Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
by
March 1981
ABSTRACT
A study of the measurement, prediction and characterisation of
the dynamic behaviour of tall buildings is presented. Initially
a review of the history of tall buildings and the study of their
dynamic behaviour is presented. The characterisation of tall
buildings by conventional means and by the use of spectral
functions is considered.
(i)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There is a large number of people who have helped or assisted with
some aspect of the study reported in this thesis. It would be
impossible to acknowledge the part played by everyone who has been
involved and so only those who have played a major part are mentioned
here. Suffice is to say that the author is very gratefulto everyone
who has played a part.
To
.3
Paquet and
.3
To the people involved with the detailed arrangements for the work
conducted on site - Mr R Hetherington of V C Curtin and Partners,
Mr A Grimes of Oscar Faber Ltd., Dr B Lee and Dr R Evans of
Sheffield University, Dr C Williams and Dr H Ward, both previously
of Plymouth Polytechnic, Mr D Lippard of Pell Frishmann and Partners,
(ii)
(iii)
CONTENTS
PAGE
(i)
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(ii)
(ix)
NOTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
10
12
13
15
17
18
16
19
20
2.6 G Damping
21
21
22
24
2.6 I Comparison of induced and ambient vibrations
2.6 J Comparison of theory and practice
25
25
28
28
(iv)
CONTENTS
PAGE
29
29
30
31
36
37
38
41
42
42
43
function.
4.2 B Spectral estimates for the forcing function.
44
44
approach.
4.4 The modal representation of building dynamics.
45
46
46
4.4 B (1)
46
4.4 B (ii)
Cantilever mode.
47
47
48
49
50
(v)
CONTENTS
4.4 D (i)
PAGE
50
51
51
51
52
52
56
50
58
59
61
63
63
64
64
67
67
68
70
70
66
69
65
68
71
73
73
(vi)
74
76
PAGE
CONTENTS
7.2 Random data
79
80
81
82
82
87
87
88
90
92
92
97
98
100
102
105
108
108
111
113
113
116
8. 14 B Natural frequencies
117
8.14 C Damping
120
120
122
123
(vii)
124
124
CONTENTS
10.
PAGE
126
126
127
127
128
128
128
129
130
126
10.2 D Damping
126
126
126
10.2 Structures
130
131
132
141
153
(viii)
NOTATION
A displacement
A generalised co-ordinate
Damping force
Dynamic matrix =
E
F
A force
Frequency
f
G
An integer
9,
Height of a structure
H
Ho
I
2- An
integer
VI - 1
'-7
Mass
M
N
An integer
An integer
A force
Quality factor =
Q
r
An integer
Laplace operator
S(f)
Kinetic energy
(ix)
Analysis time
Time
Strain energy
Potential energy
vw
Wind velocity
Work done
Wb
Width of a building
An integer
-Y
Output of a system
Height up a structure
(x)
Greek letters
A phase angle
2ir
A rotation
A matrix
Density of air
Variance
A mode shape
A phase angle
Circular frequency =
2Trf
Specific Useages
Cc
CDII
-p2
r
M
r
MT
N3
pp
T
p
Record length
VII
'r'
(xi)
'r'
Functions
Sum
J.
( )
Integral
Functions of term in bracket
Differential with respect to time -do
d2
Double differential with respect to time
-
A
A matrix
Peak value
in
Napierian logarithm
dB
Decibel
rms
Subscript
no
Non conservative
Refers to damping
Refers to inertia
Refers to an output
(xii)
INTRODUCTION
an importance
300 million US dollars) and some 50 people lost their lives, the
damage was limited mainly to domestic dwellings. The building
regulations in force at the time were not adequate for tropical
cyclones, despite the fact that Darwin had previously been
subjected to cyclones (January 7th, 1897 and March 10th,
1937).
3 in
The study being reported here started in response to an identification of gaps in present knowledge. These gaps were caused
by a lack of basic information about dynamic behaviour of structures
and about the acceptability of particular vibration levels.
The concern here, has been with comparing the dynamic response
of buildings with others studied previously and with assessing
aspects such as damping and natural frequency to a greater
accuracy than has been achieved before. This comparison and
updating exercise has provided basic data for use as input
parameters to codes and design guides. In the normal design
situation estimated input parameters would be used and the ue
of reliable data means that the methods of calculation have themselves been assessed. In this light some recommendations for
alterations to currently used estimators of dynamic response have
been made and areas where more information is required have been
identified.
There are several important structural parameters which influence
the way in which a building responds dynamically. The more
important of these parameters are natural frequency, damping and
stiffness, and it is on these parameters, their identification,
and their variation, that this study has concentrated.
10
11
as the
12
.ectrical transducers
13
was
14
15
16
T = P1(0.07 to 0.09)
17
f1 - 46/H
18
is rca].,
there is a great
3k, k6
19
For no apparently good reason, little effort has been put into
studying torsional response. Whilst the difficulty of synchronising
vibration generators has undoubtedly contributed to make investi28 39
gation difficult some results have been forthcoming25' 27,
20
21
2.6.G Damping
In this section only measurements and their ramifications are
dealt with. The larger issue of theoretical characterisation
and mechanisms of damping is considered later.
The value ascribed to damping for each mode of a building's
vibration is a measure of the rate at which the building will
dissipate energy. The mechanism of this dissipation will fundainentally affect the way in which the damping can be quantified.
It is a lucky coincidence that most buildings have very ama].].
values of damping and that in this case it does not matter what
the mechanism of damping is as all can be characterised as
though they were an 'equivalent viscous damper'. This was first
72
stated by Jacobsen, in 1930 , and all modern investigations use
this principle. A viscous damper is an abstraction from the
mathematical concept of a visco-elastic system. Jacobsen stated
that if mixed damping was less than 10% of the critical value,
it could be treated as equivalent viscous damping.
22
3,
for the
23
6.14
55, 59' but with one exception these tests have shown measurable
increase in damping with increasing amplitude. It seems that some
of the variability found in the assessment of damping may be
caused by a failure to consider the changes that occur with increasing amplitude. This is discussed in more detail later.
2.6.H Temperature effects
Wiss and Curth 8 reported, in 1970, that the temperature had a
significant effect on the dynamic response of a 56 storey building
in Chicago. This is the only reference in the literature to an
24
25
26
27
P(t)
(1)
28
P(t)
d2x
= mx
(2)
The right hand side of the equation is the inertia term, referred
to previously, which opposes the applied force.
t2
t
(T-V)dt^j
w dt
(3)
In words this states that the kinetic and potential energy plus the
variation of the work done by the non-conservative forces during any
time interval must equal zero.
29
P(t) =
(4)
rn
elastic spring
'8)
Thus
p(t) = f(t) * f + f
(5)
f8
= - Xx
(6)
= -c
(7)
Thus
f(t)-Xx-c!c =m
or
m+c3#Xx
= f(t)
(8)
30
d '3T \ 32' +
I -
(
\ I
2.
3W
3W
e
9a. -
2.
2.
(9)
2.
2'
1/
W9
M(
-
i'-1
zrn)
(1 0)
72=1
nth mode.
31
i<g(
(II)
g=1
n-I
where
Where C
(12)
(13)
W =
r=I
Where
n=1
-A
a
rn - A q
n
(14)
32
'a
rn
gn
C vn
Irn
A '-' Anm
4
U
mn I
(15)
A (.) = A
(16)
,' C\
= A 1=
A
nA I
n Cvn
' n'
(17)
1= A
(18)
(C\
n
nC
(Am)
becomes
n= 1
rn
n= 1
2
and
N
2
) becomes
gn
(
n1
?2=1
I -
Mr
r=1
n=1
U -
Kg
91
A2
(19)
A2
(20)
n=1
33
(21)
j
W -
n-I
n-I
V-I
Aq
(22)
n-I
r= l
j
'V.'
= L.. M
rl
(23)
2
dt aA) = XM r rn
r=I
Kg A
2Lgn
Kg
= A
g=1
(24)
g=1
j
=
(25)
(26)
n
W
and
(27)
c,
n
Whilst standard texts often assume eqtion (26) they do not include
equation (27) and merely assume that is small. The reason for
this will become apparent later.
34
4)2
Exg
+A
n EMr 4)2+AEC
n
v cvn n
rn
v1
r1
g=l
r 4) rn
(28)
4EF
r1
When this is compared with equation (8) for a single degree of freedom
system m3 ^
c.i +
K.c =
f(t)
4)
E M
c.,
v= I
Kg
g I
Fr
4)
35
36
However, the models of the structures used all have approximations incorporated into them and it is only by continued comparison of the results
of theoretical analysis with real measurements that the importance of
the approximations can be realised. The use of discrete idealisations
often leads to the neglect of parts of a structure which are assumed
not to play an important role in the dynamic behaviour, but which have
been shown recently to be significant. There is also a tendency to
assume the linear-visco-elastic model is a good idealisation of real
behaviour. The incorporation of more complex models of behaviour still
tends to mean that the available space in a computer limits the number
of degrees of freedom that can be considered. The computation of
torsional response limits the number of approximations that can be
made and so, for instance, the Holtzer and Stodola methods cannot be
used, and, if the finite element method is used, it is safer to employ
three dimensional elements if an accurate solution is to be found.
37
4.
(ii)
4m 2
C 2 K
-
4m2
K
If ->
or
Th
a 2
m 4in2
2V
C2
38
We can now turn our attention to the underdaxnped case, which is the
one of particular use in structural dynamics.
