GeoExplo

Ltda.
Santiago Chile

Geophysical Airborne Survey

Radiometrics -- Gamma-Ray
Spectrometry

Airborne Gamma-Ray Spectrometry Surveys

Abstract
Airborne Spectrometer
surveys are an important
exploration technique. A
number of topics on
radiometric surveying
are discussed in this
section, these
Gamma-ray topics
include: Basic Principles,
Compton Scattering,
Cosmic Rays,
Atmospheric Radiation,
Instrumentation,
Detectors, Analyzers,
Spectrometer Calibration
and Data Corrections,
Calibration, Dead time
Correction, Background
Correction, Compton
Stripping, Altitude
Compensation,
Radioelement Abundance
Calculations, Processing
of Airborne Data,
Radiometric Survey
Design, Counting
Statistics, Line Spacing,
Detector Selection and
Radiometric Survey
Specications,
Interpretation, Natural
Radioactivity of Rocks
and Eects of
Weathering and
Metamorphism

Table of Contents
4. Airborne Radiometric (Gamma-Ray
Spectrometry) Surveys
4.1 Basic Principles
4.1a Compton Scattering
4.1b Cosmic Rays
4.1c Atmospheric Radiation
4.2 Instrumentation
4.2a Detectors
4.2b Analyzers
4.3 Spectrometer Calibration and Data
Corrections
4.3a Calibration
4.3b Deadtime Correction
4.3c Background Correction
4.3d Compton Stripping
4.3e Altitude Compensation
4.3f Radioelement Abundance Calculations
4.4 Processing of Airborne Data
4.5 Radiometric Survey Design
4.5a Counting Statistics
4.5b Line Spacing
4.5c Detector Selection
4.6 Radiometric Survey Specications
4.7 Interpretation
4.7a Natural Radioactivity of Rocks
4.7b Eects of Weathering and Metamorphism
. Appendix 1: Typical Radioelement
Concentrations in Earth Materials
. Selected Bibliography

4. Airborne Radiometric (Gamma Ray Spectrometry)

Surveys
Radiometric surveys detect and map natural radioactive emanations, called
gamma rays, from rocks and soils. All detectable gamma radiation from earth
materials come from the natural decay products of only three elements, i.e.
uranium, thorium, and potassium. In parallel with the magnetic method, that is
capable of detecting and mapping only magnetite (and occasionally pyrrhotite) in
soils and rocks, so the radiometric method is capable of detecting only the
presence of U, Th, and K at the surface of the ground.
The basic purpose of radiometric surveys is to determine either the absolute or
relative amounts of U, Th., and K in the surface rocks and soils. Before
considering the geologic implications of this information, we will discuss how
gamma rays are aected by the natural environment and how they are
measured. No other geophysical method, and probably no other remote sensing
method, requires us to consider so many variables in order to reduce the
observational data to a form that is useful for geological interpretation.
Meteorological conditions, the topography of the survey area, the inuence of
the planets cosmic environment, the height of the sensor above ground and the
speed of the aircraft are just a few of the variables which aect radiometric
measurements, and which can bias our analysis unless we deal with them very
thoroughly. We will consider those variables that are important when designing
the specications for, and interpreting the data obtained from, airborne surveys
in as non-mathematical a manner as possible.
A few of the benets that we can expect from the interpretation of radiometric
surveys include:
Changes in the concentration of the three radioelements U, Th., and K
accompany most major changes in lithology, hence the method can be used
as a reconnaissance geologic mapping tool in many areas.
Variations in radioelement concentrations may indicate primary geological
processes such as the action of mineralizing solutions or metamorphic
processes.
These variations also characterize secondary geological processes like
supergene alteration and leaching.
Radiometric surveys are capable of directly detecting the presence of
uranium.
This data can also assist in locating some intrusive related mineral deposits.
In appropriate areas, when used as a reconnaissance technique for mapping
geology and for prospecting, the cost/benet ratio for airborne radiometric
surveying is nearly as good as that for airborne magnetometer surveying.

4.1 Basic Principles

Gamma rays are tiny bursts of very high frequency, hence high energy,
electromagnetic waves that are spontaneously emitted by the nuclei of some
isotopes of some elements. They have much shorter wavelengths than most
other electromagnetic rays, including X-rays, and therefore, are less penetrating.
Only a limited number of isotopes of the natural elements emit gamma rays; and
among these, there are only three which are common enough within earth
materials to make them geologically useful. These three are Bi214, Tl208, and
K40. Bi214 comes from the decay of U238 and is, therefore, an indication of the
concentration of uranium in the earth materials that lie within the range of the
detector. Tl208 comes from the decay of Th232 and is an indicator of thorium
content; and K40 is one of the minor natural isotopes of potassium and the only
isotope of K that is radioactive. It makes up only .012% of the total potassium in
rocks and soils, but because this fraction remains quite constant, even during
weathering and metamorphism, the gamma radiation from it is a good indicator
of changes in the amount of potassium in rocks.
Gamma rays are dened by their energies, measured in electron volts, or eV. One
eV is the amount of kinetic energy that a single electron would acquire in falling
through an electrical potential dierence of 1 volt. The gamma rays from Tl208,
the Th indicator, have an energy of 2.62 million electron volts or 2.62 MeV. We
can understand the physical meaning of 2.62 MeV by noting that this amount of
energy is sucient to lift a speck of dust having a mass of one microgram a
distance of 1/25 millimeter. The gamma rays from Bi214 have an energy of 1.76
MeV; while those from K40 have an energy of 1.46 MeV. All three of these
energies are constant; they never change, they therefore constitute well dened
peaks in the energy spectrum emanating from rocks. Figure 4.1-1 shows an
example of the natural gamma ray spectrum of a typical felsic intrusive rock
measured at a terrain clearance of 120 meters.
Figure 4.4-1: A typical gamma ray spectrum from
felsic intrusive rock measured
at 120 metres terrain clearance.

