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AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
CIRCUITS
(RMS VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS)
AC voltage controllers (ac line voltage controllers) are employed to vary the RMS
value of the alternating voltage applied to a load circuit by introducing Thyristors
between the load and a constant voltage ac source. The RMS value of alternating voltage
applied to a load circuit is controlled by controlling the triggering angle of the Thyristors
in the ac voltage controller circuits.
In brief, an ac voltage controller is a type of thyristor power converter which is
used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply to obtain a variable
voltage ac output. The RMS value of the ac output voltage and the ac power flow to the
load is controlled by varying (adjusting) the trigger angle
V0(RMS)
AC
Input
Voltage
fs
Vs
fs
AC
Voltage
Controller
Variable AC
RMSO/P Voltage
fS
There are two different types of thyristor control used in practice to control the ac
power flow
On-Off control
Phase control
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falls to zero. Thus the ON thyristor naturally turns off, when the device current falls to
zero.
Phase control Thyristors which are relatively inexpensive, converter grade
Thyristors which are slower than fast switching inverter grade Thyristors are normally
used.
For applications upto 400Hz, if Triacs are available to meet the voltage and
current ratings of a particular application, Triacs are more commonly used.
Due to ac line commutation or natural commutation, there is no need of extra
commutation circuitry or components and the circuits for ac voltage controllers are very
simple.
Due to the nature of the output waveforms, the analysis, derivations of expressions
for performance parameters are not simple, especially for the phase controlled ac voltage
controllers with RL load. But however most of the practical loads are of the RL type and
hence RL load should be considered in the analysis and design of ac voltage controller
circuits.
TYPE OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS
The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type of input
ac supply applied to the circuit.
Single Phase AC Controllers.
Three Phase AC Controllers.
Single phase ac controllers operate with single phase ac supply voltage of 230V
RMS at 50Hz in our country. Three phase ac controllers operate with 3 phase ac supply of
400V RMS at 50Hz supply frequency.
Each type of controller may be sub divided into
Uni-directional or half wave ac controller.
Bi-directional or full wave ac controller.
In brief different types of ac voltage controllers are
Single phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).
Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).
Three phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).
Three phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).
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thyristor switches T1 and T2 are turned off by blocking the gate trigger pulses for m
number of input cycles during the time interval tOFF . The ac controller ON time tON
usually consists of an integral number of input cycles.
R = RL = Load Resistance
Fig.: Single phase full wave AC voltage controller circuit
Vs
wt
Vo
io
wt
ig1
Gate pulse of T1
wt
ig2
Gate pulse of T2
wt
Fig.: Waveforms
Example
Referring to the waveforms of ON-OFF control technique in the above diagram,
n = Two input cycles. Thyristors are turned ON during tON for two input cycles.
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m = One input cycle. Thyristors are turned OFF during tOFF for one input cycle
Where T =
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tON
t
=
VO( RMS ) V=
VS ON
Output RMS voltage
i ( RMS )
TO
TO
1 ON 2 2
=
V Sin t.d ( t )
TO t=0 m
Vm 2
TO
VO( RMS ) =
Substituting for
Sin 2 =
VO( RMS ) =
Sin 2 t.d ( t )
1 Cos 2
2
tON
1 Cos 2 t
d ( t )
2
=
VO( RMS )
t
tON
Vm 2 ON
d ( t ) Cos 2 t.d ( t )
2TO 0
0
VO( RMS )
=
Vm 2
( t )
2TO
=
VO( RMS )
Now
Vm 2
TO
tON
tON
Sin 2 t
2
tON
Vm 2
sin 2 tON sin 0
( tON 0 )
2TO
2
Where T is the input supply time period (T = input cycle time period). Thus we note that
sin 2 tON = 0
=
VO( RMS )
Vm 2 tON Vm
=
2 TO
2
tON
TO
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tON
t
=
VO( RMS ) V=
VS ON
i ( RMS )
TO
TO
Where Vi( RMS
=
)
Vm
= VS = RMS value of input supply voltage;
2
tON
tON
nT
=
=
=
TO tON + tOFF nT + mT
n
= k = duty cycle (d).
( n + m)
n
=
VO( RMS ) V=
V k
S
(m + n) S
VO( RMS )
n
2
2
V
sin
.
t
d
t
=
(
)
2 ( n + m ) 0
VO( RMS )
=
Vm
n
= V=
k VS k
i ( RMS )
2 (m + n)
=
VO( RMS ) V=
k VS k
i ( RMS )
Duty Cycle
tON
=
k =
TO
Where, k =
nT
( m + n)T
n
= duty cycle (d).
(m + n)
tON
=
( tON + tOFF )
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PF =
PO
PO
output load power
=
=
VA input supply volt amperes VS I S
I O2 ( RMS ) RL
Vi( RMS ) I in( RMS )
=
I S I=
RMS input supply current.
in ( RMS )
PF
=
=
k
n
m+n
Im
IT ( Avg ) =
n
I m sin t.d ( t )
2 ( m + n ) 0
IT ( Avg ) =
nI m
sin t.d ( t )
2 ( m + n ) 0
=
IT ( Avg )
IT=
( Avg )
nI m
cos t
2 ( m + n )
nI m
[ cos + cos 0]
2 ( m + n )
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nI m
( 1) + 1
2 ( m + n )
=
IT ( Avg )
IT ( Avg ) =
=
IT ( Avg )
n
[2Im ]
2 ( m + n )
Imn
k .I m
=
(m + n)
=
k duty
=
cycle
=
IT ( Avg )
Where I m =
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tON
=
( tON + tOFF )
n
( n + m)
Imn
k .I m
=
,
(m + n)
Vm
= maximum or peak thyristor current.
RL
IT ( RMS )
n
2
2
I
t
d
t
sin
.
=
(
)
2 ( n + m ) 0
IT ( RMS )
nI m2
sin 2 t.d ( t )
=
2 ( n + m ) 0
IT ( RMS )
nI m2
(1 cos 2 t ) d t
=
( )
2
2 ( n + m ) 0
nI m2
cos 2 t.d ( t )
IT ( RMS )
d
t
(
)
4 ( n + m ) 0
0
nI m2
=
IT ( RMS )
( t )
4 ( n + m )
sin 2 t
nI m2
sin 2 sin 0
=
IT ( RMS )
( 0 )
2
4 ( n + m )
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nI m2
=
IT ( RMS )
{ 0 0}
4 ( n + m )
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nI m2 2 nI m2
=
IT ( RMS ) =
4 ( n + m )
4 ( n + m)
Im
I
n
= m
2 (m + n) 2
=
IT ( RMS )
IT ( RMS ) =
Im
2
PROBLEM
1. A single phase full wave ac voltage controller working on ON-OFF control
technique has supply voltage of 230V, RMS 50Hz, load = 50. The controller is
ON for 30 cycles and off for 40 cycles. Calculate
ON & OFF time intervals.
RMS output voltage.
Input P.F.
Average and RMS thyristor currents.
Vm =2 230V =
325.269 V, Vm = 325.269V ,
1
1
=
= 0.02sec ,
f 50 Hz
T = 20ms .
=
k
Duty cycle
n
=
(m + n)
30
= 0.4285
( 40 + 30 )
n
(m + n)
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230V
VO( RMS ) =
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30
3
230
=
7
( 30 + 40 )
VO( RMS
=
= 230 0.65465
) 230V 0.42857
I=
O ( RMS )
P=
I O2 ( RMS ) R=
3.01142 50
= 453.426498W
O
L
Input Power Factor P.F = k
n
=
(m + n)
=
PF
30
=
70
0.4285
PF = 0.654653
Average Thyristor Current Rating
Im n k Im
IT ( Avg ) =
=
m + n
where
I=
m
2 230 325.269
=
50
50
Vm
=
RL
6.505382 3
IT ( Avg ) = 0.88745 A
RMS Current Rating of Thyristor
Im
I=
T ( RMS )
2
Im
n
6.505382
3
= =
k
2
7
(m + n) 2
IT ( RMS ) = 2.129386 A
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Equations
Input AC Supply Voltage across the Transformer Secondary Winding.
vs = Vm sin t
=
VS V=
in ( RMS )
Vm
= RMS value of secondary supply voltage.
2
vo Vm sin t
; for t = to 2 .
=
RL
RL
1
2
2
Vm sin t.d ( t )
2
VO( RMS ) =
Vm 2 1 cos 2 t
.d ( t )
2
2
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=
VO( RMS )
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Vm 2
(1 cos 2 t ) .d ( t )
4
2
2
d ( t ) cos 2 t.d t
Vm
=
VO( RMS )
2
=
VO( RMS )
=
V
O ( RMS )
( t )
Vm
2
sin 2 t
( 2 )
Vm
2
Vm
2
( 2 )
=
V
O ( RMS )
Vm
2
( 2 ) +
=
VO( RMS )
Vm
2 2
Vm
2
;sin
=
4 0
sin 2
2
( 2 ) +
sin 2
2
1
sin 2
( 2 ) +
2
2
=
VO( RMS ) Vi( RMS )
=
VO( RMS ) VS
sin 4 sin 2
2
2
=
V
O ( RMS )
=
VO( RMS )
sin 2 t
1
sin 2
( 2 ) +
2
2
1
sin 2
( 2 ) +
2
2
Vm
= RMS value of input supply voltage (across the
2
transformer secondary winding).
Where, Vi( RMS=
S
) V=
Note: Output RMS voltage across the load is controlled by changing ' ' as indicated by
the expression for VO( RMS )
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PLOT OF VO( RMS ) VERSUS TRIGGER ANGLE FOR A SINGLE PHASE HALFWAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER (UNIDIRECTIONAL CONTROLLER)
=
VO( RMS )
1
sin 2
( 2 ) +
2
2
Vm
2
=
VO( RMS ) VS
1
sin 2
2
+
(
)
2
2
By using the expression for VO( RMS ) we can obtain the control characteristics,
which is the plot of RMS output voltage VO( RMS ) versus the trigger angle . A typical
control characteristic of single phase half-wave phase controlled ac voltage controller is
as shown below
Trigger angle
in degrees
Trigger angle
in radians
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
6
3
2
3
6
VO(RMS)
VO( RMS )
VS =
( 6)
; ( 2 )
6
; ( 3 )
6
; ( 4 )
6
; ( 5 )
6
; ( 6 )
6
; 1
Vm
2
0.992765 VS
0.949868 VS
0.866025 VS
0.77314 VS
0.717228 VS
0.707106 VS
70.7% VS
100% VS
60% VS
20% VS
0
60
120
180
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Vm
2
VO=
( dc )
Vm
2
sin t.d ( t )
cos t
V
VO( dc ) =m [ cos 2 + cos ]
2
=
Vdc
Hence Vdc
=
Vm
[cos 1]
2
; cos 2 = 1
; Vm = 2VS
2VS
( cos 1)
2
Vm
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Problem
1. A single phase half-wave ac voltage controller has a load resistance R= 50 ,
input ac supply voltage is 230V RMS at 50Hz. The input supply transformer has a
turns ratio of 1:1. If the thyristor T1 is triggered at = 600 . Calculate
RMS output voltage.
Output power.
RMS load current and average load current.
Input power factor.
Average and RMS thyristor current.
Given,
0
60
=
=
radians.
3
VS = RMS secondary voltage.
Vp
VS
Therefore
Np
NS
1
= 1
1
V=
V=
230V
p
S
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1
2
2
m
sin 2 t.d ( t )
=
VO( RMS ) VS
=
VO( RMS ) 230
VO( RMS
=
) 230
1
sin 2
( 2 ) +
2
2
1
2
sin1200
2
3
2
1
[5.669=] 230 0.94986
2
=
VO( RMS ) 218.4696 V 218.47 V
P=
I O2 ( RMS ) R=
O
L
( 4.36939 )
50
= 954.5799 Watts
PO = 0.9545799 KW
PO
VS I S
=
I S I O( RMS
=
) 4.36939 Amps
=
PF
954.5799 W
= 0.9498
( 230 4.36939 ) W
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VO( dc ) =
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1
Vm sin t.d ( t )
2
We have obtained the expression for the average / DC output voltage as,
=
VO( dc )
=
VO( dc )
Vm
[cos 1]
2
2 230
325.2691193
0
=
cos
60
1
[0.5 1]
(
)
2
2
325.2691193
VO( dc ) =
25.88409 Volts
[ 0.5] =
2
VO( dc )
RL
25.884094
= 0.51768 Amps
50
iT1
Im
2
(2+)
IT ( Avg )
1
=
I m sin t.d ( t )
2
IT ( Avg )
Im
=
sin t.d ( t )
2
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Im
( cos t )
2
IT=
( Avg )
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I
IT ( Avg ) =m cos ( ) + cos
2
Im
[1 + cos ]
2
IT=
( Avg )
Where, I m =
Vm
= Peak thyristor current = Peak load current.
RL
Im =
2 230
50
I m = 6.505382 Amps
=
IT ( Avg )
=
IT ( Avg )
=
IT ( Avg )
Vm
[1 + cos ]
2 RL
2 230
1 + cos ( 600 )
2 50
2 230
[1 + 0.5]
100
1 2 2
I m sin t.d ( t )
2
IT ( RMS ) =
I m2 (1 cos 2 t )
.d ( t )
2
2
=
IT ( RMS )
I m2
d ( t ) cos 2 t.d ( t )
4
=
IT ( RMS ) I m
1
( t )
4
sin 2 t
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=
IT ( RMS ) I m
1
sin 2 sin 2
( )
4
2
=
IT ( RMS ) I m
1
sin 2
( ) +
4
2
=
IT ( RMS )
Im
2
1
sin 2
( ) +
2
2
0
sin (120 )
6.50538 1
+
IT ( RMS )
=
2
3
2
2
=
IT ( RMS ) 4.6
1
2
2
3
0.8660254
+
IT ( RMS ) =
4.6 0.6342 =
2.91746 A
IT ( RMS ) = 2.91746 Amps
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Fig.: Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (Bi-directional Controller) using
SCRs
The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the input
supply voltage. The thyristor T1 is triggered at a delay angle of ' ' ( 0 radians ) .
Considering the ON thyristor T1 as an ideal closed switch the input supply voltage
appears across the load resistor RL and the output voltage vO = vS during t = to
radians. The load current flows through the ON thyristor T1 and through the load
resistor RL in the downward direction during the conduction time of T1 from t = to
radians.
At t = , when the input voltage falls to zero the thyristor current (which is
flowing through the load resistor RL ) falls to zero and hence T1 naturally turns off . No
current flows in the circuit during t = to ( + ) .
The thyristor T2 is forward biased during the negative cycle of input supply and
when thyristor T2 is triggered at a delay angle ( + ) , the output voltage follows the
t
negative halfcycle of input from =
( + )
t
flows in the reverse direction (upward direction) through T2 during =
( + )
to
2 radians. The time interval (spacing) between the gate trigger pulses of T1 and T2 is
kept at radians or 1800. At t = 2 the input supply voltage falls to zero and hence the
load current also falls to zero and thyristor T2 turn off naturally.
Instead of using two SCRs in parallel, a Triac can be used for full wave ac voltage
control.
Fig.: Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (Bi-directional Controller) using
TRIAC
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2VS sin t ;
t
for t = to and =
( + ) to 2
t
for t = to and =
( + ) to 2
1
2
v d ( t ) ;
2
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For a full wave ac voltage controller, we can see that the two half cycles of output
voltage waveforms are symmetrical and the output pulse time period (or output pulse
repetition time) is radians. Hence we can also calculate the RMS output voltage by
using the expression given below.
V 2 L( RMS ) =
L ( RMS )
sin 2 t.d t
1
=
2
2
L
.d ( t ) ;
t
v=
v=
Vm sin t ; For t = to and =
L
O
( + ) to 2
Hence,
=
VL2( RMS )
1
2
2
sin
+
V
t
d
t
(
)
(
)
(Vm sin t ) d ( t )
m
2
+
1
2
Vm 2 1 cos 2 t
1 cos 2 t
d
t
d ( t )
+
(
)
2
2
2
+
2
2
Vm 2
cos
2
.
cos 2 t.d ( t )
d
t
t
d
t
d
t
(
)
(
)
(
)
2 2
+
+
Vm 2
( t )
4
+ ( t )
sin 2 t
sin 2 t
2 2 +
Vm 2
1
1
( ) + ( ) ( sin 2 sin 2 ) ( sin 4 sin 2 ( + ) )
4
2
2
Vm 2
4
Vm 2
=
4
=
2
2 2
2
2
sin
.
+
V
t
d
t
V
(
)
m
m sin t .d ( t )
+
Vm 2
4
1
1
2 ( ) 2 ( 0 sin 2 ) 2 ( 0 sin 2 ( + ) )
sin 2 sin 2 ( + )
+
2 ( ) +
2
2
sin 2 sin ( 2 + 2 )
+
2 ( ) +
2
2
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sin 2 1
Vm 2
4
=
sin 2 0=
& cos 2 1
Therefore,
2
VL=
( RMS )
=
V 2 L( RMS
)
Vm 2
4
sin 2 sin 2
2 ( ) + 2 + 2
Vm 2
2 ( ) + sin 2
4
Vm 2
( 2 2 ) + sin 2
4
Vm
2
( 2 2 ) + sin 2
Vm
2 2
( 2 2 ) + sin 2
=
VL( RMS )
Vm
2
1
( 2 2 ) + sin 2
2
=
VL( RMS )
Vm
2
1
2
=
VL( RMS )
sin 2
2 ( ) + 2
Vm 1
sin 2
+
(
)
2
2
=
VL( RMS ) Vi( RMS )
V=
VS
L ( RMS )
1
sin 2
+
(
)
2
1
sin 2
+
(
)
2
Maximum RMS voltage will be applied to the load when = 0 , in that case the
full sine wave appears across the load. RMS load voltage will be the same as the RMS
V
supply voltage = m . When is increased the RMS load voltage decreases.
