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0.65
W n AR w
96.948 TO 5 ult
10 cos c / 4w
0.57
Where
WTO
Sw
nult
ARw
c/4
Takeoff Weight
Wing Area
Ultimate Load Factor
Wing Aspect Ratio
Wing Sweep Angle @1/4 Chord
w
(t/c)W
VH
Sw
100
0.61
1
w
2 ct r
w
0.36
VH EAS
1
500
0.993
Eqn- 3
EAS
Torenbeek method
The equation below applies to light transport airplanes with take-off weight below 12,500 lbs (55,603 N).
The wing weight is determined from:
0.75
0.3
0.5
6.25 cos c / 2w
bw
b
S
0.55
w
w
1
WwTorenb 0.00125WTO nult
Eqn- 4
t W cos
cos c / 2
bw
rw TO
c / 2w
Wwg 0.0017Wzf n
0.55
ult
bw
cos c / 2
w
1.05
Where
6.25 cos c / 2w
bw
S w
t W
rw Zf
0.3
Eqn- 5
WTO
Wzf
Takeoff Weight
maximum zero fuel weight = WZf WTO WF
Sw
nult
c/2
Wing Area
Ultimate Load Factor
Wing Sweep Angle @ 1/2 Chord
w
(t/c)W
tr
S w ARw
The maximum thickness of the wing root chord for straight tapered wings is found from:
t 2S w
t rw
c rw bw 1 w
Eqn- 6
Notes
Eqn - 5 include weight of normal HLD and aileron
Spoiler and speed brake
+2%
2 wing mounted engine
-5%
4 wing mounted engine
-10%
Landing gear mounted
-5%
Braced wing
-30% and for strut +10%
For fowler flaps
+2%
Horizontal Tail Weight:
Cessna method
The following equations should be applied only to small, relatively low performance type airplanes with
maximum speeds below 200 knots. The horizontal tail weight is found from:
WhCessna
Sh
ARh
tr
0.887 0.101
3.184WTO
S h ARh0.138
174.04t r0h.223
Eqn- 7
t 2S h
t rh
c rh bw 1 h
(t/c)r
Eqn- 8
bh
Sh
bh
(t/c)r
0.483
W n 0.87 S 1.2
TO ult h
lh
WhUSAF 127
0.289
10 5 100
10
bh
tr
h
0.458
Eqn- 9
The X-distance between the horizontal tail and wing mean geometric chord quarter chord points is
determined from:
l h X apexh xmgch
ch
c
X apexw xmgcw w
4
4
Where:
Xapex
xmgc
is the X-location of the horizontal tail mean geometric chord leading edge relative
Ch
Xapex
xmgc
is the X-location of the wing mean geometric chord leading edge relative to the wing
w
apex.
is the wing mean geometric chord.
Cw
The X-location of lifting surface mean geometric chord leading edge relative to the lifting surface apex is
given by:
LEl
The Y-distance between the lifting surface apex and the lifting surface mean geometric chord is given by:
b 1 2 ls
ymgcls ls
61 ls
where:
l.s.
stands for "lifting surface".
bl
is the lifting surface span.
s
1 ls
LEls tan 1 tan c / 4ls
ARls 1 ls
where:
C/4
is the lifting surface quarter chord sweep angle.
Torenbeek method
S h0.2VDEAS
WhlTorenb K h S h 3.81
0.287
1000 cos c / 2h
where
Kh =1.0
Kh = 1.1
where:
kh
Sh
VD
Eqn- 10
EAS
C/2
where:
Sv
ARv
tr
c/4
USAF method
The following equation applies to light and utility type airplanes with performance up to about 300 knots.