In order to emphasize the smaller peaks, the spectrum in this gure is shown on
a logarithmic scale. Note that there a many peaks but the three that are
mentioned above are the most important ones. We also notice a sharp cut-o just
beyond the Tl208 peak. This cut-o occurs because there are no radioactive
isotopes in the natural environment which emit gamma rays having energies
higher than 2.62 MeV. The general increase in the background level of the
spectrum towards the lower energies is primarily due to Compton scattering
which we will discuss shortly. The heights of the peaks are proportional to the
amounts of the respective radioactive isotopes that are present in the rock. Thus,
in principle, if we measure gamma ray spectra over dierent regions of exposed
rock, and compare them, we should be able to translate changes in the heights
of the 1.46, 1.76 and 2.62 MeV peaks into corresponding variations in the
concentrations of potassium, uranium, and thorium within the dierent rock
types.

4.1a Compton Scattering

Unfortunately, nature is not always cooperative. Not all of the gamma rays with
energies of 1.76 MeV come from Bi214, nor do all of the rays with energies of
1.46 MeV come from K40. This can be seen in the general increase in the gamma
ray count in the spectrum of gure 4.1-1. We need to measure, not the absolute
value of the peaks, but their value relative to the general background which,
unfortunately, may vary from one region to another.
The most important cause of the rise in background activity towards the lower
energies is Compton scattering. Compton scattering occurs because, when a
gamma ray collides with an electron it gives the electron some of its energy,
somewhat like a cue ball in billiards slowing down after it strikes another ball.
Extending this analogy, the gamma ray is deected from its path, like the cue
ball, and moves away in a dierent direction with lower energy, hence the
gamma ray will have a lower frequency. Energy is invariably lost by scattering.
Millions of gamma rays starting out with well dened energies will, after making
numerous collisions, form a continuum of energies with a steadily rising
proportion falling towards ower energy levels. Compton scattering thus accounts
for the general shape of the gamma ray spectrum, whose rising background
trend towards lower energies is usually called the "Compton continuum".

4.1b Cosmic Rays

There are other non-geologic sources of gamma radiation which contribute to
the Compton continuum. Cosmic rays are the most important of these other
sources. Charged particles from outer space collide with nuclei in the earth's
atmosphere and produce high energy gamma rays, 3-6 MeV, which in turn are
converted to lower energies by Compton scattering. Thus, gamma rays resulting
from cosmic ray bombardment constitute a source of background noise in
radiometric surveys that aects all parts of the spectrum. This noise is generally
less sever towards the lower latitudes because of the shielding eect of the
earth's magnetic eld. It becomes more intense with increasing altitude,
although it is discernible at normal surveying elevations. Figure 4.1-2
graphically illustrates these variations in cosmic ray intensity.

Latitude

Altitude

Figure 4.1-2: Variations in cosmic ray intensity with latitude (top) and with
altitude (bottom).
4.1c Atmospheric Radiation
A further source of non-geologic gamma radiation is radon gas. In company with
dust particles containing K40 and other radio-isotopes, it occurs in layers or
clouds, particularly when there is little or no wind to disperse it, at heights of up
to 300 meters or more above the ground. Because the radiation from these
sources is indistinguishable from geologic radioactivity, special measures have to
be taken to correct for this eect.

4.2 Instrumentation
All spectrometers used for measuring gamma ray intensity in geophysics consist
of two principle parts; the detector which senses or detects the gamma rays, and
the analyzer which analyzes the signal and displays the result.

4.2a Detectors
The most widely used detector of gamma radiation for geologic mapping is one
or more crystals of thallium-activated sodium iodide. When a gamma ray enters
the crystal and strikes an electron, the electron gains energy which is then
emitted as a tiny ash of light when the electron returns to its original energy
state. The number of ashes is proportional to the gamma ray energy , so that
the total light intensity is a measure of the energy of the incoming gamma ray.
An array of photomultiplier tubes converts the light into an electrical signal.
Sodium iodide crystals are preferred to other detector types for three principle
reasons:
They have good resolution of the energies in the .3 to 3 MeV range.
They have a high transparency and thus, even weak ashes of light can be
detected.
It is relatively easy to grow large crystals of NaI, and therefore they are a
relatively economical detector.

Because there is less chance that a gamma ray will pass through a large crystal
undetected than through a small one the eciency of the detector rises with
rising crystal volume.
Solid state semiconducting detectors, like lithium-drifted germanium crystals,
have superior resolving power to that of NaI (50 to 80 times). However they are
dicult to grow and in order to operate eectively they must be maintained at
liquid nitrogen temperatures thus presenting handling and weight problems.

4.2b Analyzers
There are two dierent types of gamma ray measuring systems; integral and
dierential spectrometers. The detectors are the same in both systems but the
electronic analyzer is dierent. These systems are illustrated in Figure 3.2-1.

