Dynamics MSD210

Supplementary notes
Dynamics MSD210
Supplementary notes
These notes are supplementary to, but do not replace, the prescribed textbook of Meriam
and Kraige (see Study Guide). Here an attempt has been made to present the theory in
a more systematic manner through formal and mathematically more detailed theorems.
It is however still expected of the student to work through the corresponding theory in
Meriam and Kraige (M&K). Note that the numbering of the theorems and equations in
these notes correspond directly to the equation numbers used in M&K.

Again it is emphasized that not all the theory of importance is covered in these notes.

MSD210 Lecturers
January 2008

University
c of Pretoria, 2008

1
Contents

Differences in notation between MSD210 and FSK116 4

4 Kinetics of systems of particles 5

Theorem 4/1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Theorem 4/4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Theorem 4/5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Theorem 4/7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Preliminaries to Theorem 4/9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Theorem 4/9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Theorem 4/10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Theorem 4/11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Steady mass flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Theorem 4/18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Theorem 4/19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Plane kinematics of rigid bodies 14

Time derivative of a rotating fixed length vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Relative velocity analysis of rigid bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Relative acceleration analysis of rigid bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Relative motion analysis of the wheel rolling without slipping . . . . . . . . . . 17

Instantaneous centre of zero velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

6 Plane kinetics of rigid bodies 20

2
 Section A Force, mass and acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

General equations of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Plane motion equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Analysis procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Centre of Percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

8 Vibration and time response 26

Damped free vibration of a particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Underdamped system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Overdamped system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Critically damped system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Undamped forced vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Damped forced vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Appendix B: Mass moments of inertia 32

B/3 Parallel-axis theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

B/7 The thin plate theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

B/9 The parallel-axis theorem for products of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3
Differences in notation between
MSD210 and FSK116

MSD210 FSK116

Kinetic Energy T K

Work U W

Potential Energy V U

*
Linear Momentum G p̄

*
Moment M τ
(Moment of Force) (torque or torsional moment)

*
Angular Momentum H L̄
(Moment of Momentum)

4
Chapter 4

Kinetics of systems of particles

Notation for Chapter 4

*
mi r i
P
˙
* * ˙
* * * *
rG = vG and vG = aG ; rG = P 6= 0 (in general)
mi
* * *
. mi ( r G + ρ i ) * mi ρ i
P P
* X * * * *
. . rG = P = rG + ⇒ mi ρ i = m( r G − r G ) = 0
mi m

5
Correspondence with book:

* *
r G= r ρ i= ρi
* *0
0
r G/P = ρ ρ i = ρi
* *
rP= rP r i= ri

Theorem 4/1
* *
¨
F= m rG
P
For a system of particles

Proof * * * *
External forces F i1 , F i2 , ... and internal forces f i1 , f i2 , ... on particle mi .
According to Newton’s second law:
* n *
X X *
¨
F ik + f ij = mi r i , i = 1, 2, ..., n
k j=1
j6=i

Sum over all particles n:

 
n n Xn *  n
!
X X * X X *
¨
F ik + 
 f ij  =

mi r i
 
i=1 k i=1 j=1 i=1
j6=i

but n X
n
* * X * *
f ij = − f ji therefore f ij = 0
i=1 j=1
j6=i
It now follows that n X n
X * X *
¨ (1)
F ik = mi r i
i=1 k i=1

6
By definition
*
mi r i
P
* *
¨ X *
¨
r G= P ⇒ m r G= mi r i (2)
mi

Substitute (2) in (1):

n X *
X *
¨
F ik = m r G
i=1 k
or
* *
¨ *
F = m r G= m a G
P
(4/1)

P *
where F is the sum of the external forces.

Theorem 4/4

The kinetic energy of a system of particles is given by T = 12 mvG

2
+ TG where TG = kinetic
energy relative to G.