The vertical tail weight is calculated from:
WvUSAF
where:
nult
Sv
bv
tr
0.87
1.2
b
WTO nult Sv
98.5
0.289 v
5
t
10 100
rv
0.5 0.458
Eqn- 12
Torenbeek method
Sv0.2VDEAS
WvTorenb K v Sv 3.81
0.287
1000 cos c / 2 v
Eqn- 13
where
Kv =1.0 for fuselage mounted horizontal tails
S z
K v 1 0.15 h h for fin mounted horizontal tails
Svbv
where:
Kv
Sv
VD
C/2
EAS
h
Fuselage Weight:
Cessna method
The following equations should be applied only to small, relatively low performance type airplanes with
maximum speeds below 200 knots. The equation does not account for pressurized fuselages. The
fuselage weight is computed from:
W f W f low
z
Z C r / 4 Z fc w f
W f cessna W f low high
Eqn- 14
w
zf
2
where:
Wf
is the fuselage weight for a low-wing airplane according to Cessna method.
low
Wf
Zf
Zcr/4
high
Zfc
where:
Pmax
is the maximum fuselage perimeter.
Lf
is the fuselage length.
The fuselage weight for a high-wing airplane is determined from:
0.778
Lf
0.455
0.144
W f high 14.86WTO
L0f.383 N pax N crew
P
max
where:
Npax
is the number of passengers.
Ncrew
is the number of crew.
The maximum perimeter is calculated from:
Pmax D f maxw
Eqn- 15
Eqn- 16
Eqn- 17
where:
Dfmax is the fuselage maximum diameter.
w
Torenbeek
For cylindrical cabin sections of fuselages with high fineness ratio, L/d >5, the gross area may be
estimated with the following equation:
2
S g dL 1
L / d
2/ 3
2
1
2
L / d
Eqn- 18
lt
d
Eqn- 19
Sg
fuselage gross shell area in ft2
In this equation the lengths are in feet, the weight is in pounds, and the design dive speed, VD,E, is in
knots. The length lt is the distance between the root quarter-chord points of the tail and the wing, and, for
a first approximation, it may be taken to be the estimated value for lh . To this basic weight, 8% should be
added to account for a pressurized cabin and 7% added if the engines are mounted on the aft fuselage.
USAF method
The following equation applies to light and utility type airplanes with performance up to about 300 knots.
The fuselage weight is calculated from:
W fUSAF
W n 0.286 L f 0.857 w f h f Vc
max
EAS
200 TO ult max
10
100 10
100
where:
Lf
wf
hf
0.338 1.1
Eqn- 20
max
max
Vc
Eqn- 23
where:
Lss mg
is the shock strut length for the main gear.
Lss ng
is the shock strut length for the nose gear.
WL
is the design landing weight.
Kretract = 0.0
for non-retractable gears.
Kretract = 0.012 - .016
for retractable gears.
Torenbeek method
The landing gear weight for General Aviation airplanes is calculated using the Torenbeek equations for
Commercial Transport Airplanes. The following method applies to transport airplanes and business jets
with the main gear mounted on the wing and the nose gear mounted on the fuselage. Each gear group is
evaluated separately using the following equation and the appropriate constants for the gear configuration.
The gear weight is computed from:
WgTorenb WmgTorenb WngTorenb WtgTorenb
Eqn- 24
The gear weight is given by:
0.75
1.5
WxgTorenb k gr AxgTorenb BxgTorenbWTO
CxgTorenbWTO DxgTorenbWTO
Eqn- 25
where,
xg = mg for main gear,
xg = ng for nose gear,
xg = tg for tail gear.
Note: BxgToren and DxgTorenb are zero for the tail gear.
The landing gear weight wing location correction factor is determined from:
Eqn- 26
Gear Type
retract
Fixed
Other civil
Aircraft
retract
Gear Comp
Main
Nose
Main
Nose
Tail
Main
Nose
Tail
Ag
33.0
12.0
20.0
25.0
9.0
40.0
20.0
5.0
Bg
0.04
0.06
0.10
0.0
0.0
0.16
0.10
0.0
Cg
.021
0.0
.019
0.0024
0.0024
0.019
0.0
0.0031
Dg
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.5x10-5
2.0x10-5
0.0
USAF method
The following equation applies to light and utility type airplanes with performance up to about 300 knots.