2
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VL( =
RMS )
=0
Vm 1
sin 2 0
0
(
)
2
2
=
VL( RMS )
Vm 1
0
+
(
)
2
2
VL( RMS ) =
Vm
= Vi( RMS
=
) VS
2
=0
=0
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The output control characteristic for a single phase full wave ac voltage controller
with resistive load can be obtained by plotting the equation for VO( RMS )
CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE FULL-WAVE AC
VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD
The control characteristic is the plot of RMS output voltage VO( RMS ) versus the
trigger angle ; which can be obtained by using the expression for the RMS output
voltage of a full-wave ac controller with resistive load.
V=
VS
O ( RMS )
Where =
VS
Trigger angle
in degrees
0
1
sin 2
( ) +
Vm
= RMS value of input supply voltage
2
Trigger angle
in radians
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
6
3
2
3
6
( 6)
; ( 2 )
6
; ( 3 )
6
; ( 4 )
6
; ( 5 )
6
; ( 6 )
6
; 1
VO( RMS )
VS
%
100% VS
0.985477 VS
98.54% VS
0.896938 VS
89.69% VS
0.7071 VS
70.7% VS
0.44215 VS
44.21% VS
0.1698 VS
16.98% VS
0 VS
0 VS
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VO(RMS)
VS
0.6VS
0.2 VS
0
60
120
180
= 1800 . Thus we get a full range output voltage control by using a single phase full
wave ac voltage controller.
Need For Isolation
In the single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit using two SCRs or
Thyristors T1 and T2 in parallel, the gating circuits (gate trigger pulse generating circuits)
of Thyristors T1 and T2 must be isolated. Figure shows a pulse transformer with two
separate windings to provide isolation between the gating signals of T1 and T2 .
G1
Gate
Trigger
Pulse
Generator
K1
G2
K2
AC
VOLTAGE
CONTROLLER
WITH
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t
together during the negative half cycle from =
( + ) to 2 .
In this circuit as there is one single common cathode point, routing of the gate
trigger pulses to the thyristor gates of T1 and T2 is simpler and only one isolation circuit
is required.
But due to the need of two power diodes the costs of the devices increase. As
there are two power devices conducting at the same time the voltage drop across the ON
devices increases and the ON state conducting losses of devices increase and hence the
efficiency decreases.
D1
+
T1
D4
AC
Supply
D3
D2
RL
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A single phase full wave ac controller can also be implemented with one thyristor
and four diodes connected in a full wave bridge configuration as shown in the above
figure. The four diodes act as a bridge full wave rectifier. The voltage across the thyristor
T1 and current through thyristor T1 are always unidirectional. When T1 is triggered at
t = , during the positive half cycle ( 0 ) , the load current flows through D1 , T1 ,
diode D2 and through the load. With a resistive load, the thyristor current (flowing
through the ON thyristor T1 ) , the load current falls to zero at t = , when the input
supply voltage decreases to zero at t = , the thyristor naturally turns OFF.
In the negative half cycle, diodes D3 & D4 are forward biased during
t
t = to 2 radians. When T1 is triggered at =
opposite direction (upward direction) through the load, through D3 , T1 and D4 . Thus D3 ,
D4 and T1 conduct together during the negative half cycle to supply the load power. When
the input supply voltage becomes zero at t = 2 , the thyristor current (load current)
falls to zero at t = 2 and the thyristor T1 naturally turns OFF. The waveforms and the
expression for the RMS output voltage are the same as discussed earlier for the single
phase full wave ac controller.
But however if there is a large inductance in the load circuit, thyristor T1 may not
be turned OFF at the zero crossing points, in every half cycle of input voltage and this
may result in a loss of output control. This would require detection of the zero crossing of
the load current waveform in order to ensure guaranteed turn off of the conducting
thyristor before triggering the thyristor in the next half cycle, so that we gain control on
the output voltage.
In this full wave ac controller circuit using a single thyristor, as there are three
power devices conducting together at the same time there is more conduction voltage
drop and an increase in the ON state conduction losses and hence efficiency is also
reduced.
The diode bridge rectifier and thyristor (or a power transistor) act together as a
bidirectional switch which is commercially available as a single device module and it has
relatively low ON state conduction loss. It can be used for bidirectional load current
control and for controlling the RMS output voltage.
SINGLE
PHASE
FULL
WAVE
AC
VOLTAGE
(BIDIRECTIONAL CONTROLLER) WITH RL LOAD
CONTROLLER
In this section we will discuss the operation and performance of a single phase full
wave ac voltage controller with RL load. In practice most of the loads are of RL type. For
example if we consider a single phase full wave ac voltage controller controlling the
speed of a single phase ac induction motor, the load which is the induction motor winding
is an RL type of load, where R represents the motor winding resistance and L represents
the motor winding inductance.
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( ) , which depends on the delay angle and the load impedance angle . The
waveforms of the input supply voltage, the gate trigger pulses of T1 and T2 , the thyristor
current, the load current and the load voltage waveforms appear as shown in the figure
below.
is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value.
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Waveforms of single phase full wave ac voltage controller with RL load for > .
Discontinuous load current operation occurs for > and < ( + ) ;
i.e., ( ) < , conduction angle < .
Fig.: Waveforms of Input supply voltage, Load Current, Load Voltage and
Thyristor Voltage across T1
Note
The RMS value of the output voltage and the load current may be varied by
varying the trigger angle .
This circuit, AC RMS voltage controller can be used to regulate the RMS voltage
across the terminals of an ac motor (induction motor). It can be used to control the
temperature of a furnace by varying the RMS output voltage.
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For very large load inductance L the SCR may fail to commutate, after it is
triggered and the load voltage will be a full sine wave (similar to the applied input
supply voltage and the output control will be lost) as long as the gating signals are
applied to the thyristors T1 and T2 . The load current waveform will appear as a
full continuous sine wave and the load current waveform lags behind the output
sine wave by the load power factor angle .
The solution of the above differential equation gives the general expression for the
output load current which is of the form
=
iO
t
Vm
sin ( t ) + A1e ;
Z
=
Z
R 2 + ( L ) = Load impedance.
2
L
= Load impedance angle (power factor angle of load).
R
= tan 1
=
L
= Load circuit time constant.
R
Therefore the general expression for the output load current is given by the
equation
R
t
Vm
=
sin ( t ) + A1e L ;
iO
Z
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The value of the constant A1 can be determined from the initial condition. i.e.
initial value of load current iO = 0 , at t = . Hence from the equation for iO equating
iO to zero and substituting t = , we get
R
t
Vm
iO =0 = sin ( ) + A1e L
Z
R
Vm
sin ( )
Z
Therefore =
A1e L
A1
=
e
=
A1 e
=
A1 e
1 Vm
Z sin ( )
R
t
L
+R
t
L
Vm
Z sin ( )
R ( t )
L
Vm
Z sin ( )
=
A1 e L m sin ( )
Z
Substituting the value of constant A1 from the above equation into the expression for iO ,
we obtain
R R ( )
t
Vm
V
sin ( t ) + e L e L m sin ( ) ;
=
iO
Z
Z
R ( t )
L
( )
V
e L m sin ( )
Z
=
iO
Vm
sin ( t ) + e
Z
=
iO
R
( t ) Vm
Vm
sin ( t ) + e L
sin ( )
Z
Z
Therefore we obtain the final expression for the inductive load current of a single
phase full wave ac voltage controller with RL load as
=
iO
Vm
Z
R
( t )
L
sin
sin
t
e
)
(
)
(
;
Where t .
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The above expression also represents the thyristor current iT 1 , during the
conduction time interval of thyristor T1 from t = to .
To Calculate Extinction Angle
The extinction angle , which is the value of t at which the load current
iO falls to zero and T1 is turned off can be estimated by using the condition that
iO = 0 , at t =
By using the above expression for the output load current, we can write
R
( )
Vm
L
iO =0 = sin ( ) sin ( ) e
As
Vm
0 we can write
Z
R
( )
L
0
sin ( ) sin ( ) e
=
sin ( =
) sin ( ) e L
( )
( ) .
is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value.
Conduction angle increases as is decreased for a known value of .
For < radians, i.e., for ( ) < radians, for ( + ) > the load current
waveform appears as a discontinuous current waveform as shown in the figure. The
output load current remains at zero during t = to ( + ) . This is referred to as
discontinuous load current operation which occurs for < ( + ) .
When the trigger angle is decreased and made equal to the load impedance
angle i.e., when = we obtain from the expression for sin ( ) ,
sin ( ) =
0 ; Therefore
radians.
( ) =
Extinction angle
Conduction angle
( + )
provides a negative load current. Hence we obtain a continuous load current and the
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output voltage waveform appears as a continuous sine wave identical to the input supply
voltage waveform for trigger angle and the control on the output is lost.
vO
vO=vS
Vm
iO
Im
Fig.: Output voltage and output current waveforms for a single phase full wave ac
voltage controller with RL load for
Thus we observe that for trigger angle , the load current tends to flow
continuously and we have continuous load current operation, without any break in the
load current waveform and we obtain output voltage waveform which is a continuous
sinusoidal waveform identical to the input supply voltage waveform. We loose the control
on the output voltage for as the output voltage becomes equal to the input supply
voltage and thus we obtain
Vm
VO( RMS
=
= VS ; for
)
2
Hence,
RMS output voltage = RMS input supply voltage for
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE VO( RMS ) OF A
SINGLE PHASE FULL-WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH RL
LOAD.
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When > O , the load current and load voltage waveforms become discontinuous
as shown in the figure above.
1
VO( RMS )
1
2
= Vm 2 sin 2 t.d ( t )
VO( RMS )
Vm 2 (1 cos 2 t )
=
d ( t )
Vm 2
=
VO( RMS )
2
d ( t ) cos 2 t.d ( t )
V 2
=
VO( RMS ) m ( t )
2
sin 2 t
Vm 2
sin 2 sin 2
+
VO=
( )
( RMS )
2
2
2
sin 2 sin 2
1
=
VO( RMS ) Vm ( ) +
2
2
2
Vm 1
sin 2 sin 2
=
VO( RMS )
( ) + 2 2
2
The RMS output voltage across the load can be varied by changing the trigger
angle .
For a purely resistive load L = 0 , therefore load power factor angle = 0 .
1 L
tan
=
=
0 ;
R
Extinction angle=
=
radians 1800
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Vm 1
sin 2
( ) +
2
2
VO( RMS )
RMS Output Voltage =
Vm
= VS = RMS
2
I O( RMS ) =
RL
=
PF
PF
=
I O2 ( RMS ) RL I O( RMS ) RL
PO
=
=
VS I S VS I O( RMS )
VS
VO( RMS )
=
VS
1
sin 2
( ) +
(2+)
1
1
IT ( Avg ) =
iT d ( t )
I m sin t.d ( t )
=
2
2
Im
Im
=
sin
I T (=
t
d
t
(
)
cos t
Avg )
2
2
I
I
IT ( Avg ) = m [ cos + cos ] = m [1 + cos ]
2
2
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=
IT ( RMS )
1 2 2
I m sin t.d ( t )
2
Im
2
1
sin 2
( ) +
2
2
Im
2
In the case of a single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit using a Triac
with resistive load, the average thyristor current IT ( Avg ) = 0 . Because the Triac conducts in
IT ( RMS ) =
both the half cycles and the thyristor current is alternating and we obtain a symmetrical
thyristor current waveform which gives an average value of zero on integration.
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC
VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH R-L LOAD
The Expression for the Output (Load) Current
The expression for the output (load) current which flows through the thyristor,
during t = to is given by
iO = iT1 =
Vm
Z
R
( t )
sin
sin
t
e
(
)
(
)
for t
Where,
R 2 + ( L ) = Load impedance.
2
L
= Load impedance angle (load power factor angle).
R
= tan 1
( )
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( )
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=
VO( RMS )
Vm 1
sin 2 sin 2
( ) +
2
2
2
1
iT1 d ( t )
2
1
=
IT ( Avg )
2
R
Vm
( t )
L
sin ( t ) sin ( ) e
d ( t )
Z
( t )
Vm
L
sin
.
sin
d
t
e
d ( t )
I=
t
(
)
(
)
(
)
T ( Avg )
2 Z
IT ( RMS ) = iT21 d ( t )
2
When a Triac is used in a single phase full wave ac voltage controller with RL
I
type of load, then IT ( Avg ) = 0 and maximum IT ( RMS ) = m
2
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PROBLEMS
1. A single phase full wave ac voltage controller supplies an RL load. The input
supply voltage is 230V, RMS at 50Hz. The load has L = 10mH, R = 10, the
radians, .
= =
=
1
2
3
L = ( 2 fL ) = ( 2 50 10 103 ) = = 3.14159
Z=
109.8696 =
10.4818
(10 ) + ( 3.14159 ) =
2
I=
m
Vm
2 230
=
= 31.03179 A
10.4818
Z
L
Load Impedance Angle = tan 1
R
1
1
tan
=
=
=
) 17.440590
tan ( 0.314159
10
Trigger Angle > . Hence the type of operation will be discontinuous load
current operation, we get
< ( + )
(180
Therefore
0
the
range
of
is
from
180
degrees
to
240
degrees.
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R
( )
L
( ) = ( 60 17.44059 ) =
42.55940
10
sin ( 17.44 ) =
sin ( 42.55940 ) e
0
( )
sin ( 17.44 ) =
0.676354e
3.183( )
0
1800
Assuming = 1900 ;
=
Rad
=
1800
1900
= 3.3161
180
R.H.S: 0.676354 e
3.183 3.3161
3
4.94 104
=
Assuming = 1830 ;
=
Rad
=
1800
)
( =
1830
= 3.19395
180
3.19395 =
2.14675
3
0
) sin (183 17.44
=
=
0.24936
L.H.S: sin ( =
) sin165.56
R.H.S: 0.676354e
3.183( 2.14675 )
= 7.2876 104
Assuming 1800
=
Rad
=
1800
( ) =
1800
=
180
2
=
3 3
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3.183
3
= 8.6092 104
Assuming = 1960
=
Rad
=
1800
1960
= 3.420845
180
3.183 3.420845
3
= 3.5394 104
Assuming = 197 0
=
Rad
197 0
=
= 3.43829
1800
180
3.183 3.43829
3
=
1800
197.42
= 3.4456
180
L.H.S: sin ( =
) sin (197.42 17.44=) 3.4906 104
R.H.S: 0.676354e
3.183 3.4456
3
= 3.2709 104
V=
VS
O ( RMS )
1
sin 2 sin 2
( ) +
2
2
0
0
sin 2 ( 60 ) sin 2 (197.42 )
1
3.4456 +
=
3
2
2
=
VO( RMS ) 230
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P
=
I O2 ( RMS ) R=
O
L
(19.7527 )
10
= 3901.716 W
=
VS 230V , =
I S I=
19.7527
O ( RMS )
=
PF
PO
3901.716
=
= 0.8588
VS I S 230 19.7527
2. A single phase full wave controller has an input voltage of 120 V (RMS) and a
load resistance of 6 ohm. The firing angle of thyristor is 2 . Find
a. RMS output voltage
b. Power output
c. Input power factor
d. Average and RMS thyristor current.
Solution
= 900 , VS = 120 V,
R = 6
1
2
1
sin180 2
=
VO 120 +
2
2
VO = 84.85 Volts
RMS Output Current
I=
O
VO 84.85
=
= 14.14 A
6
R
Load Power
PO= I O2 R
=
PO
(14.14=
) 6
2
1200 watts
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Load Power
1200
= = 0.707 ( lag )
Input Volt-Amp 1696.8
2 R
Vm sin t.d ( t )
Vm
=
(1 + cos ) ;
2 R
Vm =
2VS
2 120
[1 + cos 90=] 4.5 A
2 6
IT ( RMS ) =
1 Vm2 sin 2 t
d ( t )
2
R2
(1 cos 2 t ) d t
Vm2
=
( )
2
2 R
2
V 1
sin 2 2
= m +
2R
2
1
2VS
2R
sin 2 2
1
2
1
2 120 1
sin180 2
10 Amps
+=
2 6
2
2
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3. A single phase half wave ac regulator using one SCR in anti-parallel with a diode
feeds 1 kW, 230 V heater. Find load power for a firing angle of 450.
Solution
0
45
=
=
; PO 1=
KW 1000W
VS 230 V =
, =
4
At standard rms supply voltage of 230V, the heater dissipates 1KW of output
power
Therefore
PO = VO I O =
VO VO VO2
=
R
R
Resistance of heater
VO2
=
R =
PO
( 230=
)
2
1000
52.9
sin 2
2 +
1
2
sin 90 2
1
224.7157 Volts
=
VO 230 2 + =
4
2
2
RMS value of output current
VO 224.9
I=
=
= 4.2479 Amps
O
52.9
R
Load Power
2
PO = I O2 R = ( 4.25 ) 52.9 = 954.56 Watts
4. Find the RMS and average current flowing through the heater shown in figure.
The delay angle of both the SCRs is 450.
io
SCR1
+
1-
220V
ac
SCR2
1 kW, 220V
heater
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45
=
=
0
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, =
VS 220 V
Resistance of heater
V2
=
R =
R
( 220=
)
2
1000
48.4
2
1
sin 90
=
VO 220 +
4
2
1
1
209.769 Volts
=
+
VO 220 =
4 2
RMS current flowing through heater =
VO 209.769
=
= 4.334 Amps
48.4
R
I Avg = 0
5. A single phase voltage controller is employed for controlling the power flow from
220 V, 50 Hz source into a load circuit consisting of R = 4 and L = 6 .
Calculate the following
a. Control range of firing angle
b. Maximum value of RMS load current
c. Maximum power and power factor
d. Maximum value of average and RMS thyristor current.
