were philology, logic,
technology, Buddhist doctrine and medicine, and the five small

sciences being astrology, theory of literature, allegorical poetics

and playwriting.
At Buddhist schools they first taught how to read and train
ed them to learn by heart primary recitation. The second stage
was to study in various faculties, or datsuns. Faculties were the
most important scats of religious education and almost every
monastery had its own faculties. In Mongolian monasteries
there were mostly faculties of philosophy, medicine, Mantra,
Tantra and astrology. There were over ten faculties in Ikhe
Kuriye. The faculty of Tantra was founded in 1739, the faculty
of philosophy in 1756, the faculty of medicine in 1760, the
faculty of astrology in 1779, and the faculty of Mantra in
1790.
In the Oangdan monastery in Ikhe Kuriye founded in 1838
there were three faculties of Buddhist philosophy, such as Daslichoimbol, Gungaachoilin and Idgaachoilin. The most important
fundamental subject at various faculties was the Buddhist philo
sophy which was the core of the Buddhist doctrine. Any one
who graduated from the faculty of Buddhist philosophy got the
degree of Gabju. After that he had to enter the faculty of
Tantra to obtain the highest degree of Buddhalogy Agramba,
where the main subject of study was Tantra. It was considered
that by studying Tantra one can reach the peak of Buddhist
studies and acquire supernatural power. Graduates from various
faculties of Buddhist studies stayed at monasteries and temples,
being engaged in religious services, teaching Buddhist students,
and propagated among the believers the Buddhist ideology.
Those well-versed in the Buddhist teaching translated or made
commentaries on Buddhist sutras as well as composed their own
works. They translated and printed by xylographic means vari
ous works by ancicnt Indian and Tibetan scholars, and religious
hymns. In 1718 -1720 were printed by xylographic means 108
volumes of Kanjur translated under the guidance of LigdenvKhan
and in 1741-1749, 220 volumes of Tanjur translated by 35
translators and scholars headed by Kunga-Odser.
The Mongols translated works in various fields of knowledge
from Sanskrit and Tibetan, and they also created an increasing
number of works of their own in Tibetan and Mongolian. The

late Most Venerable Gabju Sainaageen Gombojav Khambo lama

of the Gangdantekchenling Monastery in his report to the first
International Congress of Mongolists enumerated 208 authors
with a list of their works, and stated that it was not the com
plete list. Their works numbered several hundreds and they
were mainly commentaries on the basic sutras by Indian and
Tibetan scholars.
There was a great number of monks who translated from
Tibetan into Mongolian or composed their own works in Tibetan
in the five great sciences and the five small sciences. For ex
ample in philosophy Agvankhaidav, Khambo lama of the Ikhe
Kuriye,Darmavasmin Agvanbaldan of the same monastery and
Artsedbazar of Dalai Choinkhor Wang Banner of Sain Noyan
Khan aimak, in philology Gabju Lubsangdash and Gabju Damdinsuren of Ikhe Kuriye, Jamiyangarav of Sain Noyan Khan
aimak, in logic Gabju Shijiye of Ikhe Kuriye, Darmavasmin
Agvandorji of the same monastery incarnated lama Lubsangsodov
of Sartul Kuriye of Zasakt Khan aimak, in medicine Toyin
Lubsangchoimbol of Dalai Choinkhor Wang Banner of Sain
Noyan Khan aimak, in art astrologer Ubgenkhu of Mergen
Wang Banner of the Tushiyetu Khan aimak and others created
numerous valuable works.
Scholarly lamas of Mongolia, while doing translation of
works by Indian and Tibetan scholars wrote their independent
works mostly on the Buddhist philosophy particularly in the
18-19th centures, Certain works by Mongol monks have been
highly valued by European Buddhist scholars as well as modern
Mongolian scholars. Tti the second volume of The History of
the Mongolian Peoples Republic it was said that the most
scholarly monks studied thoroughly Lokayata or ancient Indian
naive materialism, dialectics, logic and the history of Buddhist
philosophy and compiled books on the defending of the pror
gressive heritage of these subjects. One of the prominent repreijr
sentatives was Agvanbaldan who in his work entitled Commen
tary on the Fixed Great Tenet modestly called his work a
commentary on Great Tenet by the Tibetan philosopher
Jamiyanshadab (1644-1723). In fact his work was a mono
graph on the history and theory of philosophy of ancient India.