* * ˙
*
vi = v G + ρi

Proof
X1 X1 * * X1 
* *
˙
 
* *
˙

T = mi vi2 = mi v i · v i= mi vG + ρi · vG + ρi
2 2 2
therefore
X1 X1 *
˙ *
˙
X
*
˙

*
2
T = mi vG + mi ρ i · ρi + mi ρ i · vG
2 2
but
X *
˙ d X *  * X * *
mi ρ i = mi ρ i = 0 because mi ρ i = 0
dt
therefore
1 2 X1 *
˙
T = mvG + mi | ρ i |2 (4/4)
2 2

7
Theorem 4/5
* *
For a system of particles the sum of the linear momenta is given by G = m v G .

Proof * *
For a particle Gi = mi v i . Therefore
d X
 
* X * X * X * *
˙ * * 
G= Gi = mi v i = mi v G + ρ i = m v G + mi ρ i
dt
* *
G= m v G (4/5)
It now follows that for m constant
*
˙ * X *
G= m a G = F (4/6)a

* P *
and d G= F dt so that over the interval (tb , tf ) :

*
Z tf X *
∆ G= F dt (4/6)b
tb

The right hand side of eq. (4/6)b is defined as the impulse on the system, while the left
hand side is the change in momentum. Because of this eq. (4/6)b is referred to as the
momentum-impulse equation.

Theorem 4/7

*
˙ P *
For a fixed point O: H O = M O
Proof * P* *
By definition: H O = r i ×mi v i therefore

*
˙ d X * *

HO = r i ×mi v i
dt
X *
˙ * X * *
= ri ×mi v i + ri ×mi a i
*
 
X * *
 X * *
= mi v i × vi + ri × Fi + fi
 
X * * X * * * X *
= ri × Fi + ri × fi f =
i f ij 
j
X * XX * *
= MO + ri × f ij
i j

8
 P
where MO is the sum of the moments of the external forces about O. The second term
is equal to zero according to the following argument:

∀(i, j) ↔ (j, i) and fij = fji and therefore also

* *
f ij = − f ji .

The contribution of
* * * *
a pair = r i × f ij + r j × f ji
* *
 * *
= r i − r j × f ij = 0

It follows therefore that

*
˙ P *
HO= MO (4/7)

Preliminaries to Theorem 4/9

* * *
˙ * * *
ρi ×mi ρ i r i= r G + ρi
P
H G/G =
 
* *
˙ *
˙
ρi ×mi r i − r G
P
=
* *
˙ * *
ρi ×mi r i + v G × mi ρ i
P P
=
* *
=H G/O =H G

and 0
* * *
˙ * * *0
ρi ×mi ρ i r i= r P + ρi
P
H G/P =
 
* *
˙ *
˙
ρi ×mi ri − rP
P
=
* *
˙ *
˙ *
ρi ×mi r i + r P × mi ρ i
P P
=
* *
=H G/O =H G

9
Theorem 4/9
*
˙ *
˙ *
˙ *
˙ P *
H G =H G/G =H G/O =H G/P = MG
Proof

It follows that
d X*
 
*
˙ *
˙ * * *
HG = ρ i ×mi r i r i= r G + ρi
dt  
* *
¨ *
˙ *
˙ *
˙
ρi ×mi r i ρi ×mi rG ρi
P P
= + +
*
   
* * *
˙ *
˙ *
˙ *
˙
ρi × ρi ×mi ρ i mi ρ i × rG
P P P
= Fi + fi + +
* * * *
ρi × Fi + ρi × fi
P P
=

*
˙ P *
H G= MG (4/9)
P
MG is the sum of the moments of the external forces about G.

Theorem 4/10
* * * *
About any point P : H P = r G/P ×m v G + H G

Proof
By definition
* *0 *
˙ P * *  *
˙
ρi ×mi r i = r G/P + ρ i × mi r i
P
HP =
* *
˙ * *
˙
= r G/P × mi r i + ρi ×mi r i
P P

* * * *
H P = r G/P ×m v G + H G (4/10)

10
Theorem 4/11
* * * *
˙
M P = r G/P ×m a G + H G
P
About any point P :

Proof
* *0 * *0 * *0 *
ρi × F i= ρi × Fi + ρi × fi
P P P P
MP =
*0 * *0
 
* *
ρi × ρi ×mi a i
P P
= Fi + fi =
P * *
*
¨

= r G/P + ρ i × mi r i
* *
¨ * *
¨
= r G/P × mi r i + ρi ×mi r i
P P

d X*
  X
* * *
˙ *
˙ *
˙
= r G/P ×m aG + ρ i ×mi r i − ρ i ×mi r i
dt
* * * *
˙
M P = r G/P ×m a G + H G
P
(4/11)

Note
P * *
˙
If P is not fixed M P 6=H p (in general)

Proof
*
˙ d d h* *
i *
˙
HP = [ (4/10) ] = r G/P ×m v G + H G
dt dt
* * *
˙ *
˙ *
= r G/P ×m a G + H G + r G/P ×m 
vG 
P * *
˙ *
˙ *
= M P (according to (4/11)) + r G − r P × m v G
* * *
 *
M P − v P × v G m 6=
P P
= M P (in general)

11
Steady mass flow

Rate at which mass flows into given reference volume = rate at which it flows out
P *
F represent external forces on
system.
Isolated system:
≡ mass in reference volume +
container wall + ∆m.
For steady flow:
ρ 1 A1 v 1 = ρ 2 A 2 v 2 = m 0 = dm
dt
where m0 = mass flow rate.