Solution
For control of output power, minimum angle of firing angle is equal to the
load impedance angle
= , load angle
1 L
1 6
0
tan=
=
=
tan
56.3
R
4
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Maximum value of RMS load current occurs when = = 56.30 . At this value
of the Maximum value of RMS load current
I=
O
VS
=
Z
220
= 30.5085 Amps
42 + 62
4= 3723.077 W
=
VS I O =
220 30.5085 =
6711.87 W
Input Volt-Amp
Power=
Factor
( 30.5085)
PO
3723.077
=
= 0.5547
Input VA 6711.87
2 Z
Note:
At = 0 ,
R
( t )
Vm
L
iO = iT1 =
sin ( t ) sin ( ) e
iT=
iO=
1
Vm
sin ( t )
Z
+
V
IT ( Avg ) = m cos ( t )
2 Z
=
IT ( Avg
)
But = ,
Vm
cos ( + ) + cos ( )
2 Z
V
V
V
IT ( Avg ) = m cos ( ) + cos ( 0 ) = m [ 2] = m
2 Z
2 Z
Z
V
2 220
13.7336 Amps
IT ( Avg ) = m =
=
Z 42 + 62
=
ITM
1
2
Vm
sin ( t ) d ( t )
Z
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ITM
Vm2
=
2 Z 2
=
ITM
=
ITM
I=
TM
Vm2
4 Z 2
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1 cos ( 2 t 2 )
d ( t )
2
sin ( 2 t 2 )
Vm2
[ + 0]
4 Z 2
Vm
2 220
=
= 21.57277 Amps
2 Z 2 42 + 62
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CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
(Line Commutated AC to DC converters)
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Controlled rectifiers are line commutated ac to dc power converters which are
used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply into variable dc output
voltage.
+
AC
Input
Voltage
Line
Commutated
Converter
DC Output
V0(dc )
-
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All these power converters operate from ac power supply at a fixed rms input
supply voltage and at a fixed input supply frequency. Hence they use ac line commutation
for turning off the thyristors after they have been triggered ON by the gating signals.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIODE RECTIFIERS AND PHASE CONTROLLED
RECTIFIERS
The diode rectifiers are referred to as uncontrolled rectifiers which make use of
power semiconductor diodes to carry the load current. The diode rectifiers give a fixed dc
output voltage (fixed average output voltage) and each diode rectifying element conducts
for one half cycle duration (T/2 seconds), that is the diode conduction angle = 1800 or
radians.
A single phase half wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal conditions) an average
V
dc output voltage VO( dc ) = m and single phase full wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal
2V
conditions) an average dc output voltage VO( dc ) = m , where Vm is maximum value of
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phase controlled thyristor converter uses ac line commutation (natural commutation) for
commutating (turning off) the thyristors that have been turned ON.
The phase controlled converters are simple and less expensive and are widely used
in industrial applications for industrial dc drives. These converters are classified as two
quadrant converters if the output voltage can be made either positive or negative for a
given polarity of output load current. There are also single quadrant ac-dc converters
where the output voltage is only positive and cannot be made negative for a given polarity
of output current. Of course single quadrant converters can also be designed to provide
only negative dc output voltage.
The two quadrant converter operation can be achieved by using fully controlled
bridge converter circuit and for single quadrant operation we use a half controlled bridge
converter.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
The phase controlled rectifiers can be classified based on the type of input power
supply as
Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from single phase ac input
power supply.
Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from three phase ac input power
supply.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers are further subdivided into different types
Half wave controlled rectifier which uses a single thyristor device (which
provides output control only in one half cycle of input ac supply, and it provides
low dc output).
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=
R R=
L
Load Resistance
supply voltage increases and the maximum load current flows at t = , when the input
2
supply voltage is at its maximum value.
The maximum value (peak value) of the load current is calculated as
Vm
.
iO( max=
I=
m
)
RL
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Note that when the thyristor conducts ( T1 is on) during t = to , the thyristor
current iT 1 , the load current iO through RL and the source current iS flowing through the
transformer secondary winding are all one and the same.
Hence we can write
v
V sin t
iS =iT 1 =iO = O = m
; for t
R
R
I m is the maximum (peak) value of the load current that flows through the
transformer secondary winding, through T1 and through the load resistor RL at the instant
= 0.
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Fig: Waveforms of single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with resistive load
EQUATIONS
the ac supply voltage across the transformer secondary.
=
vs V=
m sin t
Vm = max. (peak) value of input ac supply voltage across transformer secondary.
=
VS
Vm
= RMS value of input ac supply voltage across transformer secondary.
2
the output voltage across the load ; iO= iL= output (load) current.
v=
v=
O
L
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vO
= Load current for t = to , when the thyristor is on.
R
1
=
=
VO( dc
V
vO .d ( t )
dc
)
2
1
VO( dc
Vm sin t.d ( t )
=
dc
) V=
2
VO( dc ) =
1
Vm sin t.d ( t )
2
VO( dc ) =
Vm
sin t.d ( t )
2
VO=
( dc )
Vm
2
cos t
V
VO( dc ) = m [ cos + cos ]
2
V=
O ( dc )
; cos = 1
Vm
[1 + cos ] ; Vm = 2VS
2
The maximum average (dc) output voltage is obtained when = 0 and the
Vm
.
maximum dc output voltage Vdc( max
=
dm
) V=
The average dc output voltage can be varied by varying the trigger angle from
0 to a maximum of 1800 ( radians ) .
We can plot the control characteristic, which is a plot of dc output voltage versus
the trigger angle by using the equation for VO( dc ) .
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V=
O ( dc )
We can obtain the control characteristic by plotting the expression for the dc
output voltage as a function of trigger angle
Trigger angle
in degrees
VO( dc )
Vdm =
Vm
0.933 Vdm
0.75 Vdm
0.5 Vdm
0.25 Vdm
0.06698 Vdm
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
100% Vdm
93.3 % Vdm
75 % Vdm
V=
dm
Vm
= Vdc( max )
50 % Vdm
25 % Vdm
6.69 % Vdm
0
VO(dc)
Vdm
0.6Vdm
0.2 Vdm
0
60
120
180
VO ( dc )
V
= dc
Vdc( max ) Vdm
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Vm
1 + cos )
Vdc 2 (
=
Vdcn= V=
n
Vm
Vdm
V
1
Vn =dc =(1 + cos ) =
Vdcn
Vdm 2
VO( RMS )
1
=
2
2
.
v
d
t
(
)
O
0
Output
voltage vO V=
=
to
m sin t ; for t
1
VO( RMS )
By substituting sin 2 t =
1
2
= Vm2 sin 2 t.d ( t )
2
1 cos 2 t
, we get
2
1
VO( RMS )
1
(1 cos 2 t ) .d t 2
= Vm2
( )
2
2
2
m
V
=
VO( RMS )
4
(1 cos 2 t ) .d ( t )
1
2
Vm2
2
=
VO( RMS ) d ( t ) cos 2 t.d ( t )
=
VO( RMS )
Vm
2
1
( t )
sin 2 t
1
2
Vm
V=
O ( RMS )
2
1
( sin 2 sin 2 ) 2 ; sin 2 = 0
(
)
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Hence we get,
Vm
V=
O ( RMS )
2
1
sin 2 2
+
(
)
2
1
Vm
sin 2 2
VO=
( ) +
( RMS )
2
2
P=
VO( dc ) I O( dc ) ; i.e., P=
Vdc I dc
dc
O ( dc )
Where
VO( dc=
average or dc value of output (load) voltage.
dc
) V=
I O( dc=
average or dc value of output (load) current.
dc
) I=
Output ac power
=
PO( ac ) VO( RMS ) I O( RMS )
PO( dc )
PO( ac )
% Efficiency
PO( dc )
PO( ac )
100
Vac V=
The ac component or the ripple component=
RMS value of all
r ( rms )
the ac ripple components.
V=
O ( RMS )
Therefore
=
Vac V=
r ( rms )
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=
rv
Vr ( rms ) Vac
=
VO( dc ) Vdc
VO( RMS )
1
VO( dc )
Therefore
=
rv
FF 2 1
Current Ripple Factor defined for the output (load) current waveform is given by
=
ri
I r ( rms ) I ac
=
I O( dc ) I dc
I r ( rms=
I=
ac
)
Where
I O2 ( RMS ) I O2 ( dc )
Some times the peak to peak output ripple voltage is also considered to express
the peak to peak output ripple voltage as
=
I r ( pp ) I O( max ) I O( min )
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
TUF =
PO( dc )
VS I S
Where
VS =
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I 2 2
I I
S 1
HF =
=
2
I S 1
I S1
2
S
2
S1
Where
I S = RMS value of input supply current.
I S 1 = RMS value of fundamental component of the input supply current.
Input Power Factor (PF)
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VS I S 1
I S1
=
cos
cos
VS I S
IS
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=
Vac V=
0 ; so that RF= rv= 0 ; Ripple factor = 0 (ripple free converter).
r ( rms )
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The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply.
( ) , which depends on the delay angle and the load impedance angle . The
waveforms of the input supply voltage, the gate trigger pulse of T1 , the thyristor current,
the load current and the load voltage waveforms appear as shown in the figure below.
i=
iO= iS
1
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is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value.
Fig.: Output (load) voltage waveform of a single phase half wave controlled
rectifier with RL load
From to 2 , the thyristor remains cut-off as it is reverse biased and behaves as
an open switch. The thyristor current and the load current are zero and the output voltage
also remains at zero during the non conduction time interval between to 2 . In the
next cycle the thyristor is triggered again at a phase angle of ( 2 + ) , and the same
operation repeats.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE OUTPUT (INDUCTIVE LOAD)
CURRENT, DURING t = to WHEN THYRISTOR T1 CONDUCTS
Considering sinusoidal input supply voltage we can write the expression for the
supply voltage as
vS = Vm sin t = instantaneous value of the input supply voltage.
Let us assume that the thyristor T1 is triggered by applying the gating signal to T1
at t = . The load current which flows through the thyristor T1 during t = to can
be found from the equation
di
L O + RiO =
Vm sin t ;
dt
The solution of the above differential equation gives the general expression for the
output load current which is of the form
=
iO
t
Vm
sin ( t ) + A1e ;
Z
=
Z
R 2 + ( L ) = Load impedance.
2
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L
= Load impedance angle (power factor angle of load).
R
= tan 1
=
L
= Load circuit time constant.
R
Therefore the general expression for the output load current is given by the
equation
R
t
Vm
=
sin ( t ) + A1e L ;
iO
Z
The value of the constant A1 can be determined from the initial condition. i.e.
initial value of load current iO = 0 , at t = . Hence from the equation for iO equating
iO to zero and substituting t = , we get
R
t
V
iO =0 = m sin ( ) + A1e L
Z
R
Therefore =
A1e L
A1
=
e
Vm
sin ( )
Z
1 Vm
Z sin ( )
R
t
L
+R
t V
=
A1 e L m sin ( )
Z
=
A1 e
R ( t )
L
Vm
Z sin ( )
R ( )
L
Vm
Z sin ( )
Substituting the value of constant A1 from the above equation into the expression for iO ,
we obtain
R R ( )
t
Vm
V
sin ( t ) + e L e L m sin ( ) ;
=
iO
Z
Z
Vm
=
sin ( t ) + e
iO
Z
R ( t )
L
R ( )
L
Vm
Z sin ( )
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R
( t ) Vm
Vm
L
sin ( t ) + e
sin ( )
=
iO
Z
Z
Therefore we obtain the final expression for the inductive load current of a single
phase half wave controlled rectifier with RL load as
R
( t )
Vm
L
=
iO
sin ( t ) sin ( ) e
;
Z
Where t .
The above expression also represents the thyristor current iT 1 , during the
conduction time interval of thyristor T1 from t = to .
TO CALCULATE EXTINCTION ANGLE
The extinction angle , which is the value of t at which the load current
iO falls to zero and T1 is turned off can be estimated by using the condition that
iO = 0 , at t =
By using the above expression for the output load current, we can write
R
( )
Vm
L
iO =0 = sin ( ) sin ( ) e
As
Vm
0 , we can write
Z
R
( )
L
0
sin ( ) sin ( ) e
=
sin ( =
) sin ( ) e L
( )
( ) .
is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value.
Conduction angle increases as is decreased for a specific value of .
Conduction angle =
( ) ;
when the load inductance L is negligible the extinction angle = and the conduction
angle =
( )
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v=
v=
Vm sin =
t
O
L
Vm
=
iO
Z
R
( t )
L
sin ( t ) sin ( ) e
;
Where t .
sin ( =
) sin ( ) e L
( )
1
2
v .d ( t )
O
1
=
VL =
vO .d ( t ) + vO .d ( t ) +
2 0
VO( dc )
v
d
t
(
)
;
O
=
vO 0=
for t 0 to &=
for t to 2 ;
1
VO( dc ) =
VL =
Vm sin t for t =
to
vO .d ( t ) ; vO =
2
1
sin
.
VO( dc=
V
V
t
d
t
=
(
)
L
m
)
2
Vm
VO( dc ) =
VL =
cos t
2
Vm
( cos cos )
=
2
Vm
VO( dc ) =
VL =
( cos cos )
2
Note: During the period t = to , we can see from the output load voltage waveform
that the instantaneous output voltage is negative and this reduces the average or the dc
output voltage when compared to a purely resistive load.
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VO( dc )
Vm
=
I=
I L=
( cos cos )
O ( dc )
( Avg )
2 RL
RL
Fig. : Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Free
Wheeling Diode (FWD)
With a RL load it was observed that the average output voltage reduces. This
disadvantage can be overcome by connecting a diode across the load as shown in figure.
The diode is called as a Free Wheeling Diode (FWD). The waveforms are shown below.
Vm
Vs
Supply voltage
0
iG
iO
Load current
t=
VO
-V m
Gate pulses
t
2+
Load voltage
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t1
t2
t3
t4
SCR
FWD
SCR
FWD
2+
Fig. : Waveform of Load Current in Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier
with a Large Inductance and FWD
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During the periods t1 , t3 ,..... the SCR carries the load current and during the periods
t2 , t4 ,..... the FWD carries the load current.
It is to be noted that
The load current becomes continuous and the load current does not fall to
zero for large value of load inductance.
The ripple in the load current waveform (the amount of variation in the
output load current) decreases.
SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH A
GENERAL LOAD
A general load consists of R, L and a DC source E in the load circuit
iO
vS
L
+
vO
In the half wave controlled rectifier circuit shown in the figure, the load circuit
consists of a dc source E in addition to resistance and inductance. When the thyristor is
in the cut-off state, the current in the circuit is zero and the cathode will be at a voltage
equal to the dc voltage in the load circuit i.e. the cathode potential will be equal to E.
The thyristor will be forward biased for anode supply voltage greater than the load dc
voltage.
When the supply voltage is less than the dc voltage E in the circuit the thyristor
is reverse biased and hence the thyristor cannot conduct for supply voltage less than the
load circuit dc voltage.
The value of t at which the supply voltage increases and becomes equal to the
load circuit dc voltage can be calculated by using the equation Vm sin t = E . If we
assume the value of t is equal to then we can write Vm sin = E . Therefore is
E
calculated as = sin 1 .
Vm
For trigger angle < , the thyristor conducts only from t = to .
For trigger angle > , the thyristor conducts from t = to .
The waveforms appear as shown in the figure
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Vm
vO
Load voltage
E
0
iO
2+
Im
Load current
0
2+
Equations
=
vS V=
m sin t
=
vO V=
m sin t
2+
=
vO E=
for t 0 to &
=
for t to 2
Expression for the Load Current
When the thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of , the equation for the circuit
can be written as
di
Vm sin t = iO R + L O +E ; t
dt
The general expression for the output load current can be written as
iO
=
t
Vm
E
sin ( t ) + Ae
Z
R
Where
Z
=
R 2 + ( L ) = Load Impedance
2
1 L
tan
=
=
L
=
R
The general expression for the output load current can be written as
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To find the value of the constant A apply the initial condition at t = , load
current iO = 0 . Equating the general expression for the load current to zero at t = , we
get
R
V
E
iO =0 = m sin ( ) + Ae L
Z
R
We obtain the value of constant A as
E Vm
L
A=
sin
(
)
R Z
e
Substituting the value of the constant A in the expression for the load current,
we get the complete expression for the output load current as
iO
=
R
Vm
E E V
( t )
sin ( t ) + m sin ( ) e L
Z
R R Z
The Extinction angle can be calculated from the final condition that the output
current iO = 0 at t = . By using the above expression we get,
R
V
E E V
( )
iO =0 = m sin ( ) + m sin ( ) e L
Z
R R Z
1
=
2
1
VO=
( dc )
2
v .d ( t )
O
vO .d ( t ) + vO .d ( t ) + vO .d ( t )
0
=
vO V=
m sin t
=
vO E=
for t 0 to &
=
for t to 2
1
+
+
.
sin
VO(=
E
d
t
V
t
E
.
d
t
(
)
(
)
dc )
m
2 0
VO( dc )
=
1
2
E ( t )
+ Vm ( cos t )
+ E ( t )
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1
=
VO( dc )
E ( 0 ) Vm ( cos cos ) + E ( 2 )
2
VO( dc )
=
VO( dc=
)
Vm
E
( cos cos ) +
( 2 + )
2
2
2 ( )
Vm
( cos cos ) +
E
2
2
( )
VO( RMS )
1 2
=
vO .d ( t )
2 0
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iS T1
+
vO
vS
AC
Supply
iO
FWD
T2
vS = Supply Voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding
=
vS v=
Vm sin t
AO
supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer
vBO =
v AO =
Vm sin t =
secondary winding.
This type of full wave controlled rectifier requires a center tapped transformer and
two thyristors T1 and T2 . The input supply is fed through the mains supply transformer,
the primary side of the transformer is connected to the ac line voltage which is available
(normally the primary supply voltage is 230V RMS ac supply voltage at 50Hz supply
frequency in India). The secondary side of the transformer has three lines and the center
point of the transformer (center line) is used as the reference point to measure the input
and output voltages.
The upper half of the secondary winding and the thyristor T1 along with the load
act as a half wave controlled rectifier, the lower half of the secondary winding and the
thyristor T2 with the common load act as the second half wave controlled rectifier so as to
produce a full wave load voltage waveform.