-c
e
___
________
/
XE'-/1 -
K C2
Sin(--.t # cos 1
c2
Cl
21)j
(29)
If the damping term becomes zero then the system oscillates with a
response of:-
_Sin/i]
or W
n
=,/i m
and
= 2rrf
Actual damping
Critical damping
Then
____
I-rw,t
x
= x
(Sin w
i-.t ^ cos 1
S =
wnt
39
(30)
F (t)
(31)
F
r
-
r r
r r r #4Tr2f2x
(32)
mr
thr) and
82 is the
[S2 #4 7rf
F
= -
S#4 7r 2 f 2 Jx
(33)
mr
r r
For this purpose the real part of S is neglected since only real
systems are considered (sic). Therefore s jw, and equation (33)
can be reformulated as:-
[(jw)2
[_4T.2
f2 +
'r
87r2
+ I + 2j
42
'r2J r
47y2
fr2x
r
(34)
mr
r
mr
(35)
r fr X
(36)
x (f)
(f)
(37)
40
1/K
(38)
E1'f)
2 '
-"r f
r
4.1 A Resonance (f = f)
In this condition the vibration source operates at the natural
frequency of the system, then H(f) becomes
1/K
j2
=
r
1
2X
(39)
r r
The factor
41
(f
0)
11(f)
I/K
There are several functions which are commonly used in the spectral
approach and these are detailed in the appendix on spectral functions.
Of most use in the prediction of building response are power spectral
density functions. (The term 'power' is merely a legacy from the
early use of the techniques in electronics.) Spectral density functions
42
(f)
G (f)
= H (F) 1 2 f
(40)
where G and Gf are spectral densities of the response and the force
respectively, and
G f
(f)
= E(f) G f
(f)
(41)
in which Gxf is the cross spectral density between the force and the
response.
In equation (40) all phase information is disregarded and it is this
form which is normally used in design when the spectral approach is
being used. In equation (41) the phase information is retained and
accordingly the function G f (f) has real and imaginary parts to it.
As is explained in the appendix, spectral density functions are only
estimates of a process and there are always errors associated with
them. The correct estimation of error bounds is, of course, crucial
when utilising the spectral approach. However, this factor does not
invalidate the techniques and indeed they are extremely powerful if
used with caution. There are two ways in which the spectral approach
has been used practically in this study, and these are both based on
the use of equation (40). In the first case an assumption is made
about Gf (fL and G(f) is measured so as to give an estimate of
11(f). In this way building properties may be inferred without
recourse to induced vibration testing. In the second case the
properties of
11(f) are
G f (f) can
be estimated,
F(f) varies
11(f).
11(f)
11(f).
11(f).
45
4r
The deflected dynamic shapes, or mode shapes, shown in this and other
works, give an idea of the types of mode encountered in practice. For
tall buildings these shapes often approximate to a straight line with
the shapes shown in Figure 3 also occurring, but somewhat less
frequently. Because the elements in a building which are considered
to be non-structural often play a part in the dynamic structural
behaviour, matrix analysis of structures does not always give an
accurate estimate of mode shapes and 'engineering judgement' is
quite often sufficient.
r=I
in
= -t m(z) (z)
where
zn(z)
dz
The three major types of mode are considered in turn and the mode
shapes are idealised for them:-
qCz) - Hm =
[m(z)
3 1H
3fl2
= mT
46
- cog
(z) -
H
'Ira
(1 + cos
ira1
-r .)J
0
4H . 712
zSin.---+
= m(z)
2H
E
=m(z)
.. m
71
z+
- 4H
= 0.227 mT
mT
mr = T
Or approximately
z) - [Sin
mr
- cos
_fm(z)
[2
m(z) -
2
II . 7121
2w S1nTJ
47
1r
dz
= m(z)
H
I
mT
m = -
3irz
z) = I - cos --
H
mr
= fm(z) [i - cos
()J
37rz
dz
= fm(z)
-2cos
- m(z) [z -
4H .
3rrz
37rz
Sin (--) +
(I + cos
(z
or approximately
m = 2m
r
48
dz
H
I
= m('z) [1.924 H]
3irz
F
r
= j8ir2 m
x
r r r
(42)
Thus, with a knowledge of the force, the damping ratio, and the
displacement, the modal mass can be calculated.
(4)
10
49
Br
(43)
-rwflt
form
51
52
is 1.
At C the height and width of the curve are governed by the quantity
of damping in the system and the mass-spring system is at resonance.
A seismic instrument can be chosen to operate in the A, B or C
regions.
is in
53
54
56
There are two types of error associated with the estimation of.
spectral ordinates and these are termed variance and bias errors.
Variance errors occur because analyses do not use infinite record
lengths and infinitely short sampling times. Any real quantities
(eg less than infinite) for record length and sampling frequency,
introduce variance error. If the record length is termed T and
the sampling frequency B then the variance error is (BT).
Practically a BT product of 100 is often found to be achievable and
this results in a variance error of 10% (0.1).
These two types of error constrain the lengths of data that must be
used. To give an example of how to calculate these errors,assume
that BT 100, ie that a variance error of 10% is acceptable.
where
Now
T =
100
400
and
Br
57
where
and
where
______
Thus
200
=
=
r1r
c =
= /1O 2 +4
= 11%
C = 0.01
and
f = 0.6Hz
200
= 0.01
(i)
(ii)
(v)
(vi)
colour-coded orange, blue, green and black, as are the slave units,
and since precise calibration has been carried out, this affiliation
should be adhered to if at all possible, although in an emergengy
little loss of accuracy would result if a switch became necessary.
59
which was
60
7. Set the vibrators to a frequency of resonance, take an accelerometer to various locations throughout the building in turn, and
measure the vibration amplitude at each position.
61
The results obtained in this way are returned to the laboratory for
more detailed analysis, although on site checking of measured data
has been found to be a very useful exercise.
62
63
64
feet of which are directly above vertical columns which carry on down through
two levels of a car park to the foundations which consist of a massive raft set
intosandandgravel. Above general roof level is a structural
steel pergola,part of which is only decorative, a caretaker's
flat, tank room and lift-motor room at the north end and an access
enclosure at the top of the staircase at the south end.
The construction of the floors of the six storeys above the portal
frames consists generally of 12 in thick hollow tile reinforced
concrete floor slabs incorporated within the depth of which are
reinforced concrete beams spanning between the columns. At the north
end, where two reinforced concrete lift shafts and a staircase are
situated, there is a substantial area where solid reinforced concrete
floor slabs are used instead of hollow tile. There is also a
reinforced concrete staircase at the south end.
6.4 Quarter-scale Model of Large Panel Building, Garston (Fig. 12 & 36)
Although only a model, the results of the tests on this building are
included for two reasons. Firstly, no full-scale tests have
been carried out on this type of building and secondly the building
possessed a most alarming coupling between a torsional mode and a
translational mode.
Since none of the modes was pure, the modal mass was determined from
the design mass of the building.
At roof level water tanks and lift motors are enclosed and 5 in tall
steel shutters around the entire periphery of the building provide
an architectural feature.
The tests on this building, and on the two others at Plymouth, were
conducted with a small unidirectional vibrator which was capable
only of providing a small force. Whilst it was of sufficient power
to enable the fundamental natural frequencies to be determined, the
wind caused a significant proportion of the excitation, and so
working drawings were used to estimate the mass of the structure.
As this was the last test with the very small vibrator it was strained
to its limit and a greater force was developed than in the other tests
at Plymouth.
The wind excitation during the vibrator tests was quite significant
and this created some difficulty in measuring the damping even in the
second modes. The values obtained for the building mass from the
second modal masses appeared slightly high in relation to the working
drawings and so the values obtained from the working drawings have
been selected for the calculations.
6.9 National Westminster Tower, London (Fig. 17 & 46)
This building is a 190 m tall, 46 storey, reinforced concrete office
block. It consists of a massive heavily reinforced core, with three
'leaves' attached and supported by large concrete corbels at their
bases. Service ducts and lifts are provided inside the core, and the
leaves are mainly for office usage. The three leaves are each of
different height. Leaf 'A' extends from the 1st to the 43rd levels,
leaf 'B' from the 3rd to the 41st, and leaf 'C' from the 5th to the
39th. The exterior of the leaves consists of steel columns, onto
which are attached the cladding panels. The concrete floors are
cantilevered from the core, and are attached to the steel columns at
the periphery. Expansion joints are provided at the interfaces
between leaves. Massive deep beams are provided at the base of each
of the leaves, to provide support.
68
This test was the first in which the new vibrator system was used
although only a single prototype was, in fact deployed. This was
at 43rd floor level.
The full new vibrator system was operational for the first time,
although only two exciters were placed in the building (at opposite
ends). The force generated by the vibrator system was sufficient to
overcome the slight wind activity. This activity did allow overnight
recordings of random excitation to be made.
The mass of the building was calculated from the results of the induced
vibration tests at various amplitudes and were consistent throughout.
No design drawings were available.
69
6.12 Exeter 6th Form College, Exeter, Devon. (Fig. 20 & 56)
This 10 storey, 38 in tall, reinforced concrete building is basically of
the columns and slab type, with lightweight concrete and glass cladding
panels. Two stairwells are used to provide some shear walls inside the
building, although the quantity of these is not great. There are
12 columns along each long periphery wall and seven larger columns
along the spine of the building. The concrete floors are of hollow pot
type construction. Whilst a casual inspection of the building seems
to show that it is of a fairly standard construction, it can be seen
from the plan view, in Fig. 56, that there is not a great deal of
structural stiffening present. Indeed there are numerous cracks
throughout the internal blockwork partition walls. At ground floor
70
walls.