In his work Agvaubaldan covered not only history, ideology and

the theory of Buddhism, but also various fixed tenets and prob
lems of theory.
Various religious books appeared in xylographic print as
there were a lot of xylographic printing shops such as in the
Ikhe Kuriye Holy Lamas Monastery, IJizen Wang Monastery,
Mangkhan Kuriye, Choir Monastery, Miiren Monastery, Olgei
Monastery, Khalkha Temple, Sartul Monastery and others.
Buddhism had strongly influenced all spheres of spiritual life
of Mongolian society and natural history, particularly historio
graphy, philology, translation, printing, architecture, mathematics,
astrology and so on, as well as medicine and veterinary. Under
the influence of Buddhism at each major Buddhist monastery
there was a workshop to produce Buddhist images, various ob
jects related to religious services, for erecting temples and other
buildings and for doing decorative work. Various really unique
works of Buddhist art are still kept in different monasteries and
museums of the Mongolian Peoples Republic.
So the Buddhist ideology, theory and teaching widely pene
trated into the daily life of the Mongols from the very birth to
the death and their life was directly under the blessing of monks.

5. Buddhism in Mongolia at the Boundary of the

l!)-20th Centuries
As a result of the growing number of monasteries and tem
ples, monks, incarnations and saints becoming less zealous to
wards religious services, by the middle of the 19th century
Buddhism was on the decline.
Among higher ranking monks there was rivalry for fame and
they set up their own temples so that the number of monasteries
and temples rapidly increased. In the mid-18th century there
existed 120 monasteries in Mongolia but the number grew in
the second half of the 19th century, reaching 750. There were
differences between higher and lower ranking monks and the
discord between them even deepened.
There was a growing number of monks who, instead of truly
studying the Buddhist teaching and helping all the living beings
by performing meritorious deeds, were egoists, doing everything

tor their own benefit, for wealth, authority and reputation.

There also appeared a new reforming tendency aimed at
ultimately fulfilling the sacred religious doctrine and eliminating
all kinds of weakness of monks, such as pursuing the interests
of their own and violating their vows. The modernists tried to
purge Mongolian Lamaism from various violations and to pursue
the faith in accordance with the form of the ancient Buddhist
teaching, to make lamas fulfill their vows as ancient Indian Bud
dhist monks did, to live modestly and to follow the Buddhist
doctrine only.
Although the Lamaism in Mongolia suffered a crisis, lamas
were a powerful and influential force in Mongolian society. They
became stronger both economically and ideologically, and grad
ually gained political power. It was vividly manifested in the
period of the monarchy (1911-1919) headed by the Bogda
Khan Elevated by all.
Underthe historically definite circumstances at the start of
the 20th century, when the movement for national independence
included all sections of society, Lamaism was the factor that
united the aspirations and might of the nation. The national
liberation movement developed in the country originally to pro
pagate the religion, and it was pursued under the slogan of re
establishing the national state. There was none other than the
Bogda Gegeen, the head of Mongolian Lamaism who was influ
ential, powerful and most authoritative among all of the Mongols
to lead the movement. For these reasons and as a result of
the 1910-1911 national liberation movement of the Mongolian
people, a monarchy was established headed by the Bogda Khan
Elevated by all, who ruled both state and religious affairs.
During the monarchy the most important state posts were
occupied by higher-ranking lamas, religious and monastic regula
tions deeply penetrated all spheres of public life and all religious
affairs were regarded as problems of primary importance fo/$ the
state. Lamas who were in the state apparatus patronized the
religion in every possible way.
The autonomous rights of the monasteries in the country
were abolished and they became subject to the Erdene Shanzodba
and Khambo Nomun Khans office of Ikhe Kuriye. The local