There are two types of operations possible.
Discontinuous load current operation, which occurs for a purely resistive
load or an RL load with low inductance value.
Continuous load current operation which occurs for an RL type of load
with large load inductance.
Discontinuous Load Current Operation (for low value of load inductance)
Generally the load current is discontinuous when the load is purely resistive or
when the RL load has a low value of inductance.
During the positive half cycle of input supply, when the upper line of the
secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the center point O the
thyristor T1 is forward biased and it is triggered at a delay angle of . The load current
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flows through the thyristor T1 , through the load and through the upper part of the
secondary winding, during the period to , when the thyristor T1 conducts.
The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage that appears
across the upper part of the secondary winding from t = to . The load current
through the thyristor T1 decreases and drops to zero at t = , where > for RL type
of load and the thyristor T1 naturally turns off at t = .
vO
Vm
t
0
iO
(+)
(+)
t
is triggered. When T2 is triggered at =
( + ) ,
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2
VO( dc=
dc
) V=
2
VO( dc=
dc
) V=
vO .d ( t )
t =
vO .d ( t )
t =
1
VO( dc=
Vm sin t.d ( t )
dc
) V=
VO( dc=
dc
) V=
=
VO( dc
dc
) V=
Therefore =
VO( dc )
< < ( + ) .
Vm
Vm
cos t
Vm
( cos cos )
( cos cos ) ,
When the load inductance is small and negligible that is L 0 , the extinction
angle = radians . Hence the average or dc output voltage for resistive load is
obtained as
=
VO( dc )
Vm
( cos cos )
=
VO( dc )
Vm
( cos ( 1) )
; cos = 1
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Vm
(1 + cos )
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vO
Vm
t
0
iO
(+)
2
(+)
vO .d ( t )
t =0
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Output
voltage vO V=
=
to
m sin t ; for t
=
VO( dc
dc
) V=
sin t.d ( t )
Vm
=
VO( dc=
V
cos t
dc
)
Vm
1
VO( dc ) =
Vdc =
[ cos + cos ] ; cos =
Therefore
Vm
=
VO( dc
dc
) V=
(1 + cos )
The DC output voltage Vdc is same as the DC output voltage of a single phase full
wave controlled rectifier with resistive load. Note that the dc output voltage of a single
phase full wave controlled rectifier is two times the dc output voltage of a half wave
controlled rectifier.
CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE
CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH R LOAD OR RL LOAD WITH FWD
The control characteristic can be obtained by plotting the dc output voltage Vdc
versus the trigger angle .
The average or dc output voltage of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier
circuit with R load or RL load with FWD is calculated by using the equation
=
VO( dc
dc
) V=
Vm
(1 + cos )
Vdc can be varied by varying the trigger angle from 0 to 1800 . (i.e., the range
of trigger angle is from 0 to radians).
Maximum dc output voltage is obtained when = 0
V
2V
Vdc( max ) =
Vdc =m (1 + cos 0 ) = m
Therefore
Vdc( max=
dc
) V=
2Vm
Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum value, we can
write the normalized dc output voltage as
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Vdc
Vdc( max )
Vm
Vdcn= V=
n
Therefore
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Vdc
Vdm
(1 + cos )
2Vm
1
(1 + cos )
2
Vdc
1
Vdcn =
Vn =
(1 + cos ) =
2
Vdm
1
(1 + cos )Vdm
2
V=
dc
Trigger angle
in degrees
Normalized
dc output voltage Vn
VO( dc )
2Vm
= 0.636619Vm
300
0.593974 Vm
0.9330
0.47746 Vm
0.75
900
0.3183098 Vm
0.5
0.191549 Vm
0.25
0.04264 Vm
0
0.06698
0
=
V
dm
60
120
0
0
150
1800
VO(dc)
Vdm
0.6Vdm
0.2 Vdm
0
60
120
180
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vO
Vm
t
0
iO
T1 ON
T2 ON
T1 ON
(+)
(2+)
Fig.: Load voltage and load current waveform of a single phase full wave controlled
rectifier with RL load & without FWD for continuous load current operation
In the case of continuous current operation the thyristor T1 which is triggered at a
=
t to ( + ) . Output voltage follows the input
delay angle of , conducts from
supply voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding
=
vO v=
Vm sin t .
AO
t
The next thyristor T2 is triggered at =
t
input supply. As soon as T2 is triggered at =
biased and T1 turns off due to natural commutation (ac line commutation). The load
Each thyristor conducts for radians (1800 ) in the case of continuous current
operation.
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( + )
vO .d ( t )
t =
( + )
1
=
sin
.
VO( dc=
V
V
t
d
(
)
dc
)
m
Vm
=
=
VO( dc
V
cos t
dc
)
( + )
V
VO( dc ) =
Vdc =m cos cos ( + ) ;
VO( dc=
dc
) V=
Vm
cos ( + ) =
cos
[cos + cos ]
2Vm
VO( dc ) =
Vdc =
cos
The above equation can be plotted to obtain the control characteristic of a single
phase full wave controlled rectifier with RL load assuming continuous load current
operation.
Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum value, the
normalized dc output voltage is given by
2Vm
Vdcn= V=
n
Therefore
Vdc
=
Vdc( max )
( cos )
2Vm
= cos
Vdcn= V=
cos
n
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Remarks
Trigger angle
in degrees
VO( dc )
2V
Vdm = m
300
0.866 Vdm
600
0.5 Vdm
900
0 Vdm
1200
-0.5 Vdm
150
) V=
-0.866 Vdm
2V
Vdm =
m
1800
V O(dc)
Vdm
0.6Vdm
0.2 Vdm
0
-0.2Vdm
30
60
90
120
150
180
-0.6 Vdm
-Vdm
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VO( RMS )
2
=
2
VO( RMS )
1 ( + ) 2 2
2
=
Vm sin t.d ( t )
( + )
VO( RMS )
V 2
= m
( + )
VO( RMS )
V 2
= m
2
vO2 .d ( t )
1
=
VO( RMS ) Vm
2
2
sin 2 t.d ( t )
(1 cos 2 t ) .d t 2
( )
2
( + )
( + )
2
d ( t ) cos 2 t.d ( t )
1
=
VO( RMS ) Vm ( t )
2
1
VO( RMS ) Vm
=
2
( + )
sin 2 t
( + ) 2
sin 2 ( + ) sin 2 2
( + )
2
1
sin 2 cos 2 + cos 2 sin 2 sin 2
=
VO( RMS ) Vm ( )
2
1
2
1
0 + sin 2 sin 2 2
=
VO( RMS ) Vm ( )
2
2
1
2
Vm
1
=
VO( RMS ) V=
( )
m
2
2
Therefore
VO( RMS ) =
Vm
; The rms output voltage is same as the input rms supply voltage.
2
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by applying an appropriate gate trigger signal to the gate of T1 . The current in the circuit
flows through the secondary line A, through T1 , through the load in the downward
direction, through diode D1 back to the secondary line B.
T1 and D1 conduct together from t = to and the load is connected to the
input ac supply. The output load voltage follows the input supply voltage (the secondary
output voltage of the transformer) during the period t = to .
At t = , the input supply voltage decreases to zero and becomes negative
=
t to ( + ) . The free wheeling diode Dm across the load
during the period
=
t to ( + ) .
becomes forward biased and conducts during the period
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Fig:. Waveforms of single phase semi-converter for RLE load and constant load
current for > 900
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The load current is transferred from T1 and D1 to the FWD Dm . T1 and D1 are
turned off. The load current continues to flow through the FWD Dm . The load current
free wheels (flows continuously) through the FWD during the free wheeling time period
to ( + ) .
During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage the secondary line A
becomes negative with respect to line B. The thyristor T2 and the diode D2 are both
t
forward biased. T2 is triggered at =
is reverse biased and turns-off as soon as T2 is triggered. The load current continues to
t
flow through T2 and D2 during the period =
( + ) to 2
2
Vdc =
Vm sin t.d ( t )
2
=
Vdc
2Vm
[ cos t ]
2
Vm
1
Vdc =
[ cos + cos ] ; cos =
Therefore
=
Vdc
Vm
[1 + cos ]
2Vm
to 0 by varying from 0 to .
2Vm
Normalizing the average output voltage with respect to its maximum value
Vdcn= V=
n
Vdc
= 0.5 (1 + cos )
Vdm
The output control characteristic can be plotted by using the expression for Vdc
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VO( RMS )
2
2
= Vm2 sin 2 t.d ( t )
2
Vm2
=
VO( RMS )
2
1
cos
2
.
t
d
t
(
)
(
)
Vm 1
sin 2 2
=
V
O ( RMS )
+ 2
2
The circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter is shown in
the figure with a highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit so that the load
current is continuous and ripple free (constant load current operation).
The fully controlled bridge converter consists of four thyristors T1 , T2 , T3 and T4
connected in the form of full wave bridge configuration as shown in the figure. Each
thyristor is controlled and turned on by its gating signal and naturally turns off when a
reverse voltage appears across it. During the positive half cycle when the upper line of the
transformer secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the lower end the
thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased during the time interval t = 0 to . The
t ;
thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered simultaneously=
(0 ) ,
the load is
connected to the input supply through the conducting thyristors T1 and T2 . The output
voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage and hence output voltage
vO = Vm sin t . Due to the inductive load T1 and T2 will continue to conduct beyond
t = , even though the input voltage becomes negative. T1 and T2 conduct together
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during the time period to ( + ) , for a time duration of radians (conduction angle
0
the next positive half cycle when T1 and T2 are triggered, T3 and T4 are reverse biased
and they turn-off. The figure shows the waveforms of the input supply voltage, the output
load voltage, the constant load current with negligible ripple and the input supply current.
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During the time period t = to , the input supply voltage vS and the input
supply current iS are both positive and the power flows from the supply to the load. The
converter operates in the rectification mode during t = to .
=
t to ( + ) , the input supply voltage vS is negative
During the time period
and the input supply current iS is positive and there will be reverse power flow from the
load circuit to the input supply. The converter operates in the inversion mode during the
=
t to ( + ) and the load energy is fed back to the input source.
time period
The single phase full converter is extensively used in industrial applications up to
about 15kW of output power. Depending on the value of trigger angle , the average
output voltage may be either positive or negative and two quadrant operation is possible.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE (DC) OUTPUT VOLTAGE
The average (dc) output voltage can be determined by using the expression
VO( dc=
dc
) V=
1
vO .d ( t ) ;
2 0
The output voltage waveform consists of two output pulses during the input
supply time period between 0 & 2 radians . In the continuous load current operation of
a single phase full converter (assuming constant load current) each thyristor conduct for
radians (1800) after it is triggered. When thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered at t =
T1 and T2 conduct from to ( + ) and the output voltage follows the input supply
Therefore
VO( dc=
dc
) V=
2
Vm sin t.d ( t )
2
VO( dc=
dc
) V=
1
Vm sin t.d ( t )
VO( dc=
dc
) V=
Vm
sin t.d ( t )
=
VO( dc
dc
) V=
Vm
VO( dc ) = Vdc =
Vm
=
VO( dc
dc
) V=
2Vm
[ cos t ]
cos
cos ( + ) + cos ; cos ( + ) =
cos
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The dc output voltage Vdc can be varied from a maximum value of
2Vm
minimum value of
for =
radians 1800
=
2Vm
for = 00 to a
=
Vdc( max
dm
) V=
Therefore
2Vm
cos
= cos
2Vm
Therefore
Vdcn= V=
cos ; for a single phase full converter assuming continuous
n
and constant load current operation.
CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER
The dc output control characteristic can be obtained by plotting the average or dc
output voltage Vdc versus the trigger angle
For a single phase full converter the average dc output voltage is given by the
2Vm
equation VO( dc=
cos
dc
) V=
Trigger angle
in degrees
VO( dc )
Remarks
2V
Vdm = m
) V=
300
0.866 Vdm
600
0.5 Vdm
90
0 Vdm
1200
-0.5 Vdm
1500
-0.866 Vdm
1800
2V
Vdm =
m
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V O(dc)
Vdm
0.6Vdm
0.2 Vdm
0
-0.2Vdm
30
60
90
120
150
180
-0.6 Vdm
-Vdm
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The above figure shows the two regions of single phase full converter operation in
the Vdc versus I dc plane. In the first quadrant when the trigger angle is less than 900,
Vdc and I dc are both positive and the converter operates as a controlled rectifier and
converts the ac input power into dc output power. The power flows from the input source
to the load circuit. This is the normal controlled rectifier operation where Pdc is positive.
When the trigger angle is increased above 900 , Vdc becomes negative but I dc is
positive and the average output power (dc output power) Pdc becomes negative and the
power flows from the load circuit to the input source. The operation occurs in the fourth
quadrant where Vdc is negative and I dc is positive. The converter operates as a line
commutated inverter.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF THE OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
The rms value of the output voltage is calculated as
VO( RMS ) =
1 2
vO .d ( t )
2 0
The single phase full converter gives two output voltage pulses during the input
supply time period and hence the single phase full converter is referred to as a two pulse
converter. The rms output voltage can be calculated as
VO( RMS ) =
2
2
vO .d ( t )
2
VO( RMS ) =
1
2
2
Vm sin t.d ( t )
VO( RMS ) =
Vm2
2
sin t.d ( t )
VO( RMS ) =
Vm2 (1 cos 2 t )
.d ( t )
2
=
VO( RMS )
+
+
Vm2
cos 2 t.d ( t )
d
t
(
)
=
VO( RMS )
Vm2
( t )
2
sin 2 t
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91
sin 2 ( + ) sin 2
Vm2
( + )
2
2
VO(=
RMS )
Vm2
2
=
VO( RMS )
VO( RMS=
)
Therefore
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V=
O ( RMS )
VO( RMS
=
)
sin ( 2 + 2 ) sin 2
2 ) sin 2
( )
; sin ( 2 + =
2
Vm2
sin 2 sin 2
( )
2
2
Vm2
0
( ) =
2
Vm2 Vm
=
2
2
Vm
= VS
2
Hence the rms output voltage is same as the rms input supply voltage
1
=
IT ( RMS ) I=
I O( RMS )
O ( RMS )
2
2
IT ( RMS ) =
I O( RMS )
2
IT ( Avg ) =I O( dc )
2
IT ( Avg ) =
1
=I O( dc )
I O( dc )
2
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We have seen in the case of a single phase full converter with inductive loads the
converter can operate in two different quadrants in the Vdc versus I dc operating diagram.
If two single phase full converters are connected in parallel and in opposite direction
(connected in back to back) across a common load four quadrant operation is possible.
Such a converter is called as a dual converter which is shown in the figure.
The dual converter system will provide four quadrant operation and is normally
used in high power industrial variable speed drives. The converter number 1 provides a
positive dc output voltage and a positive dc load current, when operated in the
rectification mode.
The converter number 2 provides a negative dc output voltage and a negative dc
load current when operated in the rectification mode. We can thus have bi-directional
load current and bi-directional dc output voltage. The magnitude of output dc load voltage
and the dc load current can be controlled by varying the trigger angles 1 & 2 of the
converters 1 and 2 respectively.
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are released to the thyristor gates of converter 2 and the trigger angle 2 is adjusted such
that 0 2 90 so that converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier. The dc output
voltage Vdc and I dc are both negative and the load current flows in the reverse direction.
The magnitude of Vdc and I dc are controlled by the trigger angle 2 . The operation
occurs in the third quadrant where Vdc and I dc are both negative and output power Pdc is
positive and the converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the ac supply
power into dc output power which is fed to the load.
When we want to reverse the load current flow so that I dc is positive we have to
0
operate converter 2 in the inverter mode by increasing the trigger angle 2 above 900 .
When 2 is made greater than 900 , the converter 2 operates as a line commutated
inverter and the load power (load energy) is fed back to ac mains. The current falls to zero
when all the load energy is utilized and the converter 1 can be switched on after a short
delay of 10 to 20 milli seconds to ensure that the converter 2 thyristors are completely
turned off.
The advantage of non circulating current mode of operation is that there is no
circulating current flowing between the two converters as only one converter operates and
conducts at a time while the other converter is switched off. Hence there is no need of the
series current limiting inductors between the outputs of the two converters. The current
rating of thyristors is low in this mode.
But the disadvantage is that the load current tends to become discontinuous and
the transfer characteristic becomes non linear. The control circuit becomes complex and
the output response is sluggish as the load current reversal takes some time due to the
time delay between the switching off of one converter and the switching on of the other
converter. Hence the output dynamic response is poor. Whenever a fast and frequent
reversal of the load current is required, the dual converter is operated in the circulating
current mode.
CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION
In this mode of operation both the converters 1 and 2 are switched on and
operated simultaneously and both the converters are in a state of conduction. If converter
1 is operated as a controlled rectifier by adjusting the trigger angle 1 between 0 to 900
the second converter 2 is operated as a line commutated inverter by increasing its trigger
angle 2 above 900. The trigger angles 1 and 2 are adjusted such that they produce the
same average dc output voltage across the load terminals.
The average dc output voltage of converter 1 is
Vdc1 =
2Vm
cos 1
2Vm
cos 2
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1
cos
=
2Vm
2
cos
=
2Vm
( cos 2 )
Therefore
cos 1 =
cos 2 or cos 2 =
cos 1 =
cos ( 1 )
Therefore
=
2
( 1 )
Which gives
=
2
( 1 )
or
radians
(1 + 2 ) =
When the trigger angle 1 of converter 1 is set to some value the trigger angle 2
of the second converter is adjusted such that=
2
(180
current mode of operation where both converters are conducting at the same time
1800 so that they produce the same dc output voltage across the load.
(1 + 2 ) =
When 1 < 900 (say 1 = 300 ) the converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier
and converts the ac supply into dc output power and the average load current I dc is
positive. At the same time the converter 2 is switched on and operated as a line
commutated inverter, by adjusting the trigger angle 2 such that=
2 (1800 1 ) , which
is equal to 1500 , when 1 = 300 . The converter 2 will operate in the inversion mode and
feeds the load energy back to the ac supply. When we want to reverse the load current
flow we have to switch the roles of the two converters.