The West side is formed on four in-situ concrete columns, which are
free standing above first floor level and carry a large lecture
theatre which is cantilevered out 6 in. This theatre is a reinforced
concrete box with 220 mm thick walls and slabs.
At fourth floor level the four reinforced concrete columns project
above the theatre roof to support the main tower which starts at
fifth floor level.
The tower dimensions are 12 in by 6 m and it rises to twelfth floor
level at 36 in above ground. At fifth floor level a 200 mm in-situ
concrete slab is supported by a central spine beam with bifurcations
at both ends (in the form of a Y) so as to support the four corners
columns. Between fifth and sixth floor levels these columns gradually
change section until above sixth floor level they become twin triangular columns. Above this level one side is supported by staircase
tower walls whilst on the other three corners the triangular columns
continue upwards. The floors from sixth to tenth levels are 200
hollow tile slabs which are carried by upstand edge beams. Above the
eleventh floor is a tank room which has solid concrete walls 150 nn
thick. Lightweight aluminium and glass cladding is provided. The
71
Two BRE vibrators were installed at tenth floor level for these
tests which were conducted during a single weekend. The complexity
of the structure led to a number of rather complex mode shapes,
but the modal mass, calculated from the fundamental translational
modes gave consistent estimates at various amplitudes. The investigation of dynamic behaviour was limited to the main tower and
staircases, although the effects of the east side on the dynamic
behaviour of the west side were plain to see. The good auspices
of the staff at Leicester University allowed tests to be performed
both with the water tank on the 11th floor full and with it empty.
72
7. DATA RETRIEVAL
The end product of measuring the dynamic behaviour of any system, is
a better understanding of the way it responds or is likely to respond.
In the case of the dynamic behaviour of tall buildings it is currently
considered that a description of motion in terms of its' frequency
characteristics allows a model to be formulated which allows the user
to predict, reasonably accurately, the response of the building to a
given set of forces. The equations for the model have been discussed
in Chapters 3 and 4, and the object of this section is to show how
monitoring of the motion of a structure can lead to estimates of
those parameters which made up the model of dynamic behaviour. In
this case motion data for a single building are converted to estimates
of parameters such as natural frequency and damping ratio, whilst the
question of predicting these parameters for an untested building as
a result of data obtained from tested buildings is left to Chapter 9.
73
w2
H(S) =
(44)
S2+2wS#w2
w
S2 + w2
(45)
w2
n
(S #
+ w2(1 -
74
2)
.#.
W2
(46)
Standard Laplace operator tables can be used to show the time history
of the response is:-
[(w 2 -
ww -rwt
w2 ) 2 + 42w2w
2]
[Sin (wt-ipJ #
___
_____
2 t_J (47)
[Sin w/i
e
vf,_2
72
4' -
___________
1 [2
2 Sin wt - tan
I i - __
W
I
w
L
1\
i
( 48)
I/
A1 # A2
# 443
............ + A72
The first part of equation (48) has the same form as 111i(ffl and
the total response may be written as:
x(f)
[s(f)]. K Sin
(wt-.).f(.[HJ).f(.[x,yJ)
j='
since the modes shapes are functions of height and horizontal position
in the building.
75
(49)
x(f) =
(50)
j=2
In the case where only the second mode gives significant interference
the response is
(5)
w
1 2
-ii _;l
4 2 = tan
W21
(52)
L'
76
- A 0 e cos (27r.)
(53)
-,
2x6
2
= A 2 cos (2x)
(54)
= in y2;
Let
x =
in [cos 2 (2irx)J;
(55)
A = in A0
... I = 2A+2x6+X
...
41i
+ BA + 8.x6 + 4X = 0
1.= I
And
_4XY+8Ax+8x26+4xXO
... -EY#2nA+26Zx+ZX=O
And
LxY#24Zx+26Zx2+EXx - 0
77
From which
6 = nExs+ZYEx-ExEx-nExl
- 2n Es2 # 2('Ex)2
(56)
and
44=
El - 26 Es - EX
2n
(57)
Use of equations (56) and (57) has been found to allow slower
digitisation rates and an order of magnitude greater accuracy in
estimating damping values from any particular decay curve.
-x 0.03
cos (2irx)
Xx
1.0
0.3
- 0.306248
- 2.36670
- 2.348718
- 0.710016
- 0.704615
0.6
- 0.794585
- 0.459871
- 0.423871
- 0.275923
- 0.254323
0.9
- 0.287466
- 0.477870
- 0.423871
- 0.430083
- 0.381484
1.2
0.298090
- 2.420720
- 2.348718
- 2.904864
- 2.818462
1.5
- 0.955997
- 0.090001
n
Es
= 4.5
El
= - 5.815182
Es2 = 4.95
EXs = - 4.158884
U = - 5.545178
Us = - 4.455888
78
- 0.135002
= 410.106
10
.. A
= 0.9999996
= in
and A
0.787466 1.0
-
-0.239
= 1.0
The large error in being caused by the lack of resolution around the
peak in the conventional case, is seen to be reduced to negligible
proportion with the regression on the whole curve.
79
During this study, techniques have been evolved for retrieving data
about a structure from the record of random response and these are
discussed in turn here. Finally a particular problem associated with
estimating damping values from the half power bandwidth method for
buildings with small damping values is considered.
8o
Now
T
p
200
0.0086 x 0.68
x 34199 secs
The range of directions recorded was 255 0 - 3500 and the range of
wind speeds was 8.5 - 13.3 mis.
If the resolution of wind speed is 0.1 rn/s and of wind direction 50,
then the minimum record length required to compute spectra for all
the options is
4.8 2.. p T 5 -
T = T
8664 hours.
T = -.
4.8 95
T =
433 hours.
In practice, the wind blows more often from some directions, and in
this case a BT product of 50 can be obtained for certain combinations
of wind speed and direction in much less than the time noted above.
In the case of the Sheffield Arts Tower 200 hrs has been sufficient.
81
The following gives a rationale for the method. Two assumptions are
necessary to begin with, and these are that the system has a single
degree of freedom, and that the data set being analysed forms a
stationary sample.
w.
w2(1 -
(58)
2)
L(5
+ w.z
w=1
'2-
m=1
82
j1
Aw2
m n
Sin (wi t
w 2 ) 2 + 4 2 w w]
m1
w w.A
fl L
-wt
Sin
Ew1 -2t-q
(59)
f1-
/_2w 2 /1_ 2
= tan'
\
(60)
2 2 w 2 w 2 + W2)
The remaining portion is the random decrement signature and has the form
w2 Am
_le
m=i
Cos (w /i-
' t)
(6 )
83
The technique has been used on wind excited responses from the
National Westminster tower and from Leicester University. Fig. 23
shows random decrement signatures in these two cases. It can be seen
that these signatures give values of damping which are in close
agreement with the values derived from a sudden cessation of vibration
and so the technique has been proved. However, it should be mentioned
that much difficulty was experienced with obtaining stationary single
mode data, and that the attempt to use the technique to obtain values
of damping at different ranges of amplitude has proved fruitless.
Fig. 24 shows the simulation used in one particular case. The undamped
natural frequency was assumed to be at 1.01 Hz, and the hypothesised
response for successively larger forces are shown ranging down to
0.95 Hz, for an order of magnitude increase in response.
Two systems were considered, the first with 0.IZ of critical damping
and the second with 1%. The load sequences considered were not all
typical of those occurring naturally, but without exception they could
be made to pass or fail a test for stationary, depending on the order
of the individual loads assumed.
84
Actual
0.1% of critical
Apparent
(z)
1
1
20
5
5
5
30
10
5
5
10
Case 2.
50
10
10
30
10
40
10
10
10
1 .44
0.979
0.968
1 .38
10
2.27
0.959
0.947
2.02
0.938
= 1.0% of critical
Actual
Apparent
frequency
(Hz)
Apparent
(%)
0.93
1 .01
1.15
1.00
1 .05
0.99
10
30
50
30
10
2.01
0.98
5 30 50 40 50 30
2.57
0.96
10
30
50
50
10
1 .90
0.96
50
50
1 .37
0.96
1 .01
1 .50
30
0.30
0
5
20
50
50
50
50
10
20
30
20
30
Apparent
frequency
(Hz)
The values of damping were, in each case, estimated using the half
power bandwidth method and the natural frequency was taken as being
where the maximum response in the spectrum occurred.
86
87
0.148
1.23
4.33
EWI
0.150
1.23
4.33
NS2
0.79
EW2
0.82
ei
1.40
2.04
3.6
4.8
Damping measurements for the higher frequency modes are from half
power bandwidth analysis.
88
89
Mode Frequency
Hz
EWI
Force
(Np)p-p
1.165
3040
4.04
0.77
0.98
1.189
0.30
1.89
5100
0.78
2 .0
0.04
81
3.91
EW2
8.13
NS1
1.10
1.31
90
1
I-i
c'J
O'-E
0
L1
r-. c
.,0
r-. co r-.
o.o o o o
-i
0 r-
c'i c.i
-.1
'.0
c'1
'-4
0,
(0
'.0
a)
'.0 '.0
'.0 C'4
,_I,_
c4
- 0
0
1.4
0s
4Z
('.1
0.