administrations of banners stopped to control oyer the affairs of

monasteries in their respective banners.
Under the monarchy the monasteries and their monks grew
in number, higher ranking lamas got higher titles which were
conferred by secular feudals. H ie number of incarnations and
saints who enjoyed the right to have serfs increased to 40, and
they took away by force serfs from secular feudals. The num
ber of ecclesiastic serfs grew rapidly. At the same time the
Great Shabi was liberated from duties of military and horserelay service for ever. The serfs of incarnations and saints and
monasteries in most cases were free from various state duties
and horse-relay service. A major part of the state income was
allocated for religious alfairs and monasteries.
Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, a replacement
of feudal relations and social progress was of primary importance
for Mongolian national interest, and an immediate task for the
countrys further development. It was also a just and historic
task to solve the problem of lamas in the interests of the nation.
The victory of the Mongolian peoples Revolution in 1921
prepared the way for the solution of these tasks necessitated by
historical development.
The Chinese occupationists and the Russian white guards
who escaped from the October Revolution came to Mongolia,
oppressing and plundering our people. Mongolian monasteries
and lamas also suffered a lot. The Chinese occupationists ar
rested the Head of the religion the Jebzundamba Hutugtu under
the pretext of him being engaged in a conspiracy against the
Chinese, fired cannons at the Gangdanthekchenling Monastery in
Ikhe Kuriye, plundered over 20 larger monasteries, such as
Dambadargya and Shadublin monasteries near Ikhe Kuriye,
Eastern Choir of Borjgiti Tsetsen Wang Banner of the Tsetsen
Khan aimak (now Sumber somon of the East-Gobi province),
Eastern Gangdan Ishclioilin Monastery of Ilden Wang Banner
of Sain Noyan Khan aimak (now Zuil somon of Uberkhangai
aimak) and others, attacked monks, robbed their wealth and
killed them. Like the Chinese the white guard butchers destroy
ed a lot of monasteries such as Yarinpil Monastery in Erdene
Beis Banner of Zasagt Khan aimak (present Darvi somon of

Gobi-Altai aimak), the monastery of Batar Wang Banner (pre

sent Kliukhe Morit somon of Gobi-Altai aimak) etc., and killed
many lamas. The cruelty of foreign oppressors caused the lamas
to fight against them. Many lamas joined the struggle of the
common people in defending their faith, state and the mother
land from the foreign invaders. Among them were Khas-bator,
A. Gonchog, J. Jamiyangombo and other patriots who selflessly
fought in the struggle for their country, for a happy and peace
ful life of their people.
By the Peoples Revolution of 1921 the Mongolian people
were liberated from internal and external exploitation, religion
was separated from the state, religious worship became a volun
tary matter of believers and the Bogda Jebzundamba became the
Head of the religion. However until he passed away in 1924
he acted as the Head of the state pluradistically.
During the years of the Revolution the government policy
on voluntary religious worship was consistently pursued, but in
the beginning of the 1930s, during the left-wing deviation, monks
were forced to abandon their vows. Some monasteries and
temples were destroyed. The peoples power stopped all these
violations and guaranteed the believers the freedom of worship
without any fear, revealed and corrected every manifestation of
infringing upon, insulting and using administrative measures
against worshippers.
The separation of religion from the state and the freedom
of worship provided the important basis for the just solution of
religious and monastery problems in the interests of the country
and the people.
On this basis, the Constitution reads as follows on the separa
tion of state from religion, . . Since the teachings of the
Sakyamuni do not run counter to the present-day state rule,
freedom and science, the peoples power of our country feels
sympathy towards the Sakyamuni religion and guarmitees its
observance, learning and dissemination within the frame of the
law.
In order to make it easy to understand the measures taken
during the peoples power on the problems of monasteries and
lamas, the following points should be touched upon: First. In