Theorem 4/18

For steady mass flow the following apply:

* * *
i). The momentum-impulse equation: ∆m( v 2 − v 1 ) =
P
F ∆t
* *
m0 ∆ v =
P
ii). The forces equation: F

Proof

Consider the time interval (t, t + ∆t) and suppose the mass that enters the container is
∆m, then the mass leaving will also be ∆m.
*
˙ * * *
From (4/6) it follows for the system that: G= F and therefore ∆ G= tt+∆t F dt.
P R P
* *
For steady flow ∆ G in the reference volume is zero. ∆ G for the whole isolated system
therefore simply becomes
* * *
Z t+∆t X *
∆ G= ∆m v2 −∆m v 1= F dt
t

P *
If F constant over the interval:
* * *
∆m( v 2 − v 1 ) =
P
F ∆t (4/18)i

or
∆m * * X *
( v 2 − v 1) = F
∆t
and if ∆t → 0 it follows that
* * *
m0 ( v 2 − v 1 ) =
P
F (4/18)ii

12
Theorem 4/19

For steady mass flow the following apply about any fixed point O:

i). Angular momentum - angular impulse equation:

* * * * P *
∆m( d 2 × v 2 − d 1 × v 1 ) = M O ∆t

ii). Moments equation:

* * * * P *
m0 ( d 2 × v 2 − d 1 × v 1 ) = M O

P *
where M O is the sum of the moments of the external forces.
Proof

Consider the flow of mass ∆m in and out of a reference volume over interval (t, t +
*
˙ P * * P * *
∆t). From (4/7) follows H O = M O or d H O = M O dt. Over the interval: ∆ H O =
R t+∆t P * P * * *
t M O dt = M O ∆t if M O constant. For steady mass flow ∆ H O in the reference
*
volume is zero. Therefore for an isolated system ∆ H O is given by
* * * * * *
∆ H O = d 2 ×∆m v 2 − d 1 ×∆m v 1 =
P
M 0 ∆t (4/19)i
* * * * *
∆m
× v 2 − d 1 × v 1) = M O , in the limit as ∆t → 0
P
or (
∆t d 2

* * * * *
m0 ( d 2 × v 2 − d 1 × v 1 ) =
P
MO (4/19)ii

13
Chapter 5

Plane kinematics of rigid bodies

Time derivative of a rotating fixed length vector

* ^e
Consider a vector r of fixed length but ro-
*
tating in the x-y plane. Thus, | r | = r = con-
^e
stant with time, but the first time derivative r
*
of r is not equal to a zero vector, due to the ∆r
* * *
rotation of r . Let ı and  be the unit vec- y r
t+ ∆ t
tors in the x and y directions, respectively, ∆θ
* * * r
t
and k = ı ×  the unit vector in the z di-
rection, for a right-handed axis system. Let
*
the angular velocity with which r is rotating
* *
be ω = ω k . x
*
During a small time interval ∆t, from time t to t + ∆t, r therefore rotates through a
small angle ∆θ = ω∆t. From the sketch it is clear that
* * *
 
∆ r = r  − r  .
t+∆t t

* *

Let êr and ê be unit vectors in the directions of r  and ∆ r , respectively, as indicated in

t
*
the sketch. Furthermore, let êt = k × êr . Note: ê 6= êt , but lim ê = êt .
∆t→0

Now,
* *
 
r − r
 *
d* ˙
* t+∆t t ∆r
r = r = lim = lim
dt ∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t

r∆θ ê rω∆t ê
= lim = lim = rωêt
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
* * *
= rω( k × êr ) = ω × r

14
This is a rather important result, which states that the time derivative of any fixed length
vector that is rotating, is merely the cross product of the angular velocity vector of the
rotating vector with the vector itself. Axis1
*
6ω

Consider now a rigid body rotating about an

axis through point O, as shown to the right
*
(similar to M&K figure 5/4). If r as used
above is now taken as the position vector of O
* *
a point A on the rigid body, relative to point r v
*
O, the velocity of point A is given by v =
*˙ * * A
r = ω × r as shown above. The above may
therefore be considered as a formal proof of
the first equation of M&K equation 5/3.