WI
I
09
I-4Z
0
'.0
0
C-,
..i co
WW - - -
e-.i
. '.-,
a)
14
T
a)
C,,
z
Mode Frequency
(Hz)
Amplitude Damping
(=)i'-p
Force
(N) p-p
Modal
Mass
xici6 kg
XXI
3.85
1.06
81
3.85
1.24
YY1
4.67
__________________________________
0.086
45.4
I
______________________________________________________________________
0.78
________________________________________________________
0.039
____________________________________________________
The value of modal mass calculated from the response in the YY mode
is close to that calculated using design drawings and the measured
mode shapes. Figure 37 shows a spectrum of the response of the
structure to wind excitation.
8.5 Arts Tower, University of. Sheffield, Yorkshire (Fig. 13 & 38)
Two series of induced vibration tests have been conducted on this building.
In the first series (made in 1976 in collaboration with cEBTP, Paris)
a single undirectional vibrator was used and some coupling of modes
was found. In the second series, conducted in 1977, the four units
of the BRE system were used to decouple the modes and eleven modes
92
The mass of the building was calculated from the first vibrator test and
from design figures, a very good agreement being obtained. No
assessment of modal mass was possible from the second series of
tests because of a fault in the control of the phase of the exciters
which was subsequentJ.y discovered.
It
should be noted that the damping results for the EW2 mode are
unreliable because there was interference from a torsional mode
during the decay of oscillation. The values obtained for Gi suffered
from similar interference. Fig. 38 depicts the mode shapes of the
building as measured in the two sets of induced vibration tests.
93
Conclusions drawn from Table 8.6 must be treated with caution since,
despite the collection and analysis of more than 200 hours of data,
many of the spectral estimates still have confidence limits as wide
as 30 per cent. In addition some wind velocity data have been
acquired from anemograph chart records.
From the data in Table 8.6 the relationships between the wind speed
and the rms modal forces were calculated. After averaging the
relationships for all wind directions it was found that the N-S,
the E-W and the 0 modal forces are proportional to the velocity to
the power 1.93, 2.08 and 2.30 respectively.
A number of conclusions are apparent from this table and from Fig. 40.
(a) The form of the variation of the N-S 1 and E-W 1 modal forces with
wind direction is almost identical, where the magnitude of the
N-S 1 modal forces is in the region of four times that of the
E-W1 modal forces. These translational modal forces exhibit a
maximum when the wind direction is onto a corner of the building.
(b) The variation of the torsional modal force shows, two maxima, one
when the wind is directed onto the narrow face of the building
(2700) and one when the wind direction is onto the corner.
(c) The modal forces are greater when the wind is normal to the
narrow face than when it is normal to the wide face of the
building.
94
'ode
Angular
Torque
.
Force Freq.
disp.
(Nm)p-p (N)p-p (Hz) (Rads)p-p
NSI
.
.
Modal
Modal
mplitude Damping
mass
inertia
)i
(x lO 6 kg) : m2/rad)
-
-
0.665
1.59
1.18
0.670
1.12
1.16
0.672
0.63
0.99
538.7 0.678
0.23
0.8
6.35
-
-
-
1.05
0.725 2610r
0.779 1.45.10
1.34
* 9908.5
0.787 2.02.10
0.95
-
-
10.6.1010
-
-
0.849
0.44
1.43
0.853
0.24
0.78
0.856
0.21
1.16
0.859
0.12
1.27
868.8 0.861
0.24
1.3
5.84
ei
EWI
-
-
-
2.380
0.51
1.45
2.380
0.34
1.5
2.385
0.27
1.01
2.395
0.19
0.78
-
-
2.410 2.2.10
1.67
2.415 1.85.10
1.63
2.425 1.45.I0
1.41
1.41
2.435
2.450 6.5.106
1.29
-
-
2.825
0.14
1.14
2.830
0.08
1.03
2.840
0.05
0.93
2.860
0.02
0.92
NS3
- 5.61
0.05
03
- 5.66
0.03
EW3
- 6.6
0.003
NS4
- 7.54
0.02
NS2
02
EW2
95
Mean
.
Mean
wind
wind
speed
direction
(I)
rms accelerations
r
N-S 1 E-W1
N-S1
E-W1
9.3
6.3
2.2
427
2.8
1.8
3.0
254
11.1
8.5
1.7
1012
3.2
1.6
4.7
275
8.5
3.4
1.8
324
2.0
1.7
2.6
275
11.8
35.2
6.5
3149
6.4
3.2
8.1
295
9.1
8.3
2.8
349
3.1
2.1
2.7
295
11.8
24.1
6.5
1671
5.3
3.2
5.9
305
7.0
3.4
1.5
174
2.0
1.5
2.0
305
9.6
15.2
4.3
920
4.2
2.5
4.5
305
11.4
23.4
6.1
1472
5.3
3.0
5.7
305
13.3
27.0
6.7
1564
5.7
3.1
5.8
338
10.0
3.4
0.3
133
2.0
0.7
1.7
338
11.9
6.7
1.1
216
2.8
1.3
2.2
338
13.3
8.4
1.7
400
3.2
1.6
2.9
350
8.1
5.8
0.6
156
2.6
1.0
1.8
96
The collection of data from the Arts Tower is continuing and the
accuracy of the estimates of the amplitude and variation of the
forces on the building will increase.
Two modes of vibration were induced for this building and the response
to wind excitation was used to identify two further modes. The mode
shapes are depicted in Fig. 41 and the response to wind excitation in
the NS direction is shown in Fig. 42. Measurements of damping,
using the autocorrelation techniques on the wind record indicate values
close to those obtained from decays of oscillation despite the use of
non-stationary data. The fact that the modes are well separated in
frequency undoubtedly is responsible for this effect. Table 8.7 below
summarises the results obtained.
Mode Frequency
(Hz)
EW1
1.33
514
0.086
1.35
1.73
NSI
1.99
1152
0.052
1.0
2.12
EW2
5.7
1.8
NS2
6.3
2.4
The modal masses have been calculated by distributing the masses from
a consideration of the design drawings and then using the measured mode
shapes. Table 8.8 shows these calculations.
97
TABLE 8.8
PLYMOUTH - RESIDENTIAL NAUTICAL COLLEGE
2(1 .33)
m 42(j .99)
1 .33)
1 .99) m
0.6401
1.0
1.0
0.6401
0.6401
10
0.3785
0.37
0.95
0.2812
0.3353
0.3715
0.77
0.90
0.2203
0.3009
0.3715
0.70
0.85
0.1820
0.2684
0.3715
0.62
0.75
0.1428
0.2090
0.3715
0.53
0.65
0.1044
0.1570
0.3715
0.44
0.55
0.0719
0.1124
0.3715
0.35
0.40
0.0455
0.0594
0.3715
0.27
0.30
0.0271
0.0334
0.3715
0.18
0.13
0.0120
0.0063
0.3715
0.08
0.05
0.0024
0.0009
Ground
0.3715
Basement 3.8742
Floor
Mass
11
1.7297
Zni q 2 (199) = 2.1231
Mode Frequency
(Hz)
NS1
1.25
628
0.058
1.47
2.73
EWI
1.32
238
0.099
1.0
1.99
NS2
3.85
2028
0.024
1.24
98
The mode shapes for this building are shown in Fig. 43 and in the same
way as for the Residential Nautical College the modal masses have been
estimated using the measured mode shapes and the design drawings for
the magnitude and distribution of mass. Table 10 shows the
calculation of modal masses.
the EWI mode gives a similar result for modal mass to that calculated
6
in Table 8.10 and gives a value of 1.74.10 Kg. Because of the
proximity of the NSI and EWI modes no autocorrelation analysis has
been used in this case. The spectrum of the response of the building
in the east-west direction is shown in Fig. 44.
Floor
Mass
0. 6654
10
0.4953
9
8
0.5254
0.5254
0.5254
0.5254
0.5254
0.5254
0.5254
0.5254
Ground
0.6083
Basement
3. 1646
I 4)(1 .32
1 .0
Hz)
4,(1
0.89
0.77
0.72
0.55
0.44
0.33
0.23
0.12
0
0
0
.25 Hz)
m 4,2(132) tm 4,2(1.25)
1 .0
0.6657
0.6657
0.95
0.3923
0 .4470
0.90
0.3115
0 .4256
0.83
0.2724
0.36 19
0.78
0. 1589
0.3200
0.68
0.1017
0.2429
0.55
0.0572
0. 1589
O .40
0.0278
0.0841
0.23
0.0076
0.0278
4)2
Em
4)2
(1.32) = 1.9951.106
(1.25) = 2.7339.106
The calculation of the modal mass for the EWI mode using the measured
results only, gives an estimate of 1.59.106 Kg, and so there is some
confidence in the accuracy of the quoted figures. Estimates of
damping for the two higher frequency modes have been calculated from
half power bandwidth measurements.
99
The damping values are all obtained from decays of oscillation. The
modal masses are calculated as shown in Table 8. 12 in the same way
as for the other two buildings tested at Plymouth. Modal masses
calculating using equation 42 are all small and this effect is caused
by the large amount of wind excitation. It is expected, therefore,
that the figure for modal inertia is also small.
100
cc
,-4._1 I-i
- I.eJ
OWE
cCW
oE
lm
c',i
r
c..1
r1
c..J
C1
00
I 00 I
00
CN -
C'4 0
Lf
00
I
4
..4
' E
I
1-4
b0-4
I-I
U
08
c..i
Ct
C-)
C,-,
C'- -t m 0
ir, u.r,
0)
I-4
H
z
U
U
c1
1-40.
O.