connection with the introduction of voluntary worship after the

peoples revolution, the former system of compulsory duties of
the people to cover certain expenditures of the monasteries was
liquidated.
On this basis, the provision of the Constitution on the policy
of separation of state from religion partly reads . . . Since the
teachings of the Sakyamuni do not run counter to the presentday state rule, freedom and science, the peoples power of our
country feels sympathy kuvards the Sakyamuni religion and
guarantees its observance, learning and dissemination within the
frame of the law.
Sencond. The separation of religious affairs from state affairs
was implemented and the unjust system of exploitation of people
was eliminated on one hand, and on the other, following the
Buddhist compassionate idea and equality, the lay serfs of the
Bogda Ciegeen and other saints were liberated from tax to their
masters and furthermore the system of exploiting lay people
under the name of lay serfs was fully liquidated.
Ihird. For the sake of rallying equally and without dis
crimination all the citizens of Mongolia in the cause of strength
ening the nation a just system of state tax was introduced for
the private property and cattle of the incarnated and saints who
used to be exempt from tax.
Following the Buddhist teaching of not striving for property
and with a view to dissuading the monasteries from acquiring
wealth by means of trade and usury, a tax was imposed upon
monastery property.
Those lamas who became laymen and were interested in
modern civilization, technology, industry and agriculture were
also allowed to be engaged in doing business transportation and
handicraft. They were recruited on a voluntary basis to work
at industrial enterprises and lamas artels. Thus lamas started
to be engaged in socially useful labour.
Many lamas left monasteries, becoming laymen and the num
ber of people becoming lamas diminished year by year.
For instance, in 1935 over 2,000 boys of 18 years of age
lived in the monasteries to become lamas and in 1937 this figure
was reduced to 700.

A certain part of high-ranking lamas in cooperation with

foreign aggressors organised uprisings, spread rumours against
the party and government. Due to the reactionary activities of
high-ranking lamas, young people and some of the middle lamas
and believers were separated from them and the temples and
monasteries. At the same time, their reactionary actions led the
left-wing extremists to launch a severe attack on religion and
monasteries, and enabled them to interfere with religious prac
tices, breaking the law.
However, the party and the government of the country time
ly corrected the reactionary actions of the leftists. As a result
of this the monasteries were able to resume their service for
believers.
Since in the second half of 1930 the external situation for
Mongolia was very critical, and for the purpose of defending
the countrys security, a number of monasteries situated along
the frontier were moved deep into the territory and many poor
monks, mostly young lamas, became laymen, so that many mon
astery premises were closed. Those monastery premises vacated
in this way were used by local schools, hospitals and cultural
organizations.
While some monasteries were closed because of the absence
of lamas, others had a shortage of them. In 1950 a united
centre of Mongolian Buddhists was set up to constantly and
freely meet the demands of believers.
In this way the separation of the state from religious affairs
prevented hostile actions that could divert men of religion from
their sacred tasks and disgrace the reputation of religion. The
separation offered broad opportunities to the monasteries and
lamas to concentrate their efforts on humane objectives ffor the
benefit of all sentient beings and of the cause of peace. |

0. Buddhism in Present-day Mongolia

In the process of social changes in the beginning of the
20th century, many young lamas shifted on a voluntary basis to
modern industrial, agricultural, cultural and scientific establish
ments to work and study as the countrys development demanded.
This also caused a reduction in the number of monasteries and

lamas. However in (he present-day Mongolia the ancient tradi

tion of Buddhism has not only been preserved, but there are
lamas as always in the past and temples are functioning.
At present, the Mongolian Buddhists centre, the GangdanThekchenling Monastery, in accordance with the provision of
the Constitution of the Mongolian Peoples Republic on the
rights of the citizens to worship, takes care of the needs of the
believers. There are daily services of worship of the Lord Bud
dha and other deities and various religious ceremonies and
rituals are performed as always. During New Year celebrations
according to the Lunar Calendar, the Gangdanthekchenling mon
astery annually conducts great ceremonial observances over
twenty days, invoking a happy and rich life, free from diseases,
for the Mongols in the coming new year. Besides that similar
cercmonies are conducted on the 8, 15, 29 and 30 of each month.
There are also two services at the request of believers who want
to confess their sins and to refresh their vows. Several special
services are also conducted dedicated to the Lord Buddhas
birthday, preaching his Dharma and his meritorious deeds for
the benefits of all living beings. A special service is performed
for several days in commemoration of the birthday of Bogda
Tzong-ka-pa founder of the Yellow Sect of Buddhism. During
the summer months, when living beings are born and grass
grows, in order not to destroy sentient beings, a 45-day service
is performed. During that period lamas, besides praying, also
read and study Buddhist literature in a well organized way.
Thus Gangdanthekchenling, besides its own observances, per
forms annually over 20 types of different services. Special serv
ices are arranged at the request of believers, from praying for
the dead to the reciting of Kanjur printed in gold. The believers
revering the Holy Buddha, in order to do good deeds in com
memoration of the Buddha, request that some major works by
the Buddha and others be recited, for example, the 108 volumes
of Kanjur and its detailed commentary, the 225 volumes of
Tanjur, great sutras consisting of above eight thousand verses,
volumes of Prajh Pfiraniitii and other sutras. At the request
of believers the monastery also holds services symbolizing bene
volence, performing meritorious deeds, purifying from sins and