The gear weight is solved from:
.501
WgUSAF 0.054L0ssmg
WL nultL
0.684
Eqn- 27
where:
Lss mg
is the shock strut length for the main gear.
Note: This equation includes nose gear weight. The ultimate load factor for landing may be taken as 5.7.
Powerplant Weight
The aircraft powerplant weight, weight ,Wpwr will consist of the following
1. Engine We (engine, exhaust, cooling, supercharger and lubrication system)
2. Air induction system Wai ( inlet ducts, ramps, spikes and associated controls)
3. Propellers
4. Fuel System
5. Propulsion system( engine controls, starting system, propeller controls)
WPwr We Wai Wprop W fs Wp
Eqn- 28
Obtain actual weight data from engine manufacturers is highly recommended
Engine
Cessna method
The following equations should be applied only to small, relatively low performance type airplanes with
maximum speeds below 200 knots. The total engine weight is found from:
Wengcessna kengCessna SHPTO
Eqn- 29
Where:
SHPTO
takeoff shaft horse power
KengCessna =1.1 to 1.8 for piston engines.
KengCessna =0.35 to 0.55 for turboprop and propfan engines.
Note: These weights represent the so-called dry weight. Normal engine accessories are included in this
weight and engine oil.
USAF method
0.922
WengUSAF Wai Wprop Wp 2.575Weng
Ne
Eqn- 30
Use engine manufactures data to obtain Weng or use ( Cessna method engine weight)
Weng
Weight per engine in Ibs
Ne
Number of engine
Torenbeek method
For piston engine airplanes, the total engine weight is determined from:
1 / 3 0.6582
Eqn- 31
where:
Kinject piston engines with fuel injection ( correction factor)
1.00 for carburated engines
1.08
for engines with fuel injection
Kgeaed = 1.00 for direct drive engines
1.12 For piston engine gearing correction factor
Ks
is factor for supercharged and turbocharged piston engines
=
Vcyl
is the total swept cylinder volume per engine
Ncyl
is the number of cylinders
Neng
is the number of engine
Ks = f (Pmani/Pair) from figure
For jet engine airplanes, the total engine weight is found from:
P
10.0 N eng 32.174m a t 3
1
Pt 2 0.12 K
WengTorenb
FanTypeTTO 1
0.5
1 BPR
1 0.75BPR
where:
KFanType =1
for conventional turbofans
KFanType =1.2
for geared turbofans
KFanType =1.2
for variable pitch fans
KFanType =1.4
for geared and variable pitch fans
Eqn- 32
Neng
Number of engine
SHPTO
the takeoff power
Weng
engine weight
KoilSystem
Engine Type Correction Factor for Oil System and Oil Cooler Weight
Typical value:
Engine Type
Jet Engines(Included in Engine Weight)
0.0
Turboprop Engines
0.07
Radial Piston Engines
0.08
Horizontally Opposed Piston Engines
0.03
Air induction system
Cessna method
Wai is included in the propulsion system weight Wp
USAF method
Wai is included in the propulsion system weight Wp
Eqn- 33
Torenbeek method
Wai _ Toren
Eqn- 34
W prop_ GD
PTO
Dp N
e
K prop1 N p N bl0.391
1000
0.782
Eqn- 35
0.782
Eqn- 36
0.40W f
Eqn- 37
K fsp
Kfsp
WF
0.70WF
K fsp
Eqn- 38
USAF method
Kfsp
int
Nt
Ne
0.3
W 0.6
1
0.2
0.13
W fs _ USAF 2.49 f
N
N
t
e
K fsp 1 int
1.21
Eqn- 39
Torenbeek method
For single piston engine installation
W fs _ Toren_ sp
W
2 f
5.87
0.6
Eqn- 40
W fs _ Toren_ ssb
W
3.2 f
K
fsp
0.727
Eqn- 41
W fs _ Toren_ it
W
80N e N t 1 15 N f
K
fsp
0.333
0.5
t
Eqn- 42
Eqn- 43
Where
Wec
weight of engine controls
Wess
weight of engine starting system
Wpc
weight of propeller controls in Ibs
Wosc
weight of oil system and oil cooler in Ibs.