Relative velocity analysis of rigid bodies

SolidWorks Student License
Academic Use Only

The theory in this section is an alternative y

approach to M&K section 5/4 and follows A
logically from the time derivative of a rotat-
ing fixed length vector discussed in the pre-
vious section.
*
*
r A/B
Consider two points A and B that are free rA
to move in a single plane, the x-y plane. Let
* *
r A and r B be the position vectors of the two B
points relative to the origin, as depicted in *
rB
the figure to the right. The position vector O
* x
of A relative to B is r A/B .
The following is always true:
* * *
rA = r B + r A/B .
Taking the first time derivative of this equation leads to
˙
* * ˙
* ˙
*
rA = v A = r B + r A/B
* *
= v B + v A/B (5/4)

*˙ * *
where r A/B = v A/B is the velocity of A relative to B. One may consider v A/B as the
velocity of A as seen by a non-rotating observer positioned at and moving with B.

Consider now the special case where the two points A and B lie on a single rigid body.
*
In this case the vector r A/B does not change in length over time, but can only change in

15
direction. Thus, using the theory of the previous section,
* ˙
* * *
(5/6)
v A/B = r A/B = ω × r A/B

. * * * *
. . vA = v B + ω × r A/B
Whereas equation (5/4) is valid for any two points A and B, equation (5/6) and the
equation immediately above this paragraph are valid only for two points A and B lying
on a single rigid body.

Relative acceleration analysis of rigid bodies

The theory in this section is an alternative approach to M&K section 5/6 and follows
logically from the time derivative of a rotating fixed length vector and the relative velocity
analysis for rigid bodies, discussed in the two previous sections.

Taking the first time derivative of the relative velocity equation for two general points A
* * *
and B moving in the x-y plane, v A = v B + v A/B , leads to
˙
* * ˙
* ˙
*
vA = a A = v B + v A/B
* *
= a B + a A/B (5/7)

˙
* * *
where v A/B = a A/B is the acceleration of A relative to B. One may consider a A/B as the
acceleration of A as observed by a non-rotating observer positioned at and moving with
B.

Consider now, once again, the special case where the two points A and B lie on a single
*
rigid body. In this case the vector r A/B does not change in length over time, but can only
* * *
change in direction, and, as was seen in the previous section, v A/B = ω × r A/B . Thus,
* ˙
* d * * 
a A/B = v A/B = ω × r A/B
dt
˙ *
* * ˙
*
= ω × r A/B + ω × r A/B
* * * *
= α × r A/B + ω × v A/B
* * * * *
= α × r A/B + ω × ( ω × r A/B )
*  * 
= a A/B + a A/B
t n

where * * * *

a A/B = ω × ( ω × r A/B )
n

16
and * (5/9a)
* *

a A/B =α× r A/B
t

. * * * *
*  * 
. . aA = a B + a A/B = a B + a A/B + a A/B (5/8)
t n
* * * * * *
= a B + α × r A/B + ω × ( ω × r A/B )

Once again, whereas equation (5/7) is valid for any two points A and B, equation (5/8)
and the equation immediately above this paragraph is valid only for two points A and B
lying on a single rigid body.

Relative motion analysis of the wheel rolling without

slipping

M&K performs an absolute motion analysis on the wheel rolling without slipping in
Sample Problem 5/4. But this analysis may also be performed using relative motion
theory. Consider the same wheel as in M&K Sample Problem 5/4. Let C be the point
on the circumference of the wheel that is in contact with the flat surface. The problem
statement is the same as that of M&K Sample Problem 5/4. This means that if we
assume that the centre of the wheel O is moving along a horizontal line with velocity
* * *
v O and acceleration a O , we would like to determine the angular velocity ω and angular
*
acceleration α of the wheel, and also the acceleration of C.