other services related to the daily life of man. All these make
up 30 per cent of the services performed at the request of believ
ers annually. At present the Gangdanthekchenling Monastery
performs 34 types of services. In general all Mongolian Bud
dhist monasteries perform permanent services to meet the needs
of the believeis. Not a single day passes without some service
or ritual. This is tangible evidence of the fact, that in presentday socialist Mongolia everybody has the right to worship and
can use this right in reality. However, in our country all reli
gious worship is voluntary and monasteries do not force people
to believe.
The Mongolian Buddhist monasteries and believers, preserv
ing the traditional Buddhist heritage, do their utmost in studying
the history of Buddhism and Buddhist culture, as well as in
translating Buddhist books, compiling, commenting and printing
and in restoring historical monuments. At the Gangdan Monas
tery, there is a special group of scholarly and skillful lamas en
gaged in doing this work. Suffice it to mention some of their
recent achievements.
They registered and collected Buddhist books and historical
monuments, and classified them. Also they have continued
searching for some missing parts of the sacred books and pre
pared a catalogue.
The Gangdanthekchenling Monastery library, with its rich
collection, is one of the worlds major centres of studies on Bud
dhist history and culture. Over 70,000 volumes of Tibetan
books are treasured in it.
The Dharm apada and Udanavarga, two important works
on ancient Buddhist philosophy which have been drawing the
attention of Buddhist scholars, have been translated into Mon
golian, with the prefaces and commentaries both in Tibetan and
Mongolian.
Works by Mongol scholars on the Tibetan on Buddhist
philosophy, history, philology, art, poetry, mathematics, astro
nomy, medicine and veterinary have been studied and registered
in detail, and on the basis of this there appeared several refer
ence books. At the same time a thorough study has been made
on Tibetan-Mongolian dictionaries compiled at different times

out of which several belter ones have been republished. Research

on terminological dictionaries and dictionaries of synonyms in
the field of philology is of great importance for studies of the
Buddhist cultural heritage in Mongolia.
History of Buddhism in Mongolia by lama-historiau Sh.
Damdin, History of Buddhism in Mongolia by Darmadalai
and other unique books on the history of Buddhism were trans
lated from Tibetan into Mongolian. Lama Shadubdandar, cor
recting various mistakes in Kanjur that occur in various Tibetan
editions, published an important book which made it possible
to restore the original text. A history of the Gangdanthekchenling Monastery and an interesting book entitled White Lotus of
Peace have also been published.
The skillful lamas of the Gangdanthekchenling Monastery
have reconstructed old monasteries and temples of historic value,
and now they are engaged in repairing the functioning temples.
In commemoration of Buddha's 2500th anniversary they created
a large Buddha image and a stupa and engraved a ManjusrT
image on a rock. They also decorated the interior of the large
reception yurt of the Gangdanthekchenling Monastery, the ABCP
Headquarters building and the Buddhist Institute.
At the Gangdanthekchenling Monastery there is the Buddhist
Institute to train young monks who become disciples of the
monastery. They study the ancient Mongolian sutra language,
Tibetan, history of Buddhism, Buddhist logic, philosophy and
psychology. The most scholarly and experienced lamas of the
monastery teach the novices.
All the clergy of Mongolia and believers, following strictly
the sacred teachings of the Lord Buddha, offering up daily pray
ers to the Exalted One for universal peace and prosperity of
the entire mankind, direct their every effort towards the estab
lishment of a durable pcace all over the world.
As a member of the World Fellowship of Buddhists, the
Mongolian Buddhist Centre has actively participated in its Gen
eral Conferences and other undertakings, and pursued its own
activities aimed at achieving a lasting peace. It calls on the
fellow Buddhists of other countries to make their contribution
to the sacred cause of peace all over the world.