When converter 2 is operated as a controlled rectifier by adjusting the trigger
angle 2 such that 2 < 900 , the first converter1 is operated as a line commutated
inverter, by adjusting the trigger angle 1 such that 1 > 900 . The trigger angle 1 is
adjusted such that=
1
(180
In the circulating current mode a current builds up between the two converters
even when the load current falls to zero. In order to limit the circulating current flowing
between the two converters, we have to include current limiting reactors in series between
the output terminals of the two converters.
The advantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that we can have
faster reversal of load current as the two converters are in a state of conduction
simultaneously. This greatly improves the dynamic response of the output giving a faster
dynamic response. The output voltage and the load current can be linearly varied by
adjusting the trigger angles 1 & 2 to obtain a smooth and linear output control. The
control circuit becomes relatively simple. The transfer characteristic between the output
voltage and the trigger angle is linear and hence the output response is very fast. The load
current is free to flow in either direction at any time. The reversal of the load current can
be done in a faster and smoother way.
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As the instantaneous output voltages of the two converters are out of phase, there
will be an instantaneous voltage difference and this will result in circulating current
between the two converters. In order to limit the circulating current, current limiting
reactors are connected in series between the outputs of the two converters. This
circulating current will not flow through the load and is normally limited by the current
reactor Lr .
If vO1 and vO2 are the instantaneous output voltages of the converters 1 and 2,
respectively the circulating current can be determined by integrating the instantaneous
voltage difference (which is the voltage drop across the circulating current reactor Lr),
starting from t = (2 - 1). As the two average output voltages during the interval t =
(+1) to (2 - 1) are equal and opposite their contribution to the instantaneous
circulating current ir is zero.
ir
=
1
Lr
vr
vr .d ( t ) ; =
( 2 1 )
( vO1 vO 2 )
=
vr
ir
=
Therefore
( vO1 + vO 2 )
1
Lr
( vO1 + vO 2 ) .d ( t ) ;
( 2 1 )
vO1 =
Vm sin t for ( 2 1 ) to t
Vm
Lr
t
t
( 2 1 )
Vm
Lr
( cos t )
ir =
=
ir
=
ir
=
ir
=
ir
( 2 1 )
+ ( cos t )
( 2 1 )
Vm
( cos t ) cos ( 2 1 ) + ( cos t ) cos ( 2 1 )
Lr
Vm
2 cos t 2 cos ( 2 1 )
Lr
2Vm
( cos t cos 1 )
Lr
The instantaneous value of the circulating current depends on the delay angle.
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For trigger angle (delay angle) 1 = 0, its magnitude becomes minimum when
=
t n=
, n 0, 2, 4,.... and magnitude becomes maximum when
=
t n=
, n 1,3,5,....
If the peak load current is I p , one of the converters that controls the power flow
Ip +
4Vm
,
Lr
=
I p I=
L ( max )
Where
Vm
4Vm
, & i=
r ( max )
Lr
RL
Problems
1. What will be the average power in the load for the circuit shown, when =
.
4
Assume SCR to be ideal. Supply voltage is 330 sin314t. Also calculate the RMS
power and the rectification efficiency.
T
+
330
Sin314t
100
The circuit is that of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier with a resistive load
Vm
Vdc =
(1 + cos )
2
=
Vdc
=
radians
330
1 + cos
2
4
Vdc 89.66
=
= 0.8966 Amps
100
R
1
Vm 1
sin 2 2
=
VRMS
+
2
2
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sin 2
330 1
4
=
VRMS
+
2
4
2
1
2
VRMS = 157.32 V
RMS Power (AC power)
=
2
VRMS
157.322
=
= 247.50 Watts
100
R
Rectification Efficiency =
Average power
RMS power
80.38
= 0.3248
247.47
2. In the circuit shown find out the average voltage across the load assuming that the
conduction drop across the SCR is 1 volt. Take = 450.
VAK
+
330
Sin314t
100
Load
voltage
The wave form of the load voltage is shown below (not to scale).
Vm
Voltage across
resistance
VAK
0
( )
because the
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1 VAK
1 1
0
=
=
=
sin
Therefore
sin
(180
= 179.830
Vdc
=
1
2
(V
sin t VAK ) d ( t )
1
Vdc
=
Vm sin t.d ( t ) VAK d ( t )
2
1
Vdc = Vm ( cos t )
2
=
Vdc
=
Vdc
VAK ( t )
1
Vm ( cos cos ) VAK ( )
2
1
330 ( cos 450 cos179.830 ) 1( 3.138 0.003)
. Assume ideal
SCR.
R
10
+
200 V
50 Hz
24V
(VB)
Solution
It is obvious that the SCR cannot conduct when the instantaneous value of the
supply voltage is less than 24 V, the battery voltage. The load voltage waveform is as
shown (voltage across ion).
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Vm
Voltage across
resistance
VB
0
VB = Vm sin
24 = 200 2 sin
24
0
sin 1 =
=
0.085 radians
=
4.8675
200 2
= = 3.056 radians
Average value of voltage across 10
1
=
(Vm sin t VB ) .d ( t )
2
3.056
=
200 2 sin t 24 .d ( t )
2
4
1
2
= 68 Vots
Therefore charging current
=
68
= 6.8 Amps
10
Note: If value of is more than , then the SCR will trigger only at t = ,
(assuming that the gate signal persists till then), when it becomes forward biased.
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1
Therefore
=
Vdc
(Vm sin t VB ) .d ( t )
2
4. In a single phase full wave rectifier supply is 200 V AC. The load resistance is
10 , = 600 . Find the average voltage across the load and the power consumed
in the load.
Solution
In a single phase full wave rectifier
=
Vdc
=
Vdc
Vm
(1 + cos )
200 2
(1 + cos 60 )
0
R = 10
+
200 V
50 Hz
10V
(VB)
Solution
With the usual notation
VB = Vm sin
10 = 200 2 sin
10
1
Therefore
sin
=
=
0.035 radians
200 2
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0
90
=
=
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radians ; = ( ) = 3.10659
2
Average voltage
across 10
=
(Vm sin t VB ) .d ( t )
2
1
=
Vm cos t VB ( t )
V ( cos cos ) VB ( )
m
2
2
= 85 V
Note that the values of & are in radians.
Charging current =
=
6. A single phase full wave controlled rectifier is used to supply a resistive load of
10 from a 230 V, 50 Hz, supply and firing angle of 900. What is its mean load
voltage? If a large inductance is added in series with the load resistance, what will
be the new output load voltage?
Solution
For a single phase full wave controlled rectifier with resistive load,
=
Vdc
=
Vdc
Vm
(1 + cos )
230 2
1 + cos
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V0
3
0
Vdc =
Since =
2Vm
cos
; =
=
cos cos
0
2
7. The figure shows a battery charging circuit using SCRs. The input voltage to the
circuit is 230 V RMS. Find the charging current for a firing angle of 450. If any
one of the SCR is open circuited, what is the charging current?
Solution
10
VL
+
Vs
100V
V=
S
2 230sin t
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Therefore
100
= sin 1
2 230
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= ( ) = ( 0.312 )
= 2.829 radians
Average value of voltage across load resistance
2
=
(Vm sin t VB ) d ( t )
2
1
=
Vm cos t VB ( t )
V ( cos cos ) VB ( )
m
4
4
1
= 230 2 ( 0.707 + 0.9517 ) 204.36
= 106.68 Volts
Charging current =
=
If one of the SCRs is open circuited, the circuit behaves like a half wave rectifier.
The average voltage across the resistance and the charging current will be half of that of a
full wave rectifier.
Therefore Charging Current
=
10.668
= 5.334 Amps
2
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THREE PHASE CONTROLLED
RECTIFIERS
INTRODUCTION TO 3-PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Single phase half controlled bridge converters & fully controlled bridge converters
are used extensively in industrial applications up to about 15kW of output power. The
2V
single phase controlled rectifiers provide a maximum dc output of Vdc( max ) = m .
The output ripple frequency is equal to the twice the ac supply frequency. The
single phase full wave controlled rectifiers provide two output pulses during every input
supply cycle and hence are referred to as two pulse converters.
Three phase converters are 3-phase controlled rectifiers which are used to convert
ac input power supply into dc output power across the load.
Features of 3-phase controlled rectifiers are
Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.
They provide higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power.
Higher output voltage ripple frequency.
Filtering requirements are simplified for smoothing out load voltage and load
current
Three phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in high power variable
speed industrial dc drives.
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= v=
vYN
Vm sin t
bn
VCN
0
vYN
Vm sin ( t 1200 )
= v=
bn
= v=
vBN
Vm sin t +
cn
120
120
VAN
0
0
120
= v=
vBN
Vm sin ( t + 1200 )
cn
vBN
= v=
Vm sin ( t 2400 )
cn
VBN
Vector diagram of 3-phase supply voltages
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The 3-phase half wave converter combines three single phase half wave controlled
rectifiers in one single circuit feeding a common load. The thyristor T1 in series with one
of the supply phase windings ' a n ' acts as one half wave controlled rectifier. The
second thyristor T2 in series with the supply phase winding ' b n ' acts as the second half
wave controlled rectifier. The third thyristor T3 in series with the supply phase winding
' c n ' acts as the third half wave controlled rectifier.
The 3-phase input supply is applied through the star connected supply transformer
as shown in the figure. The common neutral point of the supply is connected to one end
of the load while the other end of the load connected to the common cathode point.
van appears across the load when T1 conducts. The load current flows through the supply
phase winding ' a n ' and through thyristor T1 as long as T1 conducts.
5
biased and turns-off. The load current flows through the thyristor T2 and through the
supply phase winding ' b n ' . When T2 conducts the phase voltage vbn appears across the
load until the thyristor T3 is triggered .
3
biased and hence T2 turns-off. The phase voltage vcn appears across the load when T3
conducts.
When T1 is triggered again at the beginning of the next input cycle the thyristor T3
turns off as it is reverse biased naturally as soon as T1 is triggered. The figure shows the
3-phase input supply voltages, the output voltage which appears across the load, and the
load current assuming a constant and ripple free load current for a highly inductive load
and the current through the thyristor T1 .
For a purely resistive load where the load inductance L = 0 and the trigger angle
> , the load current appears as discontinuous load current and each thyristor is
6
naturally commutated when the polarity of the corresponding phase supply voltage
reverses. The frequency of output ripple frequency for a 3-phase half wave converter is
3 f S , where f S is the input supply frequency.
The 3-phase half wave converter is not normally used in practical converter
systems because of the disadvantage that the supply current waveforms contain dc
components (i.e., the supply current waveforms have an average or dc value).
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The trigger angle for the thyristor T1 is measured from the cross over point at
t = 300 . The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the period t = 300 to 1500 , when the
phase supply voltage van has a higher amplitude than the other phase supply voltages.
Hence T1 can be triggered between 300 to 1500 . When the thyristor T1 is triggered at a
trigger angle , the average or dc output voltage for continuous load current is calculated
using the equation
56 +
Vdc =
vO .d ( t )
2
6 +
Output voltage
vO =
van =
Vm sin t for t =
( 300 + ) to (1500 + )
56 +
Vdc =
Vm sin t.d ( t )
2
6 +
As the output load voltage waveform has three output pulses during the input
cycle of 2 radians
56 +
3Vm
Vdc =
sin t.d ( t )
2
6 +
3Vm
=
Vdc
( cos t )
2
5
+
6
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110
Vdc=
3Vm
2
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cos 6 + + cos 6 +
cos =
( A + B)
3Vm
5
5
cos cos ( ) + sin sin ( ) + cos .cos ( ) sin sin ( )
Vdc =
2
6
6
6
6
3Vm
cos (1500 ) cos ( ) + sin (1500 ) sin ( ) + cos ( 300 ) .cos ( ) sin ( 300 ) sin ( )
Vdc =
2
3V
Vdc =m cos (1800 300 ) cos ( ) + sin (1800 300 ) sin ( ) + cos ( 300 ) .cos ( ) sin ( 300 ) sin ( )
2
Therefore
3Vm
+ cos ( 300 ) cos ( ) + sin ( 300 ) sin ( ) + cos ( 300 ) .cos ( ) sin ( 300 ) sin ( )
Vdc =
Vdc =
=
Vdc
=
Vdc
3Vm
2 cos ( 300 ) cos ( )
3Vm
2
3
cos ( )
2
2
3Vm
3 3Vm
=
3 cos ( )
cos ( )
2
2
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3VLm
cos ( )
2
Where
=
VLm
=
3Vm
Max. line to line supply voltage for a 3-phase star connected transformer.
Where
Vm is the peak phase voltage.
Vdcn= V=
n
Vdc
= cos
Vdm
VO( RMS )
3
=
2
5
+
6
and we obtain
1
VO( RMS )
=
1
2
3
3Vm +
cos 2
6 8
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Van
Vbn
Vcn
V0
0
=30
0
30
60
90
120
Van
Vbn
390 420
Vcn
V0
=60
0
30
60
90
120
Vbn
Van
390 420
Vcn
V0
0
=90
0
30
60
90
120
390 420
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Van
Vcn
=0
Vs
0
30
60
90
120 150
Vbn
Van
390 420
Vcn
=150
V0
30
60
90
120 150
Vbn
Van
390 420
Vcn
=300
V0
0
0
30
60
90
120 150
Vbn
Van
390 420
Vcn
=60
V0
30
60
90
120 150
390 420
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In the case of a three-phase half wave controlled rectifier with resistive load, the
0
thyristor T1 is triggered at =
t 180
=
radians.
t ( 300 + ) and T1 conducts up to=
When the phase supply voltage van decreases to zero at t = , the load current falls to
( 30
+ ) to (1800 ) .
Hence the average dc output voltage for a 3-pulse converter (3-phase half wave
controlled rectifier) is calculated by using the equation
180
3
Vdc =
vO .d ( t )
2 +300
v=
van
= Vm sin t ; for =
t
O
( + 30 ) to (180 )
3
Vdc =
2
180
Vm sin t.d ( t )
+300
3V
Vdc = m
2
180
sin t.d ( t )
+300
3Vm
=
Vdc
2
cos t
0
+ 30
1800
3V
Vdc = m cos1800 + cos ( + 300 )
2
Since
cos1800 = 1,
We get
Vdc =
3Vm
1 + cos ( + 300 )
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3-phase semi-converters are three phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifiers
which employ three thyristors and three diodes connected in the form of a bridge
configuration. Three thyristors are controlled switches which are turned on at appropriate
times by applying appropriate gating signals. The three diodes conduct when they are
forward biased by the corresponding phase supply voltages.
3-phase semi-converters are used in industrial power applications up to about
120kW output power level, where single quadrant operation is required. The power factor
of 3-phase semi-converter decreases as the trigger angle increases. The power factor of
a 3-phase semi-converter is better than three phase half wave converter.
The figure shows a 3-phase semi-converter with a highly inductive load and the
load current is assumed to be a constant and continuous load current with negligible
ripple.
Thyristor T1 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage van is positive and
greater than the other phase voltages vbn and vcn . The diode D1 is forward biased when
the phase supply voltage vcn is more negative than the other phase supply voltages.
Thyristor T2 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage vbn is positive and
greater than the other phase voltages. Diode D2 is forward biased when the phase supply
voltage van is more negative than the other phase supply voltages.
Thyristor T3 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage vcn is positive and
greater than the other phase voltages. Diode D3 is forward biased when the phase supply
voltage vbn is more negative than the other phase supply voltages.
The figure shows the waveforms for the three phase input supply voltages, the
output voltage, the thyristor and diode current waveforms, the current through the free
wheeling diode Dm and the supply current ia . The frequency of the output supply
waveform is 3 f S , where f S is the input ac supply frequency. The trigger angle can be
varied from 00 to 1800 .
7
0
0
During the time period t
i.e., for 30 t 210 , thyristor T1 is
6
6
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7
line to line supply voltage vac appears across the load. At t =
, vac starts to
6
become negative and the free wheeling diode Dm turns on and conducts. The load current
continues to flow through the free wheeling diode Dm and thyristor T1 and diode D1 are
turned off.
If the free wheeling diode Dm is not connected across the load, then T1 would
5
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= v=
vYN
Vm sin t
bn
vYN
= v=
Vm sin ( t 1200 )
bn
= v=
vBN
Vm sin t +
cn
vBN
= v=
Vm sin ( t + 1200 )
cn
vBN
= v=
Vm sin ( t 2400 )
cn
from
7
3
Vdc =
2
vac .d ( t )
6 +
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119
3
=
Vdc
2
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6 +
3 Vm sin t d ( t )
6
3 3Vm
(1 + cos )
2
Vdc
=
3VmL
(1 + cos )
2
=
Vdc
3 3Vm
Vdc
= 0.5 (1 + cos )
Vdm
=
VO( RMS )
For
2
2
3Vm sin t 6 d ( t )
6 +
3
3Vm
4
2
+ sin 2
2
Output voltage v=
v=
O
ab
=
t + to
3Vm sin t + ; for
6
6
Output voltage v=
v=
O
ac
+
3Vm sin t =
; for t to
6
2
6
6 +
3 2
=
+
.
.