Figure 3.2-1: Energy discrimination characteristics of integral, and dierential

gamma ray spectrometers. (Hanson 1980.)

Integral spectrometers measure the total amount of incoming gamma radiation

that lies above a certain energy threshold. They do not discriminate between
gamma rays from thorium, uranium, or potassium sources except sometimes,
very roughly, by employing three or more dierent thresholds and by measuring
the dierences in total count rates. The only integral spectrometers in current
geophysical use are small-crystal, hand held instruments (sometimes called
Geiger counters) used for rapid prospecting work.
Dierential spectrometers measure only the gamma radiation which falls within
spectral windows of xed energy width. These windows can be centered upon
the Bi214, Tl208, and K40 energy peaks at 2.62, 1.76 and 1.46 MeV respectively.
Dierential spectrometers require larger detector crystals because they operate
within much narrower energy limits and therefore must deal with much lower
light ash counting rates. It is extremely important that the "windows" are not
permitted to drift, otherwise there will be signicant losses in counting rates and
the resulting data will be biased. Until the advent of the multichannel
spectrometer in the late 70's early 80's this was the type of spectrometer used
for airborne surveying.
The ultimate dierential spectrometer is the multichannel spectrum analyzer,
which monitors the entire gamma ray spectrum in discrete steps and is therefore
immune to the problems of drift; however, a large crystal volume is needed for
this type of system. The minimum crystal volume that is required to obtain
adequate resolution depends on the sensor altitude and the speed of the aircraft.
1,000 cubic inches - about 16.4 liters - may be sucient for a low-ying
helicopter, but up to 2,000 cubic inches may be used for xed-wing applications.

4.3 Spectrometer Calibration and Data

Corrections
To convert the observed counting rates that are measured in the three or more
spectral windows of the dierential spectrometer into numbers of incoming
gamma rays per unit of time from Bi214, Tl208, and K40, we must rst calibrate
the instrument and then correct the measurements for cosmic ray background
eects, atmospheric noise, and Compton scattering.

4.3a Calibration
The systems count rate is related to the gamma ray intensity through various
instrumental parameters, the most important being the sensitivity of the
detector. Because this sensitivity varies with the temperature of both the crystal
and the photomultiplier tubes, the temperature of the detector should be
carefully controlled during operation. As well as measures taken to control the
temperature, daily calibration checks, using standard isotope sources, are
always a good idea.

4.3b Deadtime Correction

During the time that it takes the instrument to measure and analyze the
scintillation from a single gamma photon, it cannot cope with other incoming
gamma rays. Eectively, the instrument is "dead" during this period which lasts
for only a few microseconds. If the count rate is suciently high, some counts
may be missed during the data recovery period. The true count rate can be
approximated from the measured count rate if the dead time, T, is known by the
following simple correction:
NTrue = Nmeasured / (1 - T Nmeasured)
In most cases the dead time correction is insignicant for airborne survey data,
but can be important for data collected during borehole logging.

4.3c Background Correction

The "background" refers to the general background count rate that prevails in
each channel, or spectral window, that is due to non-geologic sources, primarily
atmospheric radon and cosmic rays. Cosmic radiation tends to remain fairly
constant over short periods of time - the time required to complete a single ight
line, and sometimes a single ight. During a survey it can be monitored at the
beginning and end of each line, or ight, by climbing to an altitude of 300 meters
or more where the geologic contribution to the count rate is eectively zero, or
by ying over a lake where the water shields the sensor from geologic radiation.
A superior method of monitoring the background radiation uses crystals that are
shielded from radiation coming from below the aircraft. These "upward looking
crystals" detect only the gamma rays which originate from cosmic or spatially
variable atmospheric background. This provides a method of continuously
monitoring the background during the survey and thus, in principle, could
permit corrections to be made for it in real time.

4.3d Compton Stripping

The Compton scattering correction accounts for the gamma rays emitted by
Tl208 that happen to fall within the Bi214 and K40 windows and for the gamma
rays emitted by Bi214 which happen to fall within the K40 window, as a result of
energy loss by Compton scattering. If no corrections were applied, both the
uranium and potassium count rates would be over-estimated. These corrections
are made by applying the following simple formulas:
For Thorium:
N Th(corr) = NTh(obs) - bTh
For Uranium:
N U(corr) = NU(obs) - bU - a NTh(corr)
For Potassium:
N K (corr) = NK(obs) - bK - bNTh(corr) - g NU(corr)

where:
(corr) stands for "background corrected count", and (obs) for
"observed count" and NTh, NU, and NK are the count rates in the
Tl208, Bi214 and K40 channels, respectively; bTh , bU and bK are the
"Compton stripping ratios" dened as follows
a = # of counts in the Bi214 channel per count in the Tl208 channel.
b = # of counts in the K40 channel per count in the Tl208 channel.
g = # of counts in the K40 channel per count in the Bi214 channel.
The values of a, b, and g are determined by measuring the systems
response using articially prepared calibration pads that are
impregnated with the appropriate isotopes. For a given detector
conguration, they will tend to remain constant over a fairly long
period of time, but they should be checked periodically. Typically, the
values for these three ratios lie between 0.5 and 1.