Our Centre maintains friendly relations with Buddhist Centres

in over 30 countries of the world, invites friends in the Dharma
to visit our country and gives them a possibility to get acquainted
with the religious life in our country. During recent years we
have received Buddhist delegations from Malaysia, Singapore,
Japan, the USSR, Laos, Vietnam, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and
Bangladesh, Romesh Chandra, President of the World Peace
Council and a delegation headed by Dr. Karoly Toth, former
General Secretary of the Christian Peace Conference now Presi
dent of CPC, have paid visits to our country. Our Buddhist
delegations and pilgrims visited the above mentioned countries.
At the end of 1960s when the war in Indo-China was ex
panded, endangering peace in Asia and the world over, by the
joint efforts of Buddhist dignitaries of some Asian Buddhist
countries and with the view to promoting joint activities of
Asian Buddhists for peaceful cooperation, they founded in 1970
the Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace, which was an event
of great importance. The Mongolian National Centre, as a
member of this international authoritative organization, takes an
active part in its activities.
The Mongolian Buddhist Centre the Gangdanthekchenling
Monastery, has marked the 2500th anniversary of the Buddhas
attainment of Nirvana and actively participates in international
undertakings related to important Buddhist events such as the
international seminar on Contribution of Buddhism to World
Civilization dedicated to the Buddhas 2600th birth anniversary,
held in India.
The Mongolian Buddhist Centre constantly participates in
major international undertakings aimed at preventing war and
agression, resolving disputes through peaceful means, ending the
arms race, working for a comprehensive disarmament, ending
the production of new types of mass destruction weapons and
securing lasting peace. We also participated in the Congress of
World Peace Forces held in Moscow, the Moscow World Con
ference of religious workers for lasting peace, disarmament and
just relations among nations, the World Assembly of peace build
ers in Warsaw, the International Conference of Non-governmental
organizations on Disarmament in Geneva, the Tripoli World

Confcrcnce on the path to Development and International Co

operation, and the Special Session of the UN General Assembly
devoted to Disarmament, World Parliament of Peoples and the
ABCP 5th General Conference which expressed the aspirations
and position of our peace-loving Buddhists.
We, Mongolian Buddhists are proud to note that the late
Most Venerable Gabju Samageen Gombojav, Presidential Com
mittee member of the World Peace Council, President of the
Asian Buddhists Conference for Peace, Head Khambo lama of
the Gangdanthekchenling Monastery, the Mongolian Buddhist
Centre, made a significant contribution to the great cause of
peace.
The Mongolian Buddhist Centre issued statements and ap
peals on establishing peace in Indo-China, dissolving aggressive
military alliances and dismantling military bases in Asia, on
making Asian territories and seas nuclear free zones and on the
peaceful reunification of Korea on a democratic basis.
The Mongolian Buddhists fully support the programmes of
socio-economic and cultural development and the peaceful for
eign policy of their country.
The Mongolian Buddhist Centre annually makes its financial
contribution to the Peace Fund and Childrens Fund and also
provides relief within its means during natural calamities, etc.
Our religious organization enjoys the rights provided by the
countrys Constitution. Lamas like all other citizens of the
country have equal electoral rights. Religious services and
preaching suffer no interference from the state. If a believer is
insulted for his faith, the culprit is punished by the law. The
religious organization has its own seals, a printing shop, and
treasury. The Government renders the religious organizations
material, man-power and technical assistance in building new
premises, dwelling houses and reconstructing old buildings. Bud'
dhist delegations and pilgrims travelling to foreign countries are
given visas without delay. We are also free to invite foreign
religious delegations and to convene international meetings.
The Mongolian Buddhists respect and support their social
and state system because the Mongolian state respects peoples
freedom and religious faith, takes crae of and does everything

for the development and prosperity of the country, for the peo
ples welfare, and peaceful life. So our Buddhists pray that the
activities and cause of the state always be successful.

85.501 Interpress, Budapest

J a il gi a is e g

The Centre of Mongolian Buddhists

Buddhist Logical College

Temple of lOi dene-zhu

Iemple of Ainarbayasgalan