Cessna method
10
Eqn- 44
W fc _ cessna 0.016WTO
Eqn- 45
Eqn- 46
Eqn- 47
2/ 3
W fc _ USAF 0.23WTO
Eqn- 48
Torenbeek method
Wels _ USAF
Eqn- 49
W fs Wiae
426
1000
0.51
Eqn- 50
Torenbeek method
Eqn- 51
Eqn- 52
Eqn- 53
0.52
N pax Ncr Wiae0.17M D0.08
Wapi_USAF 0.265WTO
0.68
11
Eqn- 54
Eqn- 55
Eqn- 56
Oxygen system
Cessna method
Wox _ GD 7N cr N pax
0.702
Eqn- 57
Torenbeek method
For flight below 25,000ft
Eqn- 58
Eqn- 59
Eqn- 60
Eqn- 62
Eqn- 63
Torenbeek method
For single engine aircraft
For short flight above 25,000 ft
Eqn- 64
3
Eqn- 65
Kbc
Wbc _ Toren 3S ff
12
Eqn- 66
13
Empty Weight
Powerplant Weight
Fixed Equipment
Weight
Wing
Propellers
Flight Control
Horizontal Tail
Engines
Hydraulic &
Pneumatic
Vertical Tail
Air induction
Instrumentation
Avionics &
Electronics
Fuel system
Electrical
Structure Weight
V- Tail
Canard
Auxiliary Power
Fuslage
Furnishings
Landing Gear
Nacelles
Operational Items
Tailboom
14
centerline
0.35b/2
YMAC
b/2
0.42 to 0.45 L
L
15
0.47L
L
0.17L
0.55L
0.14L
0.6L
functions of fuselage
16
0.42c
0.42c
0.38bh/2
0.38bh/2
(a)
(b)
Figure 5 Approximate location of the CG location of the horizontal tail
for (a) wing-mounted engines and (b) fuselage-mounted engines
0.42c
0.42c
hv
0.38hv
hv
0.55hv
fuselage
skin
main landing gear CG at rear spar
and Y=0.22(b/2)
wing group CG at 0.7(Xrs-Xfs)
fuel tank
front spar at 0.25C
rear spar at 0.55C to
0.6C
0.35b/2
0.45b/2
b/2
17
and
landing
XOE
cMAC
XW
XLEMAC
Figure8 Schematic diagram of the two mass groups used in determining the
complete airplane
Taking moments about the nose of the aircraft yields
WOEXOE = WFGXFG + WWG(XLEMAC + XWG)
Setting X*=XOE XLEMAC and solving for XLEMAC leads to the following result:
XLEMAC = XFG + (WWG /WFG)XWG (1 + WWG /WFG)X*
The displacement of the center of gravity of the airplane ahead of its Center of pressure determines the
degree of the airplanes longitudinal static stability. If the two points coincide the stability is neutral,
while if the center of gravity falls aft of the center of pressure the airplane will be unstable. It is desirable
in a commercial passenger transport to have sufficient static stability for comfort and robustness of safety
margins while maintaining a level of maneuvering agility suitable to its mission.
18
XFG
XOE
cMAC
XLEMAC
XWG
Figure 9 Plan view of the two mass groups for determining the center of gravity of the complete airplane
Presentation of Weight and Balance Results
The results of this chapter are to be presented in a table of group weights as suggested by Table 1, the
diagram of CG locations and travel, and the three-view of the design aircraft showing pertinent
dimensions.
Table 1 Table of aircraft weight breakdown by groups
Group
Weight (lbs)
Wing group
Tail group
Body group
Landing gear group
Surface controls group
Nacelle group
Propulsion group
Airframe services and equipment
Empty weight (WE)
Operational items
Operational empty weight (WOE)
Payload weight (WPL)
Fuel Weight (WF)
Take-off Weight
19
XCG(in.)