4.3e Altitude Compensation

Obviously, as the detector is moved further from the source fewer gamma rays
originating in the source will be sensed. Thus, it is necessary to correct for the
altitude of the sensor above the ground, and for variations in this distance. To a
sucient approximation, within the range from about 50 to 300 meters, the
relationship between count rate and changes in aircraft altitude is a simple
exponential one as is illustrated in gure 4.3-1.
Thus:
N @ N 0 e-m(h - ho)
where:
m = the experimentally determined
attenuation coecient for air.
N = the corrected count rate.
N 0 = the uncorrected count rate.
h = the measured altitude above ground.
ho = the nominal survey elevation. /p>
Figure 4.3-1: The eect of altitude on the measured
count rate.
Because m depends somewhat upon the energy of the radiation, it has slightly
dierent values for Tl208, Bi214 and K40 gamma rays. A typical value for m for
the total count is 5.6 x 10-3 m-1.

4.3f Radioelement Abundance Calculations

After proper calibration of the system, the corrected count rates in each channel
can be converted to the abundance's of the radioactive isotopes at the ground
surface by the use of sensitivity constants. If we further assume that the
daughter isotopes Tl208 and Bi214 are in equilibrium with their parent U238 and
Th232 isotopes, we can write:
eTh = C Th NTh(corr) e-mTh(h - ho)
eU = C U NU(corr) e-mU(h - ho)
and K = C K NK(corr) e-mK(h - ho)
where the eTh and eU signify "equivalent thorium" and "equivalent uranium",
respectively, in parts per million, and K is potassium in per cent.
The three attenuation coecients mTh, mU, and mK are the attenuation
coecients for the particular elements indicated, and the N values are the
corrected count rates for indicated elements. The three sensitivity constants CTh,
CU, and CK which relate the corrected count rates in the three energy windows
to isotope abundance's at the ground surface, are experimentally determined.
Their values depend upon crystal volume and detector altitude. To measure
them, calibration pads which are made of concrete containing known amounts of
U, Th, and K have been constructed by the Geological Surveys of Canada, the
United States and some other countries. Test areas consisting of homogeneous
granitic terrain in which the radioactive isotope content is accurately known by
sampling and ground measurements are also available for periodic checking.
Alternatively, if calibration pads or test areas are unavailable, comparisons can
be made against pre-calibrated instruments.

4.4 Processing of Airborne Data

In addition to the corrections described in section 4.4, other forms of data
processing are sometimes used in order to increase the accuracy and the
usefulness of airborne radiometric data. The modern data compilation system
includes software that permits the eld geophysicist to apply all of the processes
described in this section in the eld during ongoing survey operations.

1. Smoothing
Radioactive decay is a random process, and the accuracy of all measurements is
governed by statistical laws. The proles of counting rates are always "noisy" as
illustrated in gure 4.5-1 and usually the data cannot be contoured until they
have been smoothed. Figure 4.5-1 illustrates data with no smoothing.

Figure 4.5-2: The proles of gure 4.5-1 after ltering with a hanning lter
operator, top, and a "boxcar" operator, bottom. Note: the phase reversal marked
with the "B", caused by the inappropriate boxcar lter compared to the same
point using the hanning lter marked with a "A". (Hogg, 1977)

2. Micro-Leveling of Radiometric Data

Changing background activity levels due to "pockets" of radon gas which has
collected in valleys or due to variations in soil moisture content can occasionally
be a serious problem. These residual leveling problems, that can remain even
after applying background corrections, cause articial lineations or corrugations
in contour, or colour maps of the data. If present, this problem tends to be
particularly sever for the "uranium" (Bi214) channel.
This problem can be reduced or eliminated from the data, after gridding the
data, by applying a two dimensional mathematical lter that discriminates
against small line-to-line base level changes. Figure 4.5-2 and 4.5-3 illustrate this
process. The apparent lineations in the y direction of the map of gure 4.5-2 are
caused by residual leveling errors. The application of a properly designed lter,
that compensates for line to line variations produces the map shown in gure
4.5-3 immediately below.

Figure 4.5-3: Residual background levelling eects introduce corrugations into

the uranium channel contour map, seen in the example as top-bottom trending
features. The application of an appropriate decorrugation lter removes the
corrugations and permits us to see underlying geological trends.

3. Calculation of Ratios
The abundance ratios, U/Th, U/K and Th/K, are often more diagnostic of changes
in rock types, alteration, or depositional environment than the values of the
radio-isotope abundances themselves, which are subject to wide variations due
to soil cover, etc. The U/Th ratio has particular value in exploration for uranium
deposits because it has been found to increase locally within regions containing
uranium ores. Thus proles that include this ratio are often very useful for
picking specic target anomalies for ground follow-up. The anomaly indicated by
a red ball on gure 4.5-4 is an example of such a target. While stacked prole
presentations are no longer standard for many radiometric surveys, when using
this method for the direct detection of uranium deposits this data presentation
technique, either on the computer screen or in hard copy, is invaluable.

Figure 4.5-4: Stacked radiometric proles with a signicant U/Th anomaly

indicated by a "red-ball". In this case a "black ball".
In suitable areas, i.e., areas with reasonably low soil moisture content, maps of
the ratios are useful as aids in mapping the surface geology of the area. In this
connection a coloured map that eectively portrays all three ratios
simultaneously as dierences in colour and intensity, usually referred to as
"ternary" maps, are particularly valuable.