Vdc
v
d
t
v
d
t
(
)
(
)
ab
ac
2
2
6+
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120
=
Vdc
=
Vn
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3 3Vm
(1 + cos )
2
Vdc
= 0.5 (1 + cos )
Vdm
The RMS value of the output voltage is calculated by using the equation
3
=
VO( RMS )
2
=
VO( RMS )
5
2
.d ( t ) +
vab
6 +
3
3Vm
4
6 +
2
2
vac .d ( t )
2
2
+ 3 cos 2
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At
=
t + , thyristor T6 is already conducting when the thyristor T1 is
6
turned on by applying the gating signal to the gate of T1 . During the time period
t =
+ to + , thyristors T1 and T6 conduct together and the line to line
6
At
=
t + , the thyristor T2 is triggered and T6 is reverse biased
immediately and T6 turns off due to natural commutation. During the time period
t =
+ , thyristor T1 and T2 conduct together and the line to line
+ to
2
V=
m
0
=Vm sin ( t 120 )
0
=
=
v=
vcn Vm sin t + =
Vm sin ( t 2400 )
)
BN
Vm sin ( t + 120=
3
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T6
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T2
T1
iG1
t
(30 + )
0
60
0
iG2
(360 +30 +)
t
iG3
60
t
0
iG4
60
t
0
iG5
60
t
0
iG6
60
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TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF
THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER WITH HIGHLY INDUCTIVE LOAD
ASSUMING CONTINUOUS AND CONSTANT LOAD CURRENT
The output load voltage consists of 6 voltage pulses over a period of 2 radians,
hence the average output voltage is calculated as
6
VO( dc=
dc
) V=
2
=
Vdc
=
Vdc
vO .d t
3Vm sin t + .d t
6
3Vm sin t +
6
v=
v=
O
ab
3 3Vm
3VmL
=
cos
cos
VmL
Where =
=
3Vm
=
Vdc( max
dm
) V=
Vdc
= cos
Vdm
VO( rms )
6
=
2
2
2
vO2 .d ( t )
6
+
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124
6
=
2
3
=
VO( rms )
2
VO( rms )
2
vab .d ( t )
6
2
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1
2
2
2
3Vm2 sin 2 t + .d ( t )
6
+
VO( rms )
=
1 3 3
2
3Vm +
cos 2
2 4
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In many variable speed drives, the four quadrant operation is generally required
and three phase dual converters are extensively used in applications up to the 2000 kW
level. Figure shows three phase dual converters where two three phase full converters are
connected back to back across a common load. We have seen that due to the
instantaneous voltage differences between the output voltages of converters, a circulating
current flows through the converters. The circulating current is normally limited by
circulating reactor, Lr . The two converters are controlled in such a way that if 1 is the
delay angle of converter 1, the delay angle of converter 2 is =
2
( 1 ) .
The operation of a three phase dual converter is similar that of a single phase dual
converter system. The main difference being that a three phase dual converter gives much
higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power than a single phase dual converter
system. But the drawback is that the three phase dual converter is more expensive and the
design of control circuit is more complex.
The figure below shows the waveforms for the input supply voltages, output
voltages of converter1 and conveter2 , and the voltage across current limiting reactor
(inductor) Lr . The operation of each converter is identical to that of a three phase full
converter.
across the output of converter 1 and vbc appears across the output of converter 2
We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows
vRN
= v=
Vm sin t
an
0
=Vm sin ( t 120 )
vBN =vcn =
Vm sin t +
3
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If vO1 and vO 2 are the output voltages of converters 1 and 2 respectively, the
instantaneous voltage across the current limiting inductor during the interval
+ 1 t + 1 is
6
=
vr 3Vm cos t
6
1
Lr
=
ir ( t )
1
Lr
3Vm
Lr
ir ( max ) =
3Vm
Lr
+1
=
ir ( t )
vr .d ( t )
+1
3Vm cos t .d ( t )
6
sin t 6 sin 1
There are two different modes of operation of a three phase dual converter system.
Circulating current free (non circulating) mode of operation
Circulating current mode of operation
CIRCULATING CURRENT FREE (NON-CIRCULATING) MODE OF
OPERATION
In this mode of operation only one converter is switched on at a time when the
converter number 1 is switched on and the gate signals are applied to the thyristors the
average output voltage and the average load current are controlled by adjusting the trigger
angle 1 and the gating signals of converter 1 thyristors.
The load current flows in the downward direction giving a positive average load
current when the converter 1 is switched on. For 1 < 900 the converter 1 operates in the
rectification mode Vdc is positive, I dc is positive and hence the average load power Pdc is
positive.
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The converter 1 converts the input ac supply and feeds a dc power to the load.
Power flows from the ac supply to the load during the rectification mode. When the
trigger angle 1 is increased above 900 , Vdc becomes negative where as I dc is positive
because the thyristors of converter 1 conduct in only one direction and reversal of load
current through thyristors of converter 1 is not possible.
For 1 > 900 converter 1 operates in the inversion mode & the load energy is
supplied back to the ac supply. The thyristors are switched-off when the load current
decreases to zero & after a short delay time of about 10 to 20 milliseconds, the
converter 2 can be switched on by releasing the gate control signals to the thyristors of
converter 2.
We obtain a reverse or negative load current when the converter 2 is switched ON.
The average or dc output voltage and the average load current are controlled by adjusting
the trigger angle 2 of the gate trigger pulses supplied to the thyristors of converter 2.
When 2 is less than 900 , converter 2 operates in the rectification mode and converts
the input ac supply in to dc output power which is fed to the load.
When 2 is less than 900 for converter 2, Vdc is negative & I dc is negative,
converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier & power flows from the ac source to the load
circuit. When 2 is increased above 900, the converter 2 operates in the inversion mode
with Vdc positive and I dc negative and hence Pdc is negative, which means that power
flows from the load circuit to the input ac supply.
The power flow from the load circuit to the input ac source is possible if the load
circuit has a dc source of appropriate polarity.
When the load current falls to zero the thyristors of converter 2 turn-off and the
converter 2 can be turned off.
CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION
Both the converters are switched on at the same time in the mode of operation.
One converter operates in the rectification mode while the other operates in the inversion
1800
mode. Trigger angles 1 & 2 are adjusted such that (1 + 2 ) =
When 1 < 900 , converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier. When 2 is made
greater than 900 , converter 2 operates in the inversion mode. Vdc , I dc , Pdc are positive.
When 2 < 900 , converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier. When 1 is made
greater than 900 , converter 1 operates as an Inverter. Vdc and I dc are negative while Pdc
is positive.
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Problems
supply. The thyristors are fired at = . There is a FWD across the load. Find
4
0
the average output voltage for = 45 and = 750 .
Solution
For = 450 , Vdc =
3Vm
=
Vdc
3 2 400
=
cos 450 382 Volts
cos
6V
For = 750 , Vdc = m 1 + cos ( 600 + )
2
=
Vdc
6 2 400
1 + cos ( 600 + 750 )
+
3 phase
Full Wave
Rectifier
484
V=V0
Ra
La
+
440 V
440 + 01 440 =
484 Volts .
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3 2 415 cos
That is
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3Vm cos
= 484
= 484
= 30.27 0
Therefore
400 sin314t and SCR is fired at = . Find average load voltage. If any one
4
supply line is disconnected what is the average load voltage.
Solution
Therefore
=
Vdc
=
Vdc
3Vm
[1 + cos ]
2
3 400
1 + cos 450
2
Vm
[1 + cos ]
400
1 + cos 450
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EDUSAT PROGRAMME
LECTURE NOTES
ON
POWER ELECTRONICS
BY
PROF. T.K. ANANTHA KUMAR
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG.
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THYRISTOR COMMUTATION
TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION
In practice it becomes necessary to turn off a conducting thyristor. (Often
thyristors are used as switches to turn on and off power to the load). The process of
turning off a conducting thyristor is called commutation. The principle involved is that
either the anode should be made negative with respect to cathode (voltage commutation)
or the anode current should be reduced below the holding current value (current
commutation).
The reverse voltage must be maintained for a time at least equal to the turn-off
time of SCR otherwise a reapplication of a positive voltage will cause the thyristor to
conduct even without a gate signal. On similar lines the anode current should be held at a
value less than the holding current at least for a time equal to turn-off time otherwise the
SCR will start conducting if the current in the circuit increases beyond the holding current
level even without a gate signal. Commutation circuits have been developed to hasten the
turn-off process of Thyristors. The study of commutation techniques helps in
understanding the transient phenomena under switching conditions.
The reverse voltage or the small anode current condition must be maintained for a
time at least equal to the TURN OFF time of SCR; Otherwise the SCR may again start
conducting. The techniques to turn off a SCR can be broadly classified as
Natural Commutation
Forced Commutation.
NATURAL COMMUTATION (CLASS F)
This type of commutation takes place when supply voltage is AC, because a
negative voltage will appear across the SCR in the negative half cycle of the supply
voltage and the SCR turns off by itself. Hence no special circuits are required to turn off
the SCR. That is the reason that this type of commutation is called Natural or Line
Commutation. Figure 1.1 shows the circuit where natural commutation takes place and
figure 1.2 shows the related waveforms. tc is the time offered by the circuit within which
the SCR should turn off completely. Thus tc should be greater than tq , the turn off time
of the SCR. Otherwise, the SCR will become forward biased before it has turned off
completely and will start conducting even without a gate signal.
T
+
vs
vo
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Supply voltage vs
Sinusoidal
3
2
Load voltage vo
Turn off
occurs here
3
2
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Vc(0)
+ -
R
Load
R I(S)
sL
1 VC(0)
S
CS
+ - +
C
V
S
Fig.: 1.4.
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135
I (S )
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V VC ( 0 )
S
=
1
R + sL +
CS
CS V VC ( 0 )
S
=
RCs + s 2 LC + 1
C V VC ( 0 )
R 1
LC s 2 + s +
L LC
V VC ( 0 )
L
=
R 1
2
s +s +
L LC
(V V ( 0 ) )
C
L
2
2
R 1 R R
2
s +s +
+
L LC 2 L 2 L
(V V ( 0 ) )
C
L
2
2
R 1 R
s+
+
2 L LC 2 L
A
2
(s + ) +2
Where
A
=
(V V ( 0 ) ) ,
C
R
,
2L
1
LC
2L
( s + )2 + 2
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e t sin t
(V V ( 0 ) )
C
di
dt
Substituting for i,
A
d A
vc =
V R e t sin t L e t sin t
dt
A
A
vc =
V R e t sin t L ( e t cos t e t sin t )
A
vc =
V e t [ R sin t + L cos t L sin t ]
A
R
vc =
V e t R sin t + L cos t L
sin t
2L
A
R
vc =
V e t sin t + L cos t
Substituting for A,
(V VC ( 0 ) ) e t R sin t + L cos t
vc ( t ) =
V
2
(V VC ( 0 ) ) e t R sin t + cos t
vc ( t ) =
V
2 L
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(V VC ( 0 ) ) e 0 + cos
vc =
V
(
)
vc =V + V VC ( 0 ) e
vc =V + V VC ( 0 ) e
Therefore
R
2 L
1
R
<
LC
2L
That is
But
V
t
sin
L
LC
1
LC
Therefore
=
i
V
t
C
t
=
LC sin
V
sin
L
L
LC
LC
Figure 1.5 shows the waveforms for the above conditions. Once the SCR turns off
voltage across it is negative voltage.
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C
L
Current i
/2
2V
Capacitor voltage
Gate pulse
t
t
V
Voltage across SCR
Fig. 1.5: Self Commutation Wave forms of Current and Capacitors Voltage
Problem 1.1 : Calculate the conduction time of SCR and the peak SCR current that flows
in the circuit employing series resonant commutation (self commutation or class A
commutation), if the supply voltage is 300 V, C = 1F, L = 5 mH and RL = 100 .
Assume that the circuit is initially relaxed.
RL
C
+
100
5 mH
1 F
V
=300V
Fig. 1.6.
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Solution:
1
LC
R
L
2L
1
100
3
6
3
5 10 110
2 5 10
Since the circuit is initially relaxed, initial voltage across capacitor is zero as also
the initial current through L and the expression for current i is
i=
V t
R
,
e sin t , where =
L
2L
i=
V
L
i
=
300
6A
=
10000 5 103
=
= 0.314msec
10000
Problem 1.2 : Figure 1.7 shows a self commutating circuit. The inductance carries an
initial current of 200 A and the initial voltage across the capacitor is V, the supply
voltage. Determine the conduction time of the SCR and the capacitor voltage at turn off.
i(t)
IO
10 H
C
50 F
V
=100V
+
VC(0)=V
Fig. 1.7.
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Solution :
The transformed circuit of figure 1.7 is shown in figure 1.8.
sL
IOL
+
+
I(S)
+
V
S
VC(0)
=V
S
1
CS
Therefore
V VC ( 0 )
+ IO L
s
s
I (S ) =
1
sL +
Cs
V VC ( 0 )
Cs
s
s
+ I O LCs
=
I (S )
2
s LC + 1
s 2 LC + 1
V VC ( 0 ) C
I O LCs
I (S )
=
+
1
1
LC s 2 +
LC s 2 +
LC
LC
=
I (S )
V VC ( 0 )
L s 2 + 2
sI O
s +2
2
V VC ( 0 )
sI
=
I (S )
+ 2 O 2 where =
2
2
L s + s +
1
LC
Taking inverse LT
i (t ) =
V VC ( 0 )
C
sin t + I O cos t
L
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1
=
vc ( t )
i ( t ) dt + VC ( 0 )
C 0
t
C
1
vc ( t ) =
V
V
t
0
sin
cos
I
t
(
)
dt + VC ( 0 )
C
O
L
C 0
vc ( t )
=
vc ( t )
=
t I
t
1 (V VC ( 0 ) ) C
( cos t ) + O ( sin t ) + VC ( 0 )
o
o
C
L
I
1 (V VC ( 0 ) ) C
(1 cos t ) + O ( sin t ) + VC ( 0 )
I
C
1
vc ( t ) =O LC sin t + (V VC ( 0 ) ) LC
(1 cos t ) + VC ( 0 )
C
C
L
vc ( t ) I O
=
vc ( t ) I O
=
L
sin t + V V cos t VC ( 0 ) + VC ( 0 ) cos t + VC ( 0 )
C
L
sin t (V VC ( 0 ) ) cos t + V
C
In this problem VC ( 0 ) = V
Therefore we get,
i ( t ) = I O cos t and
vc ( t ) I O
=
L
sin t + V
C
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I0
i(t)
/2
vc(t)
V
t
/2
Fig.: 1.9
Turn off occurs at a time to so that tO =
Therefore
tO
=
0.5
= 0.5 LC
vc ( tO ) I O
=
=
vc ( tO ) 200
L
sin tO + V
C
10 106
sin 900 + 100
6
50 10
35.12
vc ( tO ) =200 0.447 sin
+ 100
22.36
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Problem 1.3: In the circuit shown in figure 1.10. V = 600 volts, initial capacitor voltage
is zero, L = 20 H, C = 50F and the current through the inductance at the time of SCR
triggering is Io = 350 A. Determine (a) the peak values of capacitor voltage and current
(b) the conduction time of T1.
T1
L
I0
i(t)
Fig. 1.10
Solution:
(Refer to problem 1.2).
The expression for i ( t ) is given by
i (t ) =
V VC ( 0 )
C
sin t + I O cos t
L
i (t ) V
=
Therefore
C
sin t + I O cos t
L
i ( t ) can be written as
i (t ) =
I O2 + V 2
where
= tan 1
and
C
sin ( t + )
L
L
C
IO
V
1
LC
I O2 + V 2
C
L
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3502 + 6002
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50 106
= 1011.19 A
20 106
vc ( t ) I O
=
with
L
sin t (V VC ( 0 ) ) cos t + V
C
VC ( 0 ) = 0, vc ( t ) = I O
L
sin t V cos t + V
C
vc ( t ) =
V 2 + I O2
= tan 1
Where
L
sin ( t ) + V
C
C
L
IO
= V 2 + I O2
L
+V
C
6002 + 3502
20 106
+ 600
50 106
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Capacitor
current
Fig. 1.11.
Therefore conduction time of SCR =
L
IO
C
tan 1
V
=
1
LC
L
IO
C
= tan 1
V
= tan 1
350 20 106
600 50 106
1
=
LC
= 31622.8 rad/sec
20 106 50 106
0.3534
= 88.17 sec
31622.8
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L
i
a
b
IL
Load
FWD
Fig. 1.12: Circuit for Resonant Pulse Commutation
This is a type of commutation in which a LC series circuit is connected across the
SCR. Since the commutation circuit has negligible resistance it is always under-damped
i.e., the current in LC circuit tends to oscillate whenever the SCR is on.
Initially the SCR is off and the capacitor is charged to V volts with plate a being
positive. Referring to figure 1.13 at t = t1 the SCR is turned ON by giving a gate pulse. A
current I L flows through the load and this is assumed to be constant. At the same time
SCR short circuits the LC combination which starts oscillating. A current i starts
flowing in the direction shown in figure. As i reaches its maximum value, the capacitor
voltage reduces to zero and then the polarity of the capacitor voltage reverses b becomes
positive). When i falls to zero this reverse voltage becomes maximum, and then
direction of i reverses i.e., through SCR the load current I L and i flow in opposite
direction. When the instantaneous value of i becomes equal to I L , the SCR current
becomes zero and the SCR turns off. Now the capacitor starts charging and its voltage
reaches the supply voltage with plate a being positive. The related waveforms are shown
in figure 1.13.
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Gate pulse
of SCR
t1
V
Capacitor voltage
vab
t
tC
Ip
IL
t
t
ISCR
t
Voltage across
SCR
t
1 c
V = I L dt
C0
V=
I L tc
C
tc =
VC
seconds
IL
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For proper commutation tc should be greater than tq , the turn off time of T. Also,
the magnitude of I p , the peak value of i should be greater than the load current I L and
the expression for i is derived as follows
The LC circuit during the commutation period is shown in figure 1.14.
L
T
i
C
+
VC(0)
=V
Fig. 1.14.
The transformed circuit is shown in figure 1.15.
I(S)
sL
T
1
Cs
+
V
s
Fig. 1.15.
I (S ) =
V
s
sL +
1
Cs
V
Cs
s
I ( S ) = 2
s LC + 1
I (S ) =
VC
1
LC s 2 +
LC
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V
1
L s2 + 1
LC
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1
V LC
1
I (S ) =
L s2 + 1 1
LC LC
1
C
I=
( S ) V LC1
L s2 +
LC
Taking inverse LT
C
sin t
L
i (t ) = V
Where
Or
Therefore
=
i (t )
=
Ip =V
1
LC
V
=
sin t I p sin t
L
C
amps .