4Z
0)0.
0.
HZ
C)
C..)
r- 0
..t
'.0
N.o
0
00
C'i
C'.)
Ci
N-
C') C'.)
zz
H
101
C..)
Mass
4)(1.18)
in 4)2(1.13)
m 4)2(118)
4)(1.13)
(x 10 kg) ________ ________ ___________ ___________
Floor
15
0.5100
1.0
1.0
0.5100
0.5100
14
0.9055
0.95
0.90
0.8172
0.7334
13
0.9055
0.92
0.83
0.7664
0.6238
12
0.9055
0.90
0.75
0.7334
0.5093
11
0.9055
0.87
0.67
0.6854
0.4065
10
0.9055
0.80
0.60
0.5795
0.3260
0.9055
0.73
0.52
0.4825
0.2448
0.9055
0.65
0.44
0.3826
0.1753
0.9055
0.53
0.36
0.2543
0.1062
0.9055
0.37
0.28
0.1240
0.0710
0.9055
0.22
0.20
0.0438
0.0362
0.9055
0.06
0.13
0.0033
0.0153
0.9055
0.02
0.04
0.0004
0.0014
0.9767
0.9767
Ground
0.9767
= 11.45.106 kg
4)2 (1.13) = 5.3828.106 kg
4)2 (1.18) = 3.7592.106 kg
During the initial testing the force developed by the vibrator was
insufficient to overcome the effect of wind activity in the fundamental
modes and induced vibration testing was limited to higher frequency
modes where the force developed by the vibrator was larger. A record
of the response of the tower to a strong wind was made at this time.
102
In practice, there are seldom more than three modes of significance for
buildings, and in this case only the first translational orthogonal
pair (both resonance frequencies being close to 0.440 Hz) play a
significant part in the response. This can be appreciated from
Figs. 47 and 48, where it can be seen that the acceleration responses
of the first translational modes are two orders of magnitude larger
than that due to torsion at 1 .553 Hz. (This is equivalent to more
than three orders of magnitude in terms of displacement.)
Further modes of vibration exist at 3.5 and 3.7 Hz, but do not play a
significant part in the response.
103
0
C
I
I.,
I
owE
.-lbO
00
C' C
'.0
N -
-..
00
.-
Lri ir r- o 0 0 0 NN
E
'-'
C.,
'00'
N N
0 0
00
0 '.0
0 0
0 0
'.0
0
-
I-I
.-s
c o
I
C'
0'
0
E-4
E-4
z
U
a-'
WN
0 0
.1- .1-t
W
I-t
0 0 - - -
UI
00
00'
- Z 00
-d N N
E-Z
0 0
r-. C
'0
C)
UP,
Lfl '.0
r z
iP, '.0
0'
N
iP,
'.0
N
N N
104
The damping values measured for first translational mode activity were
approximately 0.5% of critical f or both N-S and E-W. These values were
backed up by measurements made from autocorrelation plots (eg Fig. 4).
The values obtained varied between 0.46% and 0.55% of critical, and it
is suggested that this is experimental scatter as there was no trend to
the variation. A value of 0.5% of critical was assumed for response
calculations. The torsional damping value was 0.7% and the two second
translational modes had 2.1% and 2.8%. These latter, values were
measured during the forcing tests.
105
For the case of data averaged over a period of ten minutes or more,
the response can be characterised, to a good approximation, by
movement in the fundamental modes only. However, under the conditions
monitored, several examples of predominant second mode activity were
observed for short periods.
The spectra imply that during the period of measurement the response
was in the region 0.33 mm (mean peak peak) for mode EWI and 0.24 mm
(mean peak-peak) for NS1.
106
o'
ZG)E
r-.
0
'.0
a0
00
- a '. o
cI 0
o c_
E
00
.
c'
c'4
c.4 Lfl
\ C'1 '.Q
c1
cc N.
cc
r'l c
r'I m
r'- -
c'4
N. -
c-.i c
0 C' m
Lfl C
Lr
) C1
r'I c
-.i r r
r'.i
O' '.0 0
1 00 00 '.0
- 4 -
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I
'-4
0.
I-i
I
c Q
,-I 0.-s
U
N
c:I
C,,
I
I
000
I-'. N. c
Lt4
'..o
'4
L(I
0 0
0 0
N.
- ir Lf')
.o cc
m - ir cc r-. N
N. N. N. r- N N N 0 .
.
.
.
N N N
a)
cc
I4
r4
0
a) 0.
U I
1.4 0.
o ...
rZ
0 0 0 0 c 0 0. 0
Q' N '.0 in c'
0
'.0 00 N 00 - 0 -$
N. If N
If1 m C.I
H
).i..
I I I
N.
HZ
N.
in
cn
N.
000
'.c 000
cc -
a
a
a
m cc cc
Ir'i
00
0
N
N
N
N N
cc
a)
00
107
N
Z
00
8.12 Exeter 6th form College, Exeter, Devon (Fig. 20 & 56)
Two exciters were deployed at opposite ends of the building at top floor
level. The major results are set out in Table 8.16. These show a
variation of natural frequency and damping with amplitude for the first
three modes, as well as the response at single amplitude levels for
six other modes. Assessments of damping are all taken from the first
few cycles of a decay of oscillation resulting from a sudden cessation
of forced excitation. The damping values are therefore ascribed to
particular amplitudes.
Figure 55 depitts these decays of oscillation and show a graph of
peak amplitude on a logarithmic scale against cycle number.
Figure 56 depicts the shapes of each mode of vibration investigated,
together with estimations of values of modal mass and modal stiffness.
A variation of natural frequency with time was noted. Table 8.17 shows
this variation.
Records of the response of the building to wind were taken on the nights
of August 23rd 1979 and August 24th 1979.
108
-4-
000c.10C0-
C4 C
E
00
m Lf, 0 a - 0 in
,1 00 in D ir in ..o ..o N. C O\
- 0
-"C
0
Ill
4
00 c.
I-4
0-4C00-C'1
0-inr-
00 '-C In
C - -.1 - - 0 C4 - 0 O
-i c4 NJ NJ C.I c"I Ni c') cn r
.,.4
r'i c'.i
00 0
0 N. - 0
cn NI NJ
a)
4.4
.-1 .-.
.E
0 '-.0 0'.NJ
0 N. -
in NJ in N. m 00 C') NJ
N. in ..1 N. - r - N- m a-. ..i c'.i
NI
Ill
NiNJ-0000 --00000
aI
1111111
111111
0.
N.N.
mNJ-
'I
0)
N
NI NI NJ NJ
NI NJ NJ c-i in '.0 N.
a)
I-I
z
'-4
C.)
00 in 0'. - NI
NJ ---0
- in NJ
'.0
in
lull,
a I
NJ
NJ
0)0.
OE
a I I I
0
0
en
0
000
000 0
0
a
a* I
NJ'.O'.D
0
N.N.0'
Ni.
NJ
00
-
o
ci
Z
NJ
109
NJ
Mode Torque
(Nm)p-p
Amp
Damping
(mm)p-p
Z crit.
-
-
-
-
-
-
2.1
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
80376
64962
49650
34134
18552
2798
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.206
1.207
1.210
1.212
1.215
1.215
3.3 .
2.8 .
2.0 .
1.1 .
0.4 .
0.7 .
NSI
-
-
-
-
-
-
4153.7
3346.7
2545.3
1751.8
948.7
143.0
1.393
1.392
1.392
1.395
1.396
1.396
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.432
0.357
0.250
0.141
0.046
0.008
2.3
2.3
2.3
1.5
1.5
1.5
EWI
-
-
-
-
-
5806.6
4690.9
3576.3
2450.8
1326.9
200.0
1.647
1.648
1.650
1.650
1.651
1.651
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.512
0.417
0.325
0.162
0.062
0.012
3.4
3.2
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.4
17752
4.33
i.i . io 6
1.5
NS2
2015.4
5.24
0.009
EW2
2164.2
5.43
0.011
1.6
NCI
3394.0
6.80
0.006
73325
8.80
2.1 .
6348.4
9.30
0.002
01
02
03
NS3
10
1O_
1O_
10
Time
Frequency
(0.004 g p-p)
28 Aug. 79
15.10
15.25
15.40
16.00
16.10
1.614
1.618
1.621
1.625
1.627
30 Aug. 79
11 .00
11.40
11.50
12.05
1 .583
1.580
1.578
1.575
31 Aug. 79
09.15
10.10
1.568
1.575
110
Figure 58 shows the variation with height of the major modes of the
building. Figure 59 depicts the results of the directionality test
for the translational modes. The directions are taken from the
results in the two fundamental orthogonal modes. Figure 60 shows
the plan response at 10th floor level for the torsional modes. 01
is relatively uncomplicated and is a conventional torsional mode
involving the main tower and the staircase tower. The measured
centre of torsional activity was constant all the way down to ground
level. The second torsion mode essentially involves only the main
tower and stairwell tower above fifth floor level and as less inertia
is involved the frequency is higher than the 01 mode. Another
indication that this is a resonance of a different 'system' is that
the centre of torsional activity is different from that for 01,
although it is again a constant with respect to height. The third
torsional mode is rather more complicated, as can be seen from
Fig. SS . In this case there are two torsional centres and motion
essentially only above 6th floor level.
111
..a
liii
OG)
11111
01111
III
0
CC
4)
at
r c 0
o E
'C
0 N.
r'- -i - o .c
.. N. N. D
IPi
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a'
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N.
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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I I
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C.)