4. Ternary Maps
A ternary map, such as the one shown in gure 4.5-2 is made by assigning one of
the primary colours to each of the element abundances. For example, in the
gure, Thorium is assigned red, Uranium is green and Potassium is blue. The
total count rate is used to assign an intensity scale to each of the elements and
the resulting colours are then combined to produce a coloured map. Thus, bright
green areas on the map show areas where the uranium count is very high
relative to both of the other element count rates; bright blue indicates areas of
high potassium count rate, etc. Colours other than the three primary colours
indicate areas with various, well dened proportions of Th, U, and K. Generally,
the dierent colours on the map correspond closely with dierent rock types
when compared with geological samples collected on the ground. In fact, the
Ternary map has proven to be so useful that, along with contour maps of the
total count and of each of the element abundances, it has become a standard
method of presenting data.

Figure 4.5-2: A "Ternary" radiometric map produced by assigning three primary

colours to the three radioelements (Thorium=Red, Uranium=Green and
Potassium=Blue).

Many processors use cyan for uranium, magenta for potassium and yellow for
thorium. While this colour scheme is dierent the same processing method is
used and the resulting map looks similar to the one shown.

4.5 Radiometric Survey Design

While many of the survey design considerations for radiometric surveys are
similar to those applicable to magnetic surveys, there are some signicant
dierences. The most obvious dierence is in acceptable ight elevation, i.e.
while a ight elevation of 300 metres may be acceptable when ying a magnetic
survey, it would probably be far too high for most radiometric surveys: A ight
elevation of 100 metres or less would be more appropriate. As well as ight
elevation, there are some other considerations that must be taken into account
when writing the specications for a radiometric survey.

4.5a Counting Statistics

Because our survey objective is to collect the best possible estimates of the
abundances of uranium, thorium and potassium in the ground, we must give
careful consideration to factors aecting the counting statistics. The standard
error of measurement per unit distance on the ground is approximately inversely
proportional to the square root of the count rate. Obviously, in order to reduce
the standard error we must increase the number of counts, which means
increasing the volume of the crystal detector to the maximum possible. Because
there are practical limits on the size to which crystals can be grown, increasing
the volume means adding more crystals. However, adding more crystals mean
adding more weight and creates serious problems of detector matching and
internal scattering of gamma rays; and larger and more expensive aircraft are
needed to carry them. Given the load capacity of the aircraft that is to be used in
the survey, there is clearly a limit on the total crystal volume that can be carried.
If we feel that the standard error is too large and we wish to reduce it by, for
example, one half, we must increase the count rate by a factor of four. There are
basically four things that can be done to increase the number of counts:
Increase the volume of the crystal. This, however, has limits as we have
already discussed.
Increase the sampling time. This may require reducing aircraft speed to get
equivalent resolution on the ground, and so has aircraft performance
limitations.
Decrease the terrain clearance. Safety considerations, and topography,
dictate limits here.

Clearly, the best possible vehicle for performing high-quality radiometric surveys
is one which can carry a lot of weight and y safely close to the ground at low
speed. Helicopters give the best performance in terms of ground clearance and
speed, but all but the largest, can carry only about one third the number of
crystals that a Navaho or similar xed-wing aircraft can. Obviously, there will
have to be compromises. A simple rule of thumb that denes a more or less
optimum relationship between sample time, aircraft speed and survey altitude is:
t = h / 4V
where:
t = the sampling time in seconds;
h = the mean terrain clearance in meters;
and V = the aircraft velocity in metres/second.
Normally, h is chosen to be not more than twice the linear dimensions of the
smallest target that is considered to be of economic size. Thus, if h = 100 metres
and V = 50 m/sec., then t = 0.5 second. In many cases (including this one) it may
be impractical to adhere to the optimum rule because the sampling time may
turn out to be too small to give statistically meaningful rates; nonetheless, it is
useful as a general guide.

4.5b Line Spacing

The "optimum" line spacing is inevitably a compromise involving the size of the
area to be surveyed, the amount of detail that is required, and the total budget
allocated to the project. There are, however, some rules for determining the
"ideal" line spacing. The basis of this "ideal" line spacing is the concept of the
"circle of investigation". This circle denes the area from which a given
percentage of the total terrestrial radiation that is received by a stationary
detector at a given height above ground originates. curves representing this
function are shown in gure 4.6-1.
For example, at a terrain clearance of 130 metres, 60 % of the incoming gamma
radiation is from within a circle having a radius of 150 m. At a clearance of 60
metres, that same circles radius shrinks to 60 m. This suggests the width of the
instantaneous eld of view of the gamma ray spectrometer.
As the "circle of investigation" moves with the aircraft it describes a strip or
"carpet" of investigation, centered on the ight line, on the ground. The width of
this strip is the diameter of the circle. To maintain good line to line coherency
adjacent 60 % strips should not be separated by more than half their widths.
Thus, xed-wing surveys own at a mean terrain clearance of 130 m. should use
a line spacing that is about three times the ying height, or about 400 metres, to
avoid loss of detail and aliasing of the data. Helicopter surveys own at a height
of 50 m will result in satisfactory results when own using a line spacing of
about four times that altitude, or about 200 metres.
The available budget may dictate wider line spacing than the above, however,
the lack of line to line coherency that will result may yield non-contourable data.