L
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+ t
I
sin 1 L
I
p
=
+
circuit. A resonant current ic ( t ) flows in the direction shown, i.e., in a direction opposite
to that of load current I L .
C
L
1
iC ( t ).dt
C
vc ( t ) =
1
C
sin t.dt .
VC ( 0 )
C
L
vc ( t ) = VC ( 0 ) cos t
ab
T1
iC(t)
iC(t)
IL
T2
+
VC(0)
T3
FWD
L
O
A
D
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t1
LC
I p = VC ( 0 )
C
L
I
L
t1 = LC sin 1 L
VC ( 0 ) C
V1 =
VC ( 0 ) cos t1
vc ( t1 ) =
Once the thyristor T1 turns off, the capacitor starts charging towards the supply
voltage through T2 and load. As the capacitor charges through the load capacitor current
is same as load current I L , which is constant. When the capacitor voltage reaches V, the
supply voltage, the FWD starts conducting and the energy stored in L charges C to a still
higher voltage. The triggering of T3 reverses the polarity of the capacitor voltage and the
circuit is ready for another triggering of T1 . The waveforms are shown in figure 1.17.
EXPRESSION FOR tc
Assuming a constant load current I L which charges the capacitor
tc =
CV1
seconds
IL
Normally V1 VC ( 0 )
For reliable commutation tc should be greater than tq , the turn off time of SCR T1 .
It is to be noted that tc depends upon I L and becomes smaller for higher values of load
current.
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Current iC(t)
Capacitor
voltage vab
t
t1
V1
tC
VC(0)
Fig. 1.17: Resonant Pulse Commutation Alternate Circuit Various Waveforms
RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION WITH ACCELERATING DIODE
D2
T1
L
iC(t)
IL
iC(t)
T2
+
VC(0)
V
T3
FWD
Fig. 1.17(a)
L
O
A
D
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iC
IL
0
VC
0
t1
t2
V1
VC(O)
tC
Fig. 1.17(b)
equals the load current I L and hence current through T1 is reduced to zero resulting in
turning off of T1 . Now the capacitor current iC ( t ) continues to flow through the diode D2
until it reduces to load current level I L at time t2 . Thus the presence of D2 has
accelerated the discharge of capacitor C. Now the capacitor gets charged through the
load and the charging current is constant. Once capacitor is fully charged T2 turns off by
itself. But once current of thyristor T1 reduces to zero the reverse voltage appearing across
T1 is the forward voltage drop of D2 which is very small. This makes the thyristor
recovery process very slow and it becomes necessary to provide longer reverse bias time.
From figure 1.17(b)
=
t2 LC t1
VC ( t2 ) = VC ( O ) cos t2
Circuit turn-off time tC= t2 t1
Problem 1.4 : The circuit in figure 1.18 shows a resonant pulse commutation circuit. The
initial capacitor voltage VC (O ) = 200V , C = 30F and L = 3H. Determine the circuit
turn off time tc , if the load current I L is (a) 200 A and (b) 50 A.
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I
T1
L
T2
iC(t)
+
VC(0)
T3
FWD
L
O
A
D
Fig. 1.18.
Solution
(a)
When I L = 200 A
Let T2 be triggered at t = 0 .
VC ( 0 ) C
200 3 106
3 106 30 106 sin 1
200 30 106
t1 =
t1 = 3.05 sec .
1
=
LC
1
3 106 30 106
=
0.105 106 rad / sec .
tc =
CV1
IL
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30 106 189.75
= 28.46 sec .
200
=
tc
(b)
When I L = 50 A
50 3 106
t1 = 3 10 30 10 sin
200 30 106
t1 = 0.749 sec .
6
V=
200 1= 200 Volts .
1
tc =
CV1
IL
30 106 200
= 120 sec .
50
=
tc
D2
T1
L
iC(t)
IL
iC(t)
T2
+
VC(0)
V
T3
FWD
Fig. 1.18(a)
L
O
A
D
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Solution
I L = 200 A
Let
T2 be triggered at t = 0 .
Therefore
I
L
t1 = LC sin 1 L
VC ( O ) C
t1 =
200 3 106
3 106 30 106 sin 1
200 30 106
t1 = 3.05 sec .
=
1
=
LC
1
6
3 10 30 106
=
0.105 106 radians/sec
At t = t1
VC ( t1 ) = V1 = VC ( O ) cos t1
200 cos ( 0.105 106 3.05 106 )
VC ( t1 ) =
VC ( t1 ) = 189.75V
iC ( t ) flows through diode D2 after T1 turns off.
t2 = 26.75 sec .
1
=
LC
1
3 106 30 106
=
0.105 106 rad/sec.
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At t = t2
VC ( t2 ) =
V2 =
200 cos 0.105 10+6 26.75 106
VC ( t2=
) V=2 189.02 V
tC = t2 t1 = 26.75 106 3.05 106
Therefore
tC = 23.7 secs
Problem 1.5: For the circuit shown in figure 1.19 calculate the value of L for proper
commutation of SCR. Also find the conduction time of SCR.
4 F
V
=30V
L
RL
30
IL
Fig. 1.19.
Solution:
V 30
= = 1 Amp
RL 30
For proper SCR commutation I p , the peak value of resonant current i, should be
greater than I L ,
Let
I p = 2I L ,
V
=
L
Also
Ip
=
Therefore
4 106
=
2 30
L
Therefore
L = 0.9mH .
=
1
=
LC
I p = 2 Amps .
Therefore
= V
1
L
LC
C
L
= 16666 rad/sec
0.9 103 4 106
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p
Conduction time of SCR = +
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1
sin 1
2
=
+
16666
16666
=
+ 0.523
16666
radians
= 0.00022 seconds
= 0.22 msec
Problem 1.6: For the circuit shown in figure 1.20 given that the load current to be
commutated is 10 A, turn off time required is 40sec and the supply voltage is 100 V.
Obtain the proper values of commutating elements.
C
V
=100V
IL
IL
Fig. 1.20.
Solution
I p peak value of i = V
C
and this should be greater than I L . Let I p = 1.5 I L .
L
100
Therefore 1.5 10 =
C
L
... ( a )
Also, assuming that at the time of turn off the capacitor voltage is approximately
equal to V, (and referring to waveform of capacitor voltage in figure 1.13) and the load
current linearly charges the capacitor
tc =
CV
seconds
IL
40 106 =
C
100
10
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C = 4 F
Therefore
=
L 1.777 104 H
L = 0.177 mH .
Problem 1.7 : In a resonant commutation circuit supply voltage is 200 V. Load current is
10 A and the device turn off time is 20s. The ratio of peak resonant current to load
current is 1.5. Determine the value of L and C of the commutation circuit.
Solution
Given
Therefore
That is
Ip
IL
= 1.5
I p = 1.5 I L = 1.5 10 = 15 A .
C
=
I p V= 15 A
L
... ( a )
It is given that the device turn off time is 20 sec. Therefore tc , the circuit turn off
time should be greater than this,
Let
tc = 30 sec .
And
tc =
Therefore
200 C
30 106 =
10
Therefore
C = 1.5 F .
CV
IL
Substituting in (a)
15 = 200
1.5 106
L
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=
152 2002
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1.5 106
L
L = 0.2666 mH
Therefore
COMMUTATION,
IL
R1
R2
ab
iC
V
C
T1
T2
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vc ( t ) = V f + (Vi V f ) e t
Where V f is the final voltage, Vi is the initial voltage and is the time constant.
t = tc , vc ( t ) = 0 ,
At
= R1C , V f = V , Vi = V ,
Therefore 0 = V + ( V V ) e
0= V 2Ve
Therefore
V = 2Ve
0.5 = e
tc
R1C
tc
R1C
tc
R1C
tc
R1C
R=
R=
R
1
2
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Gate pulse
Gate pulse
of T1
of T2
IL
Current through R1
V
R1
2V
R1
t
2V
R2
Current through T1
V
R1
t
Current through T2
2V
R1
V
R2
V
Voltage across
capacitor vab
t
-V
tC
tC
Voltage across T1
tC
Fig. 1.22
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Problem 1.8 : In the circuit shown in figure 1.23 the load resistances R1 = R2 = R = 5
and the capacitance C = 7.5 F, V = 100 volts. Determine the circuit turn off time tc .
R1
R2
V
C
T1
T2
Fig. 1.23.
Solution
The circuit turn-off time
tc = 0.693 RC seconds
tc 0.693 5 7.5 106
=
tc = 26 sec .
Problem 1.9: Calculate the values of RL and C to be used for commutating the main SCR
in the circuit shown in figure 1.24. When it is conducting a full load current of 25 A flows.
The minimum time for which the SCR has to be reverse biased for proper commutation is
40sec. Also find R1 , given that the auxiliary SCR will undergo natural commutation
when its forward current falls below the holding current value of 2 mA.
IL
i1
R1
RL
iC
V
=100V
C
Auxiliary
SCR
Main
SCR
Fig. 1.24.
Solution
In this circuit only the main SCR carries the load and the auxiliary SCR is used to
turn off the main SCR. Once the main SCR turns off the current through the auxiliary
SCR is the sum of the capacitor charging current ic and the current i1 through R1 , ic
reduces to zero after a time tc and hence the auxiliary SCR turns off automatically after a
time tc , i1 should be less than the holding current.
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I L = 25 A
That is
A
25=
Therefore
RL = 4
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V 100
=
RL RL
=
tc 40
=
sec 0.693RLC
That is
6
40 10=
0.693 4 C
Therefore
C=
40 106
4 0.693
C = 14.43 F
V
should be less than the holding current of auxiliary SCR.
R1
100
Therefore
should be < 2mA.
R1
i1 =
100
2 103
Therefore
R1 >
That is
R1 > 50 K
IL
T1
T3
V
VC(O)
C
T2
FWD
L
O
A
D
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The working of the circuit can be explained as follows. It is assumed that initially
the capacitor C is charged to a voltage VC ( O ) with polarity as shown. Let the thyristor T1
be conducting and carry a load current I L . If the thyristor T1 is to be turned off, T2 is
fired. The capacitor voltage comes across T1 , T1 is reverse biased and it turns off. Now
the capacitor starts charging through T2 and the load. The capacitor voltage reaches V
with top plate being positive. By this time the capacitor charging current (current through
T2 ) would have reduced to zero and T2 automatically turns off. Now T1 and T2 are both
off. Before firing T1 again, the capacitor voltage should be reversed. This is done by
turning on T3 , C discharges through T3 and L and the capacitor voltage reverses. The
waveforms are shown in figure 1.26.
Gate pulse
of T3
Gate pulse
of T2
Gate pulse
of T1
t
VS
Capacitor
voltage
t
VC
tC
Voltage across T1
t
VC
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1 c
VC = I L dt
C0
(assuming the load current to be constant)
VC =
tc =
I L tc
C
VC C
seconds
IL
i
+
T1
VC(O)
IT 1
T2
V
D
L
IL
RL
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Now T1 is triggered. Load current flows through T1 and load. At the same time, C
discharges through T1 , L and D (the current is i) and the voltage across C reverses i.e.,
the bottom plate becomes positive. The diode D ensures that the bottom plate of the
capacitor remains positive.
To turn off T1 , T2 is triggered; the voltage across the capacitor comes across T1 .
T1 is reverse biased and it turns off (voltage commutation). The capacitor now starts
charging through T2 and load. When it charges to V volts (with the top plate positive), the
current through T2 becomes zero and T2 automatically turns off.
The related waveforms are shown in figure 1.28.
Gate pulse
of T2
Gate pulse
of T1
VC
Capacitor
voltage
t
V
tC
This is due to i
IT 1
IL
Current through SCR
V
RL
t
2V
RL
IL
Load current
t
Voltage across T1
t
tC
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+
C
V
T1
VC(0)
T2
Fig. 1.29.
Solution
When T2 is triggered the circuit is as shown in figure 1.30.
VC(O)
- +
i(t)
C
T2
Fig. 1.30.
Writing the transform circuit, we obtain
1
Cs
VC(0)
s
I(s)
+
R
V
s
Fig. 1.31.
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I (S ) =
C (V + VC ( 0 ) )
I (S ) =
1 + RCs
(V + V ( 0 ) )
C
Rs +
RC
=
VC ( s ) I ( s )
=
VC ( s )
VC ( s ) =
1 VC ( 0 )
Cs
s
1 V + VC ( 0 ) VC ( 0 )
1
RCs
s
s+
RC
V + VC ( 0 ) V + VC ( 0 ) VC ( 0 )
1
s
s
s+
RC
V ( 0)
V
V
VC ( s ) =
C
1
s s+ 1
s+
RC
RC
vc ( t ) =
V 1 e
RC
) V ( 0) e
RC
vc =
( t ) V 1 2e
RC
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V
vC(t)
VC(0)
tC
Fig. 1.32.
At t = tc , vc ( t ) = 0
Therefore
tc
=
0 V 1 2e RC
1 = 2e
tc
RC
tc
1
= e RC
2
tc = RC ln ( 2 )
tc = 10 10 106 ln ( 2 )
tc = 69.3 sec .
Problem 1.11 : In the commutation circuit shown in figure 1.33. C = 20 F, the input
voltage V varies between 180 and 220 V and the load current varies between 50 and 200
A. Determine the minimum and maximum values of available turn off time tc .
T1
I0
C
V
VC(0)=V
T2
Fig. 1.33.
I0
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Solution
It is given that V varies between 180 and 220 V and I O varies between 50 and
200 A.
The expression for available turn off time tc is given by
tc =
CV
IO
Therefore
CVmax
I O min
tc min =
and
220
=88 sec
50
CVmin
I O max
180
=18 sec
200
T2
T1
VS
RL
2VAUX
T3
VAUX
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T1
IL
+
T3
_C
FWD
VS
Lr
L
O
A
D
T2
_
Fig.: 1.35 Line Side Commutation Circuit
Figure 1.35 shows line side commutation circuit. Thyristor T2 is fired to charge
the capacitor C. When C charges to a voltage of 2V, T2 is self commutated. To
reverse the voltage of capacitor to -2V, thyristor T3 is fired and T3 commutates by itself.
Assuming that T1 is conducting and carries a load current I L thyristor T2 is fired to turn
off T1 . The turning ON of T2 will result in forward biasing the diode (FWD) and applying
a reverse voltage of 2V across T1 . This turns off T1 , thus the discharging and recharging
of capacitor is done through the supply and the commutation circuit can be tested without
load.
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DC CHOPPERS
INTRODUCTION
A chopper is a static device which is used to obtain a variable dc voltage from a
constant dc voltage source. A chopper is also known as dc-to-dc converter. The thyristor
converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller size and
smooth control. Choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery operated vehicles,
traction motor control, control of large number of dc motors, etc.. They are also used in
regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back to supply and also as dc voltage
regulators.
Choppers are of two types
Step-down choppers
Step-up choppers.
In step-down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage
whereas in step-up choppers output voltage will be more than the input voltage.
Chopper
i0
V0
Figure 2.1 shows a step-down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the
circuit acts as a switch. When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load and
when thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero. The output voltage and
current waveforms are as shown in figure 2.2.
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v0
V
Vdc
t
tOFF
tON
i0
V/R
Idc
t
T
Fig. 2.2: Step-down choppers output voltage and current waveforms
= average value of output or load voltage
= average value of output or load current
I dc
= time interval for which SCR conducts
tON
tOFF = time interval for which SCR is OFF.
=
T tON + tOFF = period of switching or chopping period
1
f= = frequency of chopper switching or chopping frequency.
T
Vdc
Vdc = V
tON + tOFF
... ( 2.1)
tON
=
Vdc V=
V .d
T
... ( 2.2 )
but
tON
= d= duty cycle
V tON V
=
d
R T R
... ( 2.3)
... ( 2.4 )
... ( 2.5 )
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1
T
VO =
tON
v dt
2
o
1
VO =
T
tON
V2
=
tON
T
=
VO
VO = d .V
Output power
PO = VO I O
But
IO =
VO
R
PO =
VO2
R
dV 2
PO =
R
Effective input resistance of chopper
V
Ri =
I dc
dt
tON
.V
T
... ( 2.6 )
... ( 2.7 )
... ( 2.8 )
... ( 2.9 )
R
... ( 2.10 )
d
The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.
Ri =
METHODS OF CONTROL
The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods.
Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.
Variable frequency control.
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V0
V
tON
tOFF
t
T
V0
V
t
tON
tOFF
v0
V
tOFF
tON
t
T
v0
V
tOFF
tON
t
T
Fig. 2.4: Output Voltage Waveforms for Time Ratio Control
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Chopper
i0
+
R
FWD
V0
L
E
v0
Output
voltage
V
tON
i0
tOFF
T
Imax
Output
current
Imin
Continuous
current
i0
t
Output
current
Discontinuous
current
t
Fig. 2.6: Output Voltage and Load Current Waveforms (Continuous Current)
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When the current exceeds I max the chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on when
current reduces to I min .
i0
+
R
V0
L
E
Fig. 2.5 (a)
diO
+E
dt
... ( 2.11)
... ( 2.12 )
I
V E
+ min
R
R
LS S + S +
L
L
... ( 2.13)
... ( 2.14 )
This expression is valid for 0 t tON . i.e., during the period chopper is ON.