4)
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00CC
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CD C' C' 0 c-I c 0 ci u.r CD a' m Ui a' - CI C.J cI r m -.I Ui Ui ir Ui C' 0' 00 0 '.0 N. N. '.0 Ui
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I-s C.
N. -C '.0 CD C-I '.0 Ui N. a' I I I I I I I I C' ('1
o .. 0 N. 00 C-i - Ui CD a' 0 '.0
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- 0
i Z Ui CD I') CD N. CD CD
- C') C-I C-I
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a)
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u-I
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cC
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a)
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0 N. -C 0 -I N. 0 0'
c-i000CD Oc-4CD
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a a a ii a a a a
C-I C-I C-I C') CI N. C') CD
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a
0
1.1
u-s
'a)
a)
cI C-I
112
.14
1-s
a)
'a)
On the afternoon of Sunday 30th when the water tank had been emptied,
the natural frequencies were measured again. Table 8. 17 lists the
results from these tests and shows that the natural frequency
increased by between 0.01 and 0.07 Hz in each case. The reduction
of mass is calculated at 0.077.106 kg as there were 17,000 gallons
of water in the tank when filled. Calculations of modal mass for
the tank full and empty give results which show no trend at all.
It is concluded, therefore, that this quantity of mass is below the
level of resolution of the mass calculations. Additionally the
increase in frequency expected when the mass changes by this
quantity is shown always to be larger than the measured values and
this is presumably caused by inaccuracies in the estimation of the
modal masses . The small change in the torsional natural frequency
is evidence that the rotational inertia of the water in the tank
is not significant.
Damping values noted in Table 8.18 are shown to increase by up to 25% for
the range of amplitudes used, although, as shown in Chapter 9, the largest
amplitude expected for the once in 50 year wind is smaller than the
smallest vibrator-induced peak amplitude, and therefore the smallest
measured damping values are those which should be used in design.
The Exeter building has several surprises for the school of thought
that accepts theoretical calculation of dynamic behaviour as 'exact'.
Unlike any other building in this series of tests its' measured modal
mass varied with amplitude. It is unlikely that the mass participating
in the mode of vibration changed significantly for two reasons.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
114
Severe cracking was noted throughout the upper levels and the
repeated appearance of 'dust' from them suggests that these
cracks work during wind storms and that a mechanism for a
different type of behaviour is readily identifiable.
(iv)
The changes in natural frequency noted for the Exeter building whilst
being excited at the same magnitude are not directly correlated with
any discernible variable. The overall temperature of the building
was not monitored and is suspected as the primary cause of these
changes. The tests were conducted over a two week period at Exeter,
and whilst it may be thought that this longer period may be responsible
for the observation of the change of natural frequency, it should be
noted that the tests at Sutherland house took a similar time without
such an effect being observed. A change of natural frequency at the
Dunstan flour mill was correlated with the water height in the tidal
river Tyne.
(i)
(ii)
(iii) The average for the ratio of the torsional frequency to that
of the lowest frequency translational mode is 1.94. The
variation in this ratio, however, is quite large, varying
between 0.87 and 3.52.
116
(iv) The average for the ratio between the second and first torsional
modes is 3.26 and the variation is small. The ratio of 1.99
found at Dunstan is low when compared with all other results.
These range between 3.1 and 3.9
f = f0/1_2
(62)
In all cases the change of frequency measured was greater than would
be expected from the change of damping measured.
8.14 C. Damping
Fig. 63 shows the variation of damping with amplitude for the fundamental
translational modes of the five buildings tested at various amplitudes.
The form of the variation with amplitude is different in each case and
at first sight it is difficult to draw any meaningful conclusion.
However, if the damping values are separated in a similar manner to
the frequency then a useful result is obtained.
other data which can be guaranteed to be taken from very low amplitude
data, and have been plotted in Fig. 64. The regression line drawn onto
the figure takes the form
S,
(population)
(0.15 + 0.76
117
f)%
s0 N N
I
0
'0
N 0
N 0%
a,
c.4
0
CO
CO
WI OS
WI OS
m CO WI
CO
4 Cfl
4.
I'S
44
--
CO 0 N 05 '0 N 4. WI
C
WI 4
N CO '0 WI
I C, -
- - 0 N -.
I'S N IfI WI OS N 4
N 05 0
WI ('I C.
-
- - N 0 -
N
N
C.,
-
I - N N
0
05 'UI
- -
'1 -
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C, -
C.sO
00
UI
IC..
SO
N
4.01540'
N CO OS
N
..50.
C
155
N
lfl
4
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4
0 '0 0 CO 'UI -UI WI
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WI
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40
I.
C,
C,
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14
Cl - CO -UI CO 05 C, - -UI N '0 '0 N
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114
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The rate of variation of damping with amplitude (C.) can be seen from
Fig. 63 to be variable. The large differences encountered for some
orthogonal pairs of modes (Sutherland House for example) makes the
search for a variable upon which this parameter lies a fruitless
task with the sparse data so far available.
The table below lists the values for
The valuesof
and
Building
Mode
%/inm
(Hz)
LEICESTER
NSI
EW1
1.76
2.51
0.32
0.16
1.32
1.55
EXETER
NS1
EWI
1.42
1.03
2.33
4.19
1.396
1.651
SUTHERLAND
EWI
NS1
1.49
1.25
3.19
0.28
1.51
1.78
DUNSTAN
NS1
EWI
1.95
2.48
0.47
1.07
1.49
2.28
SHEFFIELD
NSI
EWI
0.89
1.05
0.20
0.28
0.672
0.859
119
120
for mode
(63)
K2
a
j,
(x) =
a
(2ff f/ M
f,7. S(f,)
j iLl
(64)
where
is given by
0.577
i/2log (f) # v'log fT
e
0
0
e
(65)
and T0 is the time interval during which the maximum value occurs
(normally 3600 secs).
lit f.S(f)'
=
max
M.J
jiLl
(66)
is
H
a
PV2f
to
CDH
Wb.dZ
(67)
0
and that the spectral density force is this value modified by terms
for the intensity of turbulence, a turbulence admittance factor
(based on the building dimensions), the mode shapes of the building the
effect of the terrain on the wind structure and the wind speed for which
the calculation is to be performed. ESDU 76001 provides look-up tables
as well as the basic equations for each of these factors.
121
Building
10.8
2.79.1O
6.l1.1O
2.2
8.4
2.11.10
3.29.1O
15.6
12.4
4.46.1O
4.09.1O
Sheffield
35.9 8.82.10
51.6 3.60.102
21.3
1.31.10 k 3.83.10
Nat.West
30.5 6.24.10
11.0
3.O7.10
Leicester
Exeter
Sutherland
0.92
29.2
1.85.10 k 6.0
122
Building
Extrapolated
response
x
ESDU prediction
Ratio
3.83.1O
4.18.102
10.9
Exeter
4.78.1O
1.34.102
28.0
Sutherland
4.64.1O
1.17.102
25
.82.102
395
i.oi.io2
24.9
Leicester
Sheffield
4.61 .1O 4 I
Nat.West
4.O5.IO
123
9.5 Recommendations for the prediction of responseThe high cost and time consuming nature of this study means that the
results obtained here must be somewhat restricted, and it is hoped
that further study of actual response will be undertaken. However,
several factors do arise which have been shown to be necessary to
take into account for the calculation of response. These are:-
Ci)
124
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
is
(vi)
125
126
10.2 Structures
The general form of structural dynamic behaviour is well understood
and the results presented here have, in general, shown that the
prediction of structural dynamic behaviour reflects the real
behaviour in form if not in detail. The example of the form of the
results coming from the Exeter 6th form college serves as a warning
to those who believe that there is nothing to be learned from real
behaviour. The appearance of a torsional mode as the lowest
frequency resonance, the sudden changes of damping values with
amplitude and the apparent change of mass with amplitude serve to
show that the linear visco elastic equations normally used to
describe dynamic behaviour are not always appropriate.
The calculation of the stiffness of the Sheffield Arts Tower has
shown an alarmingly large difference between that stiffness derived
from design drawings and the stiffness calculated from induced
vibration tests. The appearance of cracking during storms, in the
tower, is evidence that 'non-structural' parts of the building take
load. It is apparent that this type of load sharing needs further
investigation before design seeks to optimise building construction
further.
Modal coupling has been observed in several buildings. This had
taken the form of a coupling between torsion and at least one
127
128
Ti = 46/H
02
T2
- - - - 3.74
01
Ti
(64)
T3 - 03
(65)
- - 7.52
- 01
= 1.22
(66)
(67)
- 1.94
(68)
= 3.26
The value for Ti has been shown elsewhere to be often more accurate
than expensive and time consuming computer based methods 52 . The
ratios for
and
values noted above and so these simple relationships are also likely
to give more accurate results than computer based methods.
10.2.D Damping
The values of damping ratio for buildings should be separated into
two parts. These consist of a zero amplitude damping () which is
the value of damping at small amplitudes, and a rate of variation of
damping with amplitude. Regression analysis of
that there is a good correlation between
= (0.15 + 0.76
f)%
129
The same building has been used to measure the variation of response
with angle of attack of the wind. The finding that the maximum
response occurs when the wind blows at a corner of the building has
serious implications for the present predictors of response as all
of these consider the maximum to occur when the wind blows
perpendicular to a face of a building. It is suggested that 'angle
of attack rosettes' may be calculatable or measurable for various
shapes of structures by the use of wind tunnels. This work also
should be undertaken as a matter of urgency.