Figure 4.6-1: Percentage of signal arising from the circle of investigation as a

function of aircraft altitude. (Hansen 1980)

4.5c Detector Selection

The choice of detector, i.e. crystal size, depends on the type of survey to be
own, aircraft speed, and altitude: a high sensitivity survey own at a high
altitude and relatively high speed may require large crystal volumes (up to 2000
in3); or a medium sensitivity reconnaissance surveys, where a volume of 1000 in3
or less may be adequate. For airborne geochemical and geological mapping, a
high sensitivity system must be used. If one is only prospecting for weak, broad
halos or for regions of higher than normal radioactivity, a medium sensitivity
reconnaissance type survey may suce. Because less costly aircraft may be used
the dierence in cost per square kilometer will usually be signicantly lower
with reconnaissance surveys, this type of survey permits a much larger area to
be surveyed for a given total expenditure.
Using an example from Grant, 1982, I'll try to illustrate detector selection with
specic examples. Suppose that it is important, in prospecting for uranium or
gold, to be able to detect and locate targets that are about 100 metres in
diameter, containing on the average 0.05 % U3O8. Using typical calibration
values, we can calculate the expected count rate, Nu, in the Bi214 channel for a
NaI(Tl) crystal detector having a volume V in3 at a height h metres above t he
ground using the formula:

-3
Nu(corr) @ (V x C(U) x A x 10-2) / (1.9 x h x e(5.6 x 10 x h)

where:
C(U) is the U 3O8 concentration in percent
and A is the area of the outcrop in square metres.
Using the numbers suggested for C(U) and A we nd that, for a helicopter
survey own at a mean terrain clearance of 40 meters and using a crystal
volume of 1000 in3 (about the maximum size that a medium size helicopter like a
Bell Jetranger, can carry), Nu(corr) @ 41 cps. The total count rate obtained by
integrating the spectrum over the total count window, assuming no contributions
from either thorium or potassium, would be about 260 cps. We can calculate the
statistical uncertainty in the background variation, Su, approximately, using the
formula:
Su @
=

(bu(atm.) + bu(geol.))1/2

(36 + 520 )1/2 @ 23 cps.

The signal to noise ratio in this case being 41/23 @ 1.8, so the target should be
easily detectable, assuming a line spacing of 200 metres is used. If the speed of
the helicopter is 100 km/hr. (30m/sec), the optimum sampling time is 0.5 sec.
Topography (and available budget) usually controls the nal selection between
helicopter and xed wing surveys. A high sensitivity spectrometer system may
weigh several hundred kilograms and require the use of a twin-engine aircraft
such as a Navaho, or a large and expensive helicopter like the Bell 412. The rate
of climb of the xed wing aircraft might not be sucient to maintain satisfactory
terrain clearance in very hilly or mountainous areas. The large helicopter may be
too expensive for the available budget. An appreciation of the size of the crystals
involved can be gained from the picture shown in gure 4.6-2. This picture
shows a box containing 1,500 in3 of NaI crystal mounted on the side of a Bell
412 helicopter. In this case the complete detector consisted of two boxes
identical to the one shown: one box mounted on each side of the aircraft.

Figure 4.6-2: A 1500 cubic inch NaI

crystal box mounted on a Bell 412
helicopter.

The large helicopter could be justied, for this survey, because over fty
thousand kilometers of radiometric data in Thailand was to be collected over
extremely mountainous terrain. Note that in environments like Thailand, survey
operations can only be conducted during the dry season. In addition, very wet
areas, like the rice paddy regions, will yield marginal radiometric data.
For less ambitious projects perhaps, the optimum strategy would be to use a
light xed-wing aircraft, carrying a relatively small crystal to outline areas of
high radioactivity using the total count as the primary indicator, to be followed
by a high-sensitivity helicopter-borne survey to map the radioelement
abundances in the areas selected for detailed study.

4.6 Radiometric Survey Specications

Most of the contract specications outlined in section 2 apply to radiometric
surveys as well as to magnetometer surveys. However, in addition to those
specications, the following requirements, specic to radiometrics, are also
necessary:
1. Equipment specications.
The crystal volume required.
The widths of the spectral energy windows to be used and/or full energy
spectrum specications.
2. Survey Flying Specications.
The maximum ying speed permitted.
The maximum precipitation allowed during survey operations.
The delay of operations required following precipitation exceeding the
maximum allowed.
These last two specications are required because heavy precipitation will act as
a radiation shield and therefore signicantly reduce the gamma ray count that
can be measured.
3. Data Compilation and Interpretation
Map and chart scales
The corrections that are to be applied to the data
The maximum smoothing to be applied to the data.
The data presentation products required: e.g., contour maps of which
elements, ternary maps, stacked prole charts, etc.

4.8 Interpretation
The main applications of airborne radiometric surveys are:
Geological/geochemical mapping as an indirect aid in exploration for
economic minerals.
Exploration for uranium deposits.
Special applications such as exploration for diamonds by assisting in
kimberlite location.

Exploration for porphyry copper deposits where potassic alteration gives

rise to a radiometric signature.
Exploration for gold using the Au-U association.
Exploration for radioactive haloes over hydrocarbon deposits.
Unlike the other airborne geophysical methods that we have discussed, there are
no mathematical models that will allow us to calculate the theoretical
radiometric response of a specic source. Interpretation of radiometric data is,
therefore, more similar to interpreting the results of a conventional geological
survey. It is usually necessary to correlate the results of geological and/or
geochemical sampling with, for example, the colour patterns in a radiometric
ternary map to achieve a full understanding of the implications of the map.
However, an understanding of how radiometric surveys can be applied to
exploration problems requires us to consider the geological sources of
radioactivity.