At the instant the chopper is turned off, load current is
iO ( tON ) = I max
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( 0 t tOFF )
i0
R
L
E
Fig. 2.5 (b)
Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(b) is
0 =RiO + L
diO
+E
dt
... ( 2.15 )
E
S
I=
O (S )
I max
E
R
R
S+
LS S +
L
L
iO ( t=
) I max e
R
t
L
R
t
E
L
e
1
... ( 2.16 )
The expression is valid for 0 t tOFF , i.e., during the period chopper is OFF. At
the instant the chopper is turned ON or at the end of the off period, the load current is
iO ( tOFF ) = I min
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=
t tON
= dT , iO (=
t ) I max
At
Therefore
I max =
dRT
dRT
V E
L
L
e
1
I
e
min
R
... ( 2.17 )
t=
tOFF =
T tON , iO ( t ) =
I min
At
t= tOFF=
Therefore
(1 d ) T
=
I min I max e
(1 d ) RT
L
E
1 e
R
(1 d ) RT
L
... ( 2.18 )
V 1 e L
I max
=
RT
R
1 e L
E
R
... ( 2.19 )
V e L 1 E
=
I min
R
R RTL
e 1
... ( 2.20 )
... ( 2.21)
I max + I min
2
... ( 2.22 )
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Assuming load current varies linearly from I min to I max instantaneous load current is
given by
iO= I min +
( I ) .t
dT
for 0 t tON ( dT )
I I
=
iO I min + max min t
dT
... ( 2.23)
dT
1
dT
dT
1
=
dT
dT
I O( RMS ) =
I O( RMS )
=
I O( RMS )
i dt
2
0
( I max I min ) t dt
I
+
min
0
dT
2
2
I max I min 2 2 I min ( I max I min ) t
dt
0 I min + dT t +
dT
I O( RMS )
2
2
2
I max I min )
(
=
+ I min ( I max I min )
I min +
3
... ( 2.24 )
1
=
T
dT
1
T
dT
=
I CH
i dt
2
0
I I
0 I min + maxdT min
t dt
1
I CH
2
2
2
I max I min )
(
= d I min +
+ I min ( I max I min )
3
I CH = d I O( RMS )
... ( 2.25 )
V
IS
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Ri =
V
dI dc
... ( 2.26 )
L
+
D
+
V
Chopper
L
O
A
D
VO
... ( 2.27 )
If a large capacitor C is connected across the load then the capacitor will provide
a continuous output voltage VO . Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the
source. Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of dc motors.
... ( 2.28 ) ,
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L
Energy supplied by inductor=
(VO V ) ItOFF ,
Chopper.
Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor L = energy supplied by inductor L
Therefore
VIt=
ON
VO =
(VO V ) ItOFF
V [tON + tOFF ]
tOFF
T
VO = V
T tON
Where
1
VO = V
t
1 ON
T
Therefore
Where
1
VO = V
1 d
=
d
tON
=
T
... ( 2.29 )
duty cyle
For variation of duty cycle d in the range of 0 < d < 1 the output voltage VO will vary
in the range V < VO < .
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn OFF. Hence
duty cycle d can be varied only between a minimum and a maximum value, limiting the
minimum and maximum value of the output voltage. Ripple in the load current depends
inversely on the chopping frequency, f. Therefore to reduce the load ripple current,
frequency should be as high as possible.
CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS
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CLASS A CHOPPER
i0
v0
Chopper
V
FWD
L
O
A
D
v0 V
i0
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Thyristor
ig
gate pulse
t
i0
Output current
CH ON
t
FWD Conducts
v0
Output voltage
tON
t
T
Fig. 2.15: First quadrant Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
i0
v0
+
R
L v0
V
Chopper
i0
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B Chopper operates in second quadrant. In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.17 shows the
output voltage and current waveforms of a Class B Chopper.
The output current equations can be obtained as follows. During the interval diode
D conducts (chopper is off) voltage equation is given by
i0
D
Conducting
V0
L
E
V=
LdiO
+ RiO + E
dt
R
R
t
t
V E
L
L
iO ( t )
=
1 e + I min e
R
i(O ) ( t ) = I max
I max
R
R
tOFF
tOFF
V E
L
L
=
1 e
+ I min e
R
i0
+
R
Chopper
ON
V0
L
E
-
0=
LdiO
+ RiO + E
dt
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iO ( t ) = I max .
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i=
I max e
O (t )
R
t
L
R
t
E
L
e
1
R
tON
E
L
e
1
=
=
iO ( t ) I min
At t tON
Therefore
I=
I max e
min
R
tON
L
ig
Thyristor
gate pulse
t
i0
tOFF
tON
T
Output current
Imax
Imin
v0
D
conducts Chopper
conducts
Output voltage
CLASS C CHOPPER
Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers. Figure 2.18
shows a Class C two quadrant Chopper circuit. For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON
or D2 conducts and for second quadrant operation, CH 2 is ON or D1 conducts. When
CH1 is ON, the load current iO is positive. i.e., iO flows in the direction as shown in
figure 2.18.
The output voltage is equal to V ( vO = V ) and the load receives power from the
source.
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CH1
D1
i0
v0
+
R
V
CH2
L v0
D2
Chopper
i0
ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1
t
ig2
Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current
t
D1
CH1
ON
D2
CH2
ON
V0
D1
CH1
ON
D2
CH2
ON
Output voltage
t
Fig. 2.19: Class C Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
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CLASS D CHOPPER
v0
CH1
D2
R i0
V
+
D1
v0
i0
CH2
average output voltage becomes negative if tON < tOFF . Hence the direction of load current
is always positive but load voltage can be positive or negative. Waveforms are shown in
figures 2.21 and 2.22.
ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1
t
ig2
Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current
v0
CH1,CH2
ON
t
D1,D2 Conducting
Output voltage
V
Average v0
Fig. 2.21: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON > tOFF
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Gate pulse
ig1
of CH1
t
ig2
Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current
CH1
CH2
t
D1, D2
v0
Output voltage
V
Average v0
Fig. 2.22: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON < tOFF
CLASS E CHOPPER
CH1
CH3
D1
i0
+
CH2
D3
v0
CH4
D2
D4
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v0
CH2 - D4 Conducts
D1 - D4 Conducts
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CH1 - CH4 ON
CH4 - D2 Conducts
i0
CH3 - CH2 ON
CH2 - D4 Conducts
D2 - D3 Conducts
CH4 - D2 Conducts
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i
0
Chopper
V
L
O
A
D
FWD
v0
Fig. 6.24.
Solution
tON
Average output voltage,
=
Vdc =
V dV
T
Vdc dV
=
R
R
V
, since V is the output
R
Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never conduct in a resistive load. Therefore
average and RMS free wheeling diode currents are zero.
VO( RMS )
But
1
=
T
tON
v dt
2
0
vO = V during tON
VO( RMS ) =
1
T
tON
dt
t
VO( RMS ) = V 2 ON
T
VO( RMS ) = dV
d=
tON
T
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VO( RMS )
R
dV
R
dV
R
T=
T
=
Output voltage
1
f
1
0.5 m sec
=
2 103
t
Vdc = ON
T
Problem 2.3 : Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The output required is 600 V. If the
conducting time of thyristor is 200 ssec. Compute
Chopping frequency,
If the pulse width is halved for constant frequency of operation, find the new
output voltage.
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T
Vdc = V
T tON
T
600 = 200
6
T 200 10
Solving for T
T = 300 s
Chopping frequency
1
f =
T
f
=
1
3.33KHz
=
300 106
Therefore=
tON
Frequency is constant
Therefore
f = 3.33KHz
T=
1
= 300 s
f
T
=V
T tON
300 106
= 200
=
6
300 Volts
( 300 100 )10
Problem 2.4: A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20 and input voltage VS = 220V .
When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If
the duty cycle is 80%, determine the average output voltage and the chopper on time.
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tON
= 0.80
T
=
Vdc 0.80 ( 220 1.5
=
) 174.8 Volts
Chopper ON time,
tON = dT
Chopping period,
T=
1
f
1
T= 3=
0.1103 secs =
100 secs
10 10
Chopper ON time,
tON = dT
tON = 0.80 0.1 103
tON = 0.08 103 = 80 secs
Problem 2.5: In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency
is 250 Hz. Supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper
if the load resistance is 2 ohms.
Solution
I dc = 30 Amps , f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V, R = 2
Chopping period,
Therefore
1
1
T == =
4 103 =
4 msecs
f 250
I dc =
Vdc
and Vdc = dV
R
I dc =
dV
R
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I dc R 30 2
=
= 0.545
110
V
Problem 2.6: A dc chopper in figure 2.25 has a resistive load of R= 10 and input
voltage of V = 200 V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 2 V and the chopping
frequency is 1 kHz. If the duty cycle is 60%, determine
Average output voltage
RMS value of output voltage
Effective input resistance of chopper
Chopper efficiency.
Chopper
i0
R v0
Fig. 2.25
Solution
V = 200 V, R= 10 , Chopper voltage drop, Vch = 2V , d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.
=
Vdc 0.60 [ 200=
2] 118.8 Volts
0.6 ( 200
=
2 ) 153.37 Volts
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I=
dc
Vdc 118.8
=
= 11.88 Amps
10
R
R=
i
200
V
V
= =
= 16.83
I S I dc 11.88
Output power is
1
T
dT
v02
dt
R
1
PO =
T
dT
(V Vch )
PO =
d (V Vch )
PO =
R
dt
0.6 [ 200 2]
=
PO = 2352.24 watts
10
2
Input power,
1
Pi =
T
1
PO =
T
=
PO
dT
Vi
dt
V (V Vch )
dt
0
R
dT
Chopper efficiency,
PO
=
100
Pi
=
2352.24
100
= 99%
2376
Problem 2.7: A chopper is supplying an inductive load with a free-wheeling diode. The
load inductance is 5 H and resistance is 10. The input voltage to the chopper is 200
volts and the chopper is operating at a frequency of 1000 Hz. If the ON/OFF time ratio is
2:3. Calculate
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Maximum and minimum values of load current in one cycle of chopper operation.
Average load current
Solution:
L = 5 H, R = 10 , f = 1000 Hz, V = 200 V, tON : tOFF = 2 : 3
Chopping period,
T=
1
1
=
= 1 msecs
f 1000
tON
2
=
tOFF 3
2
tON = tOFF
3
=
T tON + tOFF
=
T
2
tOFF + tOFF
3
5
T = tOFF
3
3
tOFF = T
5
T=
3
1 103 = 0.6 msec
5
tON= T tOFF
tON =
(1 0.6 ) 103 =0.4 msec
Duty cycle,
Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of I max and I min .
Maximum value of load current [equation (2.19)] is
dRT
V 1 e L
I max
=
RT
R
L
e
1
E
R
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Therefore
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I max
dRT
V 1 e L
=
RT
R
L
e
1
I max
0.410110
5
200 1 e
=
101103
10
1 e 5
I max
1 e 0.810
= 20
2103
1 e
I max = 8.0047A
Minimum value of load current from equation (2.20) with E = 0 is
I min
dRT
V e L 1
=
R RTL
e 1
0.410110
5
200 e
1
I min =
=
3
7.995 A
10 101510
e
1
3
8.0047 + 7.995
8 A
2
Problem 2.8 : A chopper feeding on RL load is shown in figure 2.26. With V = 200 V, R =
5, L = 5 mH, f = 1 kHz, d = 0.5 and E = 0 V. Calculate
Maximum and minimum values of load current
Average value of load current
RMS load current
Effective input resistance as seen by source
RMS chopper current.
Solution
V = 200 V, R = 5 , L = 5 mH, f = 1kHz, d = 0.5, E = 0
Chopping period is T =
1
1
=
= 1 103 secs
3
f 110
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i
Chopper
R
FWD
v0
L
E
Fig.: 2.26
Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of I max and I min .
Maximum value of load current
dRT
V 1 e L
I max
=
RT
R
1 e L
E
R
0.55110
3
200 1 e 510
=
I max
51103
5
1 e 5103
1 e 0.5
=
=
I max 40
1 e 1 24.9 A
V e L 1 E
=
I min
R
R RTL
e 1
0.55110
3
1
200 e 510
=
I min
3
0
5 51103
e 510 1
e0.5 1
=
=
I min 40
e1 1 15.1 A
24.9 + 15.1
= 20 A
2
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Refer equations (2.24) and (2.25) for RMS load current and RMS chopper current.
RMS load current from equation (2.24) is
1
I O( RMS )
2
2
2
I max I min )
(
=
+ I min ( I max I min )
I min +
3
I O( RMS )
2
24.9 15.1)
(
2
=
+ 15.1( 24.9 15.1)
15.1 +
3
96.04
2
I O( RMS ) = 228.01 +
+ 147.98 = 20.2 A
3
d I O( RMS ) =
V
IS
V 200
=
= 20
IS
10
Problem 2.9: A 200 V dc motor fed by a chopper, runs at 1000 rpm with a duty ratio of
0.8. What must be the ON time of the chopper if the motor has to run at 800 rpm. The
chopper operates at 100 Hz.
Solution
Speed of motor N1 = 1000 rpm
Duty ratio d1 = 0.8 , f = 100 Hz
We know that back EMF of motor Eb is given by
ZNP
Eb =
60 A
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Where N =
=
Z =
P =
A =
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speed in rpm
flux/pole in wbs
Number of Armature conductors
Number of poles
Number of parallel paths
Eb N
Eb N if flux is constant
Therefore
Chopper
Ia
Ra
Vdc
+
M Eb
Fig. 2.27
E=
Vdc I a Ra
b
where I a =
Ra =
Armature current
Armature Resistance
Supply,
V=
Vdc1
V=
200
0.8
d1
V = 250 Volts
Eb1 N1
200 1000
... ( 2.30 )
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Eb2 800
... ( 2.31)
But
800 200
= 160 V
1000
E=
V=
d 2V
b2
dc2
=
d2
Vdc2 160
= = 0.64
250
V
T = 10 msecs
tON
= d2
T
ON time of chopper
tON = d 2T
tON= 0.64 10 103
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T1
LS
+
iT1
IL
C
b _
iC
T2
FWD
VS
+
L
O
A
D
D1
vO
Fig. 2.28
To start the circuit, capacitor C is initially charged with polarity (with plate a
positive) as shown in the fig. 2.28 by triggering the thyristor T2. Capacitor C gets
charged through VS, C, T2 and load. As the charging current decays to zero thyristor T2
will be turned-off. With capacitor charged with plate a positive the circuit is ready for
operation. For convenience the chopper operation is divided into five modes.
MODE 1
Thyristor T1 is fired at t = 0. The supply voltage comes across the load. Load
current IL flows through T1 and load. At the same time capacitor discharges through T1,
D1, L1, and C and the capacitor reverses its voltage. This reverse voltage on capacitor is
held constant by diode D1. Fig. 2.29 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode 1.
T1
LS
+
IL
+
VC
_C
iC
VS
L
D1
L
O
A
D
_
Fig. 2.29
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iC ( t ) = V
C
sin t
L
iC ( t ) = I P sin t ; where I P = V
Where
C
L
1
LC
VC ( t ) = V cos t
MODE 2
Thyristor T2 is now fired to commutate thyristor T1. When T2 is ON capacitor
voltage reverse biases T1 and turns it off. Now the capacitor discharges through the load
from VS to 0 and the discharge time is known as circuit turn-off time.
Circuit turn-off time is given by
VC C
IL
Where IL is load current.
tC =
Since tC depends on load current, it must be designed for the worst case condition
which occur at the maximum value of load current and minimum value of capacitor
voltage.
Then the capacitor recharges back to the supply voltage (with plate a positive).
This time is called the recharging time and is given by
td =
VS C
IL
The total time required for the capacitor to discharge and recharge is called the
commutation time and it is given by
t=
tC + t d
r
At the end of Mode-2 capacitor has recharged to VS and the free wheeling diode
starts conducting. The equivalent circuit for Mode-2 is shown in fig. 2.30.
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IL
+
LS
VC
VS
IL
C
L
O
A
D
T2
_
Fig. 2.30.
MODE 3
Free wheeling diode FWD starts conducting and the load current decays. The
energy stored in source inductance LS is transferred to capacitor. Instantaneous current is
i ( t ) = I L cos t Hence capacitor charges to a voltage higher than supply voltage. T2
naturally turns-off.
The instantaneous capacitor voltage is
VC ( t=
) VS + I L
S =
Where
LS
sin S t
C
1
LS C
IL
+
LS
VS
IL
_C
T2
VS
FWD
L
O
A
D
_
Fig. 2.31
MODE 4
Since the capacitor has been overcharged i.e. its voltage is above supply voltage it
starts discharging in reverse direction. Hence capacitor current becomes negative. The
capacitor discharges through LS, VS, FWD, D1 and L. When this current reduces to zero
D1 will stop conducting and the capacitor voltage will be same as the supply voltage fig.
2.32 shows in equivalent circuit of Mode 4.
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LS
+
IL
+
VC
_C
L
O
A
D
D1
VS
L
FWD
_
Fig. 2.32
MODE 5
In mode 5 both thyristors are off and the load current flows through the free
wheeling diode (FWD). This mode will end once thyristor T1 is fired. The equivalent
circuit for mode 5 is shown in fig. 2.33
IL
FWD
L
O
A
D
Fig. 2.33
Fig. 2.34 shows the current and voltage waveforms for a voltage commutated
chopper.
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ic
Capacitor Current
IL
0
Ip
iT1
IL
t
Ip
Current through T1
t
0
v T1
Voltage across T1
Vc
t
0
vo
Vs+Vc
Output Voltage
Vs
vc
Vc
t
Capacitor Voltage
-Vc
tc
td
Fig. 2.34
Though voltage commutated chopper is a simple circuit it has the following
disadvantages.
A starting circuit is required and the starting circuit should be such that it triggers
thyristor T2 first.
Load voltage jumps to twice the supply voltage when the commutation is initiated.
The discharging and charging time of commutation capacitor are dependent on the
load current and this limits high frequency operation, especially at low load
current.
Chopper cannot be tested without connecting load.
Thyristor T1 has to carry load current as well as resonant current resulting in
increasing its peak current rating.
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Jones Chopper
T1
T2
D
V
L2
L1
+
R
FWD
v0
L
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Ig
Gate pulse of T2
Gate pulse of T1
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Gate pulse of T
2
VC
+V
Capacitor Voltage
t
Resonant action
V
Auto transformer action
tC
Capacitor
discharge current
Current of T1
IL
IL
Voltage across T1
tC
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