This work has provided more information about the damping behaviour
of real structures, but nevertheless much more work is necessary
investigating the nature of the mechanism of damping in real
structures.
It has been apparent from this study that structures do not 'work'
as they are expected to. There is a potential benefit to be obtained
from a study of efficient positioning of shear walls and nonstructural partitioning from the point of view of obtaining a more
acceptable dynamic response as well as controlling the positioning
of the shear centre of a building. The effect of the overall shape
of a structure on its modal directionality and its stiffness is an
investigation which also has potential f or economic benefit.
131
APPENDIX I
ANALYSIS OF RANDOM DATA
I. INTRODUCTION
The collection of data has, in the last few years, become a practical proposition
in a large number of disciplines where it was not possible previously. With the
use of mini-computers becoming more popular data can be collected and analysed
far more quickly than was possible in the past.
This note describes the essential details of the processes involved in obtaining
meaningful information when dealing with any time varying quantity (or any
quantity where a linear substitution for time can be employed).
2. DESCRIPTION OF DATA
A single time history representing a random phenomenon is called a sample
record and the collection of all possible sample functions which the random
Deterministic
(b)
Random
Random data have no explicit mathematical relationships, but may be dealt with
on a statistical basis. A random process may be either a stationary or a
non-stationary process, the definition of stationarity being that all
statistical properties are invariant with time. A sub-set of stationary data
is ergodic data, and occurs when time averages on individual records from the
same process, are the same for all records.
132
The functions fall into three categories and can be called time, amplitude and
frequency domain functions.
If a time history
y(t)
R(T)
where
2'
y(t).y(t # r)dt.
R (r) yy
2'
R (T) -
if2'
J
0
y(t).y(t t t)dt.
and y(t + T) -
(PSD)
133
The Probability Density function p(y) for a single record represents the rate
of change of probability with amplitude.
Lt.
p(y) - y
-o
Lt. ^
Ztt:
where t: is the time that the varying quantity y(t) lies between amplitude
levels y and y
ty.
P(y)
-f
p(y)dt
Mean and mean square values can not be measured in less than an infinite time,
they can only be estimated, but they are very important quantities for determining whether or not data can be classified as statIonary. In particular
sequential estimates of the mean value can be used in a 'run test' as a
hypothesis test for stationarity (see section 4).
G(f) - T t -
Bt
BT j
0
Where B is a bandwidth in which YB(f,t) is observed and T is the time for which
it is observed.
1 34
T
(f)
fr
f0
B2 (f,
t)dt
The function G (f) is the single sided PSD and this function is no longer computed
digitally by this means.
In practice the PSD can be found by taking the Fourier Transform of a time
history. This procedure produces a function S(f) which is the two sided PSD.
(f) - 4 G, (fe)
f >0
S(f)
Also S(f)
Note. Autospectrum functions are the non normalised double sided spectrum
function with the negative frequencies disregarded. To obtain a PSD the
autospectrum must be normalised by multiplying each term by
where fB is the
Cross product functions giving relationships between two separate time histories
can be defined and these terms contain information about phase:-
T)
x(t).y(t # t)dt.
135
c
(f) a xy
B
2'
(f) -
(f, t +
"B
(f, t)dt.
Thus
and
(f)
C'
(f)
tan
(f)
When dealing with transient data one authority 92 quotes an Energy Spectral
Density function which is essentially the same as a PSD, with the exception
that no division by
the limit
le
2'
2' . .
GE(f) -
2'
G(f)
The estimation of errors is not quoted in the literature and so the function
should be used with extreme caution.
(f)
= G
(f)21
(f) (f)
136
R (t) exp(-j2itft)dt
(f)
R(T) -
S(f) exp(#j2rfr)df
where j=/-1
G(f) = 2 S(f)
R (-'r)
Yb'
Yb'
(t)
for all T
R(0)
R (0) =
Yb'
,.4.
p(b')dy =
J-
Y p(y)dx
mean
p(y)dy
Y
137
Variance
yp(y)dx -
,( G(f)df -
G(0)
Valueat
fo
1(f) = TLt. +
r
./-T
y(t) exp(-j2rrft)dt
1(t)
= fEt
+
1(f) exp(j2irtf)df
-f
4. ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
When a set of data has been collected a fundamental decision has to be made
about the nature of the information that is required and the subsequent analysis
performed with this decision in mind. However a few items may be regarded as
the normal way in which analysis of time varying data will be performed and these
are discussed here.
The first step is very often a 'quick look' analysis. This involves using
analysis parameters (such as sampling frequency and number of data) which are
known to give large errors in the estimated function, but which will give an
indication of what parameters should be used or what type of analysis will be
most beneficial. It is at this stage that a necessity to change a test
procedure should be found.
138
The second step should not be left out except in the very rare case when a
priori knowledge of stationarity exists. This is the test for statiotiarity
and may be performed in many different ways. Essentially the time history
is split into convenient lengths (normally one data block for digital analysis)
and statistical quantities from each of these lengths are compared. A useful
test has been found to be the run test described by Bendat and PiersolW,
since it quantifies the confidence level at which stationarity can be claimed.
If several records from the same process exhibit stationarity at the same
confidence level, then these can be accumulated, to produce one of the basic
analysis functions, with a greater confidence. This is termed 'ensemble
averaging'.
After these basic tests for acceptance of data, it will normally be found
that a reduced set of stationary data have been obtained and these can be used
for basic analysis.
It is possible to use weighting functions such as hanning, and hamming. These
terms are useful f or presentation of data and if some negative values of
coherence are to be avoided, but they should not be used, or used with
correction factors, when making measurements from frequency or time domain
functions since they all involve the controlled 'leakage' of estimates from
one band to another.
At a later stage specialised analysis will be found to be necessary and this
will be determined by the user.
5. ERRORS
It has been emphasised in previous sections that the basic analysis functions
produce estimates of the real values which would ideally be obtained.
The errors occur in two distinct ways. These are characterised as bias and
variance errors.
If a quantity is estimated by E [] then the normalised standard error is
defined as
U
139
The following table sunsnarises the values of bias, variance and standard error
for various functions.
Function
(f)
B2G'(f)
PSD [
24
BT
(f)
G(f)
G
,i
R(o)
nofle
# R(T)]
. (
p2(y)
i/2B2'W (y)
Ai.itocorrelation function
The bias error in a PSD measurement can be avoided by choosing B such that
there are many estimates of the mean square value when
G(f) is
changing
140
BT
-i--
C 0.10
or
\4
then
BT
00 is met
- 100
2'r
where
Now
Also Q is related to
1
2Q
then
2'
becomes
400Q
2'
In the case where time histories of the input and output of a system are obtained,
coherence measurements between the two can be used to estimate the confidence
with which gain and phase figures can be used. Details appear in the publication
by Bendat & Piersol92
41
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
142
13. Naito T & Nosu N. Vibration tests of actual buildings, No. 16.
Memor. School of Science and Engineering, Japan, 1952.
143
C.,
.3.
Forced vibration
& Jurukowski D.
144
145
47. Cole Jr. H A. On-line failure detection and damping measuremerits cf aerospace structures by random decrement signatures.
NASA-CR-2205, March 1973.
48. Tanigouchi T. General principles of aseismic construction.
Iwanami. Shoten, 61, Tokyo, 1934.
49. Earthquake Resistant regulations of the world. Compiled by the
organising committee 2nd World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering.
50. Karopetian B K. A study of vibrations of structures in nature.
3rd. WCEE. 1965.
51. Ohta T., Machi N., Uchiyama S., Niva M & Takahashi K.
Results of vibration tests on tall buildings and their
earthquake response. 6th. WCEE, New Delhi, 1977.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
Udwadia F E & Trifunac N D. Ambient vibration tests on fullscale structures. Proc. 5th WCEE, Rome, 1973.
63.
64.
65.
147
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
80. Ohta T., Adac.hi N., Vehiyama S., Niva M & Takahashi K.
Results of vibration tests on tall buildings and their earthquake response. Proceeding 6th WCEE, New Delhi, 1977.
89.
90.
91.
92.
Bendat J S & Piersol A G. Random data: Analysis and measurement procedures. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1971.
93.
Cooley J W & Tukey J W. An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex fourier series. Math. Comput. 19, 297, 1965.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
101.
102.
151
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Biggs J M. Introduction to Structural Dynamics. McGraw Hill
Book Co., New York, 1964.
2.
1 52
1,
1k
+ [2 f]2
C)
C,
f2
=tan1
C,,
f
[t]2)
-C
1
1
I J.J
Input
/ f.
NNN
Complex
frequency
response
output
154
'V
2 nd
nOise
time
varying
response
auto correlation
complex
frequency
response
impulse
response
__________
LmPulse
t
F fourier transform
FIG L The autocorrelation method
55
y.
DC
POWER
INPUT
DC
OUT PUT
MODULE
I LI
ANGLE
-,. 8
Ro
I
NETWORK
rMP1
__
(B) POSITION
SENSOR
STOPS
'NN
I
SEALED
IiOUSING
"N
TORQUE MOTOR
(A) PADDLE
FLEXURE
TRUE VERTICAL
156
E
a)
Cl)
>Cl,
0
C
0
0
Co
C
D)
(I)
57
\1
. :
Figure 8 General view of vibrator, slave box and master control
-'
'Ii
iur i.ir
PU
ir
1j
IEIIIF'
ii'r1
r1 it'
4:
Lt
1I
J1
-'
;*
U
i(
: .