4.8a Natural Radioactivity of Rocks

Much of the uranium and thorium in igneous rocks is concentrated in a few
accessory minerals such as zircon, sphene and apitite. Other highly radioactive
minerals, like monazite, allanite, uraninite, thorite, and pyrochlore, are
widespread in nature but they are very minor constituents of rocks, and are
distributed erratically. The minerals that carry uranium and thorium are
generally associated with felsic intrusions - particularly with younger intrusions;
they are found much less frequently in mac rocks or in volcanics. The uranium
and thorium content of rocks generally increases with acidity, with the highest
concentrations found in pegmatites. This relationship is illustrated in appendix 1.
The highest concentrations of uranium and thorium in sedimentary rocks usually
occur in shales.
The potassium content of rocks also increases with acidity. In general, potassium
is concentrated in micas and feldspars; rocks that are free of these minerals
have very low K-activity. Thus, K-activity is very low in all mac and ultramaic
rocks. The potassium content of sedimentary rocks is highly variable but tends to
be higher in shales than in carbonates or sandstones.

4.8b Eects of Weathering and Metamorphism

Weathering and metamorphism can modify the radioelement content of rocks
profoundly. Uranium is easily oxidized to a water-soluble form; and can be
readily leached from pegmatites and granites and redeposited in sediments at
large distances from the source rock. Thorium has no soluble ion and therefore
tends to remain with the parent rock or is transported over relatively short
distances in the form of solid mineral grains. Common thorium-bearing minerals
such as zircon and monazite are heavy and thus accumulate in placers and in the
heavy mineral fraction of clastic sediments. Weathering, therefore, produces
signicant eects upon the distribution of radioelements: It decreases the U/TH
ratio in weathered rock and it leads to dispersion halos, particularly in the case
of uranium, that extend over a much greater area than does the parent
formation.

Potassium is almost always bound up in the minerals fraction of soils, and is

therefore transported in colloidal form in ground water and subsequently
deposited in argillaceous sediments. It is also the radioelement that is most
aected by metamorphism. A particular type of metamorphism that is often
associated with felsic intrusions leads to potassium enrichment, and
consequently, can be used as an exploration guide when prospecting for
porphyry copper deposits or for kimberlites.
It is important to remember, when analyzing terrestrial gamma radiation, that in
the case of uranium and thorium, the radiation does not emit from the parent
nuclei, but from their decay products, Bi 214 and Tl208. In both the U and Th
decay series, there are ten relatively short lived isotopes between the parent
(U238 and Th232) nuclei and the isotopes that emit the remotely detected gamma
rays. Calculations of U and Th abundances derived from gamma ray
measurements necessarily involve the assumption of equilibrium. Equilibrium in
the chemically and biologically active uppermost few centimeters or meters of
the earth is not a normal condition! The terms "equivalent uranium" and
"equivalent thorium" mean the amounts of these two elements that are implied
by the Bi214 and Tl208 gamma radiation if equilibrium is assumed. The real
amounts could be much dierent.
Perhaps the commonest cause of dierence between the "equivalent uranium"
value and the real uranium value is the escape of radon gas, which is one of the
radioactive isotopes in the U238 decay series and which immediately precedes
Bi214. Diusion of radon into the atmosphere results in a loss of Bi214 and hence
an under-estimate of the uranium abundance. Radon diusion is inuenced by
changes in barometric pressure, the moisture content of the ground,
precipitation, and snow cover, amongst other things. All of these factors must be
recognized as capable of producing false anomalies and taken into account by
the interpreter.
A temperature inversion In the atmosphere and wind, or lack of it, can also
produce misleading results. During periods when there is some wind to produce
convective mixing of the atmosphere, radon escaping from the ground is
thoroughly mixed throughout the air and forms a fairly uniform background
radiation level. However, in cases when a temperature inversion occurs, or in
cases of still air, particularly in deep valleys in hilly terrain, the escaping radon is
trapped near the ground where it accumulates and causes an increase in Bi 214
count. From experience, we know that up to 75% of the total Bi214 count can
come from inversion layers or from some deep valleys in still air. Thus, in these
conditions, an error in estimating uranium abundance of up to 300% can result.
When an atmospheric temperature inversion is observed, particularly if there is
little or no wind, it is usually advisable to discontinue operations until conditions
return to normal. In very mountainous terrain, it may be necessary to monitor
radon levels in some of the most oending valleys. Figure 4.6-2 shows a sketch
illustrating a few of the non-geologic causes of radiometric anomalies.

It is extremely important to remember that terrestrial gamma rays emanate from

the ground surface, not from depth. A few inches of overburden, including soil,
are sucient to absorb 100% of the emissions from the rocks beneath.
Therefore, unlike the aeromagnetic method, the radiometric method is capable
of yielding information only on what lies at the ground surface. The value of
radiometrics is as a geological mapping device that has the ability to provide
chemical information on rock outcrop by remote sensing. Even though residual
soils which have not been moved retain only some of the radioactive elements
that were present in their parent rocks, their relative abundances tend to remain
indicative of the parent, and thus the underlying parent rock can sometimes be
mapped through a thin layer of residual soil. As a prospecting tool, the ability of
radiometrics to map uranium dispersion halos and to indicate local anomalies in
the U/Th and the U/K ratios is its chief value.

Figure 4.6-2: Non-geologic causes of radiometric anomalies. (Hansen 1980)

Appendix 1: Typical Radioelement

Concentrations in Earth Materials.
Rock Class

U (ppm)
Mean Range

Th (ppm)
Mean

Range

K(%)
Mean Range

Acid Extrusives

4.1

0.8 16.4

11.9

1.1 41.0

3.1

1.0 6.2

Acid Intrusives

4.5

0.1 30.0

25.7

0.1 253.1

3.4

0.1 7.6

Intermediate Extrusives

1.1

0.2 - 2.6

2.4

0.4 - 6.4

1.1

0.01 2.5

Intermediate Intrusives

3.2

0.1 23.4

12.2

0.4 106.0

2.1

0.1 6.2

Basic Extrusives

0.8

0.03 3.3

2.2

0.05 8.8

0.7

0.06 2.4

Basic Intrusives

0.8

0.01 5.7

2.3

0.03 15.0

0.8

0.01 2.6

Ultrbasic

0.3

0.0 - 1.6

1.4

0.0 - 7.5

0.3

0.0 0.8

Alkali Feldspathoidal
Intermediate Extrusives

29.7

1.9 62.0

133.9

9.5 265.0

6.5

2.0 9.0

Alkali Feldspathoidal
Intermediate Intrusives

55.8

0.3 720.0

132.6

0.4 880.0

4.2

1.0 9.9

Alkali Feldspathoidal Basic

Extrusives

2.4

0.5 12.0

8.2

2.1 60.0

1.9

0.2 6.9

Alkali Feldspathoidal Basic

Intrusives

2.3

0.4 - 5.4

8.4

2.8 19.6

1.8

0.3 4.8

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks*

3.6

0.03 26.7

14.9

0.03 132.0

0.6

0.02 8.4

Carbonates

2.0

0.03 18.0

1.3

0.03 0.8

0.3

0.01 3.5

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

4.8

0.1 80.0

12.4

0.2 362.0

1.5

0.01 9.7

Metamorphosed Igneous Rocks

4.0

0.1 148.5

14.8

0.1 104.2

2.5

0.1 6.1

Metamorphosed Sedimentary
Rocks

3.0

0.1 53.4

12.0

0.1 91.4

2.1

0.01 5.3

Selected Bibliography -- Airborne Radiometric

Surveys
Bristow, Q., 1979, Gamma-ray Spectrometric Methods in Uranium Exploration Airborne Instrumentaion in Geophysics and Geochemistry in the Search for
Mettalic Ores (P.J. Hood, ed.), Geol. Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report
31, pp 135-146.
Cameron, G.W., Elliott, B.E., and Richardson, K.A., 1976, Eects of Line
Spacing on Contoured Airborne Gamma-ray Spectrometry Data; in Exploration
fro Uranium Ore Deposits, I.A.E.A., Vienna, pp 81-92
Darnley, A.G., 1973, Airborne Gamma-ray Survey Techniques - Present and
Future; in Uranium Exploration Methods, Proc. Series, I.A.E.A., Vienna, pp
67-108.
Grant, Fraser S., 1982, Gamma Ray Spectrometry for Geological Mapping and
for Prospecting, in Mining Geophysics Workshop., Paterson Grant and Watson
Limited.
Grasty, R.L. 1977, A General Calibration Procedure for Gamma-ray
Spectrometers - Project 720084; in Report of Activities, part C;, Geol. Survey of
Canada, Paper 77-1C.
Grasty, R.L. 1979, Gamma Ray Spectrometric Methods in Uranium Exploration
- theory and Operational Procedures; in Geophysics and Geochemistry in the
Search for Mettalic Ores (P.J. Hood, ed.), Geol. Survey of Canada, Economic
Geology Report 31, pp 147-161.
Hansen, D.A., 1980, "Radiometrics". Ch. 1 in Practical Geophysics for the
Exploration Geologist, R. van Blairicom, ed., Northwest Minning Association,
Spokane, Wash., U.S.A. , pp1038
Hogg, Scott R. L., 1977, Evaluation of Some Computer Compilation and
Interpretation Techniques; presented at Uranium Exploration Workshop 1977,
University of Toronto, Toronto Ont.
Hogg, Scott R. L., 1978, Contouring Radiometric Data: Considerations and
New Developments for the Interpreter; presented at Uranium Exploration
Workshop 1978, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont.
Killeen, P.G., Carson, J.M., and Hunter, J.A., 1975, Optimizing Some
Parameters for Airborne Gamma-ray Spectrometry; Geoexploration, V.13, pp
1-12.
Saunders, D.F., and Potts, M.J., 1976, Interpretation and Application of
High-Sensitivity Airborne Gamma-ray Spectrometry Data; in Exploration for
Uranium Ore Deposits, Proc. Series, I.A.E.A., Vienna, pp 81-92
Urquhart, W.E.S, 1988, Decorrugation of Enhanced Magnetic Field Maps .
Paper presented at the 55th Annual Meeting of SEG, Anaheim, October, 1988.