Figure 11 General view of office block, Northern England
I.
k
.. 2.
d4
i(
._
It
ii*.
- -- i.. i
-.1
.I
..M
Al
:;---
F'
jr
'
t4Ii
. ,.
/'
Iii.
T-.
;;iiih, ,1,....:
,.IuIuft
!i 4b
1.1
.1.
160
.,
-*
..,..#
,.
VI.
,.
I
I t
I II
I
I
III
huuuIiii,IIIlIII1tIIl
IIbIIiiii
-..uu',llu,
IIIIIiiiii llhIIIIII1IIIIllI!I,IOI
'p
I_
flhIflIflhIIIunimiii;,unuu:
flh1111111H111111111111H111U1111h
ilollululIl
a-
161
:1
I
I
a
I'4
:;
3.
I
'I
'p.-
ilil illi
Ii!liulm
03
I-
a,
Ic
'I)
0
1
o
o
0
0
0
0
N
N
LL
1 65
time(secs)
Leicester University random decrement signature
166
20
IC)
-C
E
U)
4-a
U)
U)
0
C,,
a,
-o
4-.
a
E
C.)
4-a
U)
Co
>
C.)
U)
C
a) C
Ia)
4-.
C.)
Co
>
Co
-c
C)
4-.
Co
a)
U)
4-a
0 a
Cl,
a)
I-
0
C
0
CO
E
(1)
Co
C.)
C
U)
0
a)
IICO
Co
C
N
U-
ZH/ (aPfl!IdWV)
1 67
0
IC)
t req uenCy
.5
frequency
168
OdE
- 5(
dB
0
.3
. 5
.6
.7
-ec
de
FIG 27 Spectrum of response P0 Tower 29th floor level
-2 C
dE
-6 C
dE
FIG 28 Spectrum of response PC Tower 15th floor level
1 69
.10
COSREG
OUTPUT:
TIME
BT PRODUCT 28
LOG DEC .0787
REGRESSION COFFJCIENT .895
170
x -x1
elevation
f = 0148Hz
= 1.23/
r y-y1
elevation
f = 0150Hz
?;= 123%
158m
/
/
N
\\)
/
y,u
\
/
\
/
171
0001
c3
- 0001
Tu'lE (sECS)
-K
H
Hz
Planmodeshap$
not m.WSd
172
0dB
0dB E 552
- 100dB
Frequency
885
119
Fre quency
73
163
jjj
JLi
_____ '-C
1
>C
C
4-
U
C'
a
-c
T r
--'.
H'
A__
-f-i
a
C'
C-
U
a
4-
C
r.c
I
U)
0)
aCD
U)
a)
V
0
E
IN
JH
i'-
V
CD
I,
E
N
C-)
0
-o
U)
C)
E
(N
0
LC)
(9
U-
I 74
It Jn
N
z
S
I.
S
I
U
U
5 '. 7
8 9 10
FT.qu.ncy (Hz)
W.st Accel eromtsr
C
0
I
1 a 3 4 s
Fr.qu.ncy (Hz)
i 8 10
?(orLh Accelero..tsr
1 75
81
(0775Hz)
NS1 (0665Hz)
EW1 (0849Hz)
NS2 (2395Hz)
82 (2435Hz)
EW2 (2 825Hz)
//
/
Mezzanine
Lower
nd
05
1 0
__
83
__
(566Hz)
05
4
NS4 (754Hz)
tTj
N
Roof 2
Roof 1
19
18
16
14
8omjJ
- 12
10
6
4
2
- - 36w
Mezzanine
Low.,
groozid
boor
1i :r
FIG 38 Arts tower,Shef field - mode shapes
176
I0
S
N
J
.7
I
N
West
cceterometer
1;
2
I
0
C
Feiqu.*cy
10
270....
jN-S
south
accelerometer
t
1
1.
SI
0-70
0-10
0-75
cr.quancy
,PC/\
ii
1i/
a i
1 77
lao.
33m
E-W1
elevati
f. 133Hz
.
E-Wi
plan
_____________
135.
elevation
f 199Hz
N-Si
plan
38m
-I
lOim
I.
C dB
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
0
Prequency (Hz)
1 78
___E . .-W
I-wi
f132Hz
=ioZ
/
P
IPd-Si
pun
N
/1
NS2
.4.v.,ucn
\
\
147Z
I24Z
:I
45m
F-
1
-1
FIG43Britishrailbuilding,Plymouth-modeshapes
0d
-10
-20
-50
-40
-50
Frequency (Hz)
179
U)
a
Co
U)
0
w
0
4-.
4-.
U)
C
1:,
4-.
C')
w
Co
C
0
CO
z
i:.
(0
(9
LL
C')
w
a
Co
U)
a,
-D
0
-,; .
-C
E
0
- -
>0
-'.
I
J -
I.9-.
C
a,
p.
C.)
C-)
LC)
(9
130
2 10'
210'
210'
92/Hz
2 10
-7
2.10-s
-'
210
0
Frequsncy (Hz)
4 10'
410
410'
Hz
410
410
4 10
0
Frequency (Hz)
181
-4
2 10
2 166
92 lO
2 10'
0
Frequency) Hz)
210
2 106
2 10
01
02 03
04
05 06
Frequency (Hz)
07
08
09
10
132
1.51 Hz
EW1
2nd
1 76Hz
NS1
3rd
222 Hz
81
4th
4225Hz
EW2
5th
606Hz
NS2
6th
848Hz
82
11
10
9
8
7
S
4
3
2
GRO
BAS
-05 0 05 10
0 0.5 10
0 05 10
-0.5 0 05 1.0
43 m
.Li.
12m
183
-0.5 0 05 1.0
0
I-
0)
G)
C,,
-o
1-C
Cl)
IC)
CD
C)
>-
C
C,
C)
C-,
U
U
U
z
>s
I,
C)
Cv,
E
0
S.-
E
5
0.
C,,
U,
I-
0
Cv)
134
0
U)
La-
0
I-
C)
ci,
0
-c
C
I
a)
-C
C/)
I-
CD
l.()
(.)
C
a)
a.
0
I0)
U
U.0
0)
0
0
U,
0)
I-
C4
0
E
U
0)
0.
cv,
LC)
0
0
0
cv)
I
0
I
oog000OO ai p
185
0
L)
U-
EW1
(222Hz)
NS1
50
(149Hz)
p
0
C
I'
Ei
&
J
0,
c.,1
.4
Hi _
.-6.7--.
[1__ _
FIG 5 4
EW2
(840Hz)
12.2 -.
(783Hz)
'
I
/
Basement
H-
82
1'
I
/
I
6
30 5
NS2
(646Hz)
1
E
81
(388Hz)
1 36
1'
Peak
amplituc
Cycle number
20
10
Peak
amplitud.
I 87
IJ
7TTLII
iJ
fl
U-
!:
I
I
a
S
.:
(0
L
C W - CO 1t
CD
Cfl CN - Vt
U-
183
0 dl
odi
231ci1 g2/Hz.
ods
0dB
e 2/
2 . 3.10 g1Hz.
-50dB
189
NS1
(1.28Hz)
EW1
(1.52Hz)
'
or 1 I
4.
NS2
(366Hz)
82
(2 72Hz)
(2.04Hz)
1r
83
(588Hz)
F/s
L'
EW2
(4.58Hz)
I/
1/
6L.
5L I
4L)
Li
L/
groUndf
0
1 -05
-0.5 0
0
I-
9.7
)th floors
FIG 5 8 Leicester University Engineering Tower - mode shapes, plan and elevation
190
P..IQ
modes
Lift shaft
Stairwell
28 H2
ode
1.52 H2
mode
191
0
U-
C)
0)
0
4-
C)
a)
a'
C
C)
C
LU
I-.
C)
4-
(I,
a)
C.)
>
C)
L)
a)
-I
a,
C.
a,
V
V
0
IV
U)
I1
Cr)
0
V
0
0.
U..
U
U)
0.
Cl)
1
U-cp
LL
0
0 C)
C)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
III
.0
0
192
200
Ita
ta
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
c 110
100
290
50
40
30
20
10
* *
1.0
2.0
4.0
3.0
5.0
6.0
1 93
27
iS
*
Suth.rlad
IL.
25
0,
/0
1'3
23
' 0
/
'S
-
21
02 04. 06 08
Sh.ffi.Id a-si
12
0
/
10
08
0-a
10
0-8
mm
Suth.rI,nd
1's.
ia
16
mm
11
0-wi
.0
23,
15 0 0'
0-L
mm
2-1
0/
/0
17
X
30
0-s
N-Si
Ex.t.r
26 '
1-5
04
o2. 0 .
mm
0/
/0
13 ________________
0 02 0-1. 06
22
mm
3.3
18
.0
27
.0
N
31
x
25
.0
0/
10
02 0-'.
2.
0/
/0
2.-,
.0
.0
Dunstan
'.0
I-WI
Dunstan a-si
2'I
25
0 05 10 j.
1S
os
10
mm
1 . 5 20 25 30
mm
x
23
2.9
.0
.0
21
1-?
x
0/
/0
1-9
as
a-st
I.icatsr
L.ic..tsr i-wi
17
2-3
02 0-4. 06 08 10 1 .2
1-i. 16
mm
194
26
24
2.2
20
1.8
1.6
iL.
damping
1
(I)
12
1.0
08
06
04
0.?
0 I
02
0 . 1. 0 . 6 0. 8
10
l2
14
1.8 20 22 21. 26 28
Frequency
1 95