Since point C on the circumference of the wheel is in contact with the flat surface, the
wheel is rolling without slipping and the corresponding contact point on the flat surface
has a zero velocity, we can conclude that, at the moment that we are considering the
wheel, the velocity of point C on the wheel is also zero. A moment earlier, as well as a
moment later, however, when point C is not in contact with the flat surface, its velocity
is not zero. y
6

* * *
vO = v C + v O/C
* *
O v O- a O- * * *
= v C + ω × r O/C

* * * *
α = ω × r O/C as vC =0.
C ω -
x .
. . vO = rω and ω = vO /r .

Turning now to accelerations,

17
 * * * * * * *
aO = a C + α × r O/C + ω × ( ω × r O/C ) .

The following points need to be considered:

• Even though the velocity of point C is zero the moment that it is in contact with
the flat surface, it is not true that its acceleration is also zero at that moment.

• Due to the no slipping condition, the horizontal component of the acceleration of C

on the wheel (i.e., the component tangential to the arc of the wheel) must be the
same as the acceleration of the contact point on the flat surface, i.e. zero. Therefore,
*
a C must be purely in the positive or negative y direction.
* * * *
• ω × ( ω × r O/C ) must be purely in the negative y direction, for ω > 0, as r O/C is in
*
the positive y and ω in the negative z directions.
* * *
• α × r O/C must be purely in the positive x direction, for α > 0, as α is in the
negative z direction.
*
• a O can only be in the positive x direction, for α > 0, as the centre of the wheel
moves in a straight line and can therefore accelerate along that line only.

Equating vector components from the above equation that are in the same directions
therefore leads to
* * * *
a C = − ω × ( ω × r O/C )
and
* * *
aO = α × r O/C .

.
. . aO = rα and α = aO /r .

* * * *
That a C = − ω × ( ω × r O/C ) is confirmed qualitatively by our observation that for point
C to move along the dashed line locus in the top figure of M&K Sample Problem 5/4, a
high positive acceleration in the y direction is required at the moment that it is in contact
with the flat surface, in order to leave the flat surface along the trajectory of the locus.

Instantaneous centre of zero velocity (M&K pg. 361-

362)

The theory relating to the instantaneous centre of zero velocity does not form part of
this module. This theory is however very useful, especially for mechanical engineers. The

18
proof below is not formally included in M&K and is therefore presented here. This theory
is however not examinable.

Consider a rigid body moving in the plane (translating and rotating) with angular velocity
* *
ω= ω k . The velocity of a point A on the body may instantaneously be considered as
*
the velocity as result of pure rotation about a fixed point C, where CA⊥ v A and

vA
CA =
ω
or *
* *
v A =ω × CA

Consider any other point B on the body then

* * *
vB = v A + v B/A
* * * *
 
* * *
= ω × CA + ω × AB= ω × CA + AB
* * * *
= ω × CB= ω k × CB
* *
Thus v B ⊥ CB and B also rotates about the point C. C is therefore a unique axis of
rotation at any instant about which the body rotates and is known as the instantaneous
centre of rotation.

As the body moves the position of C changes both in space (plane) and relative to the
body (in particular w.r.t. G). The respective loci are:
(i) the space centrode and (ii) the body centrode.
* * *
Note that although v C = 0 , in general, a C is not zero. The analyses of velocities simplify
in many cases if use is made of the instantaneous centre of rotation.

19
Chapter 6

Plane kinetics of rigid bodies

Section A: Force, mass and acceleration

General equations of motion

We have previously shown that for a general rigid body in three dimensions the following
apply:
X * * X * *
˙
F = m aG (4/1) M G =H G (4/9)
Diagrammatically these equations may be represented as:

Free body Equivalent Kinetic diagram

diagram Force-couple (resultant
dynamic effect)

20
Plane motion equations
*
Consider a rigid body moving with plane motion in the x − y plane with acceleration a G ,
* * * *
angular velocity ω= ω k and angular acceleration α= α k .

*
˙ * * * * * *
ρ i =ω × ρ i = ρi ω e t also ρ i × e t = ρi k

By definition
* X * *
˙
H G= ρi ×mi ρ i
Therefore
* X * * * X * *
HG = ρi ×mi ( ω × ρ i ) = ρi ×mi ρi ω e t
* * *
mi ρ2i )ω k
X X
= mi ρi ω( ρ i × e t ) = (
* *
= IG ω k = IG ω
*
˙ * * *
Hence it follows that H G = IG dω
dt k
= IG α k = IG α. This result together with (4/9) gives:
X * * *
M G = IG α= IG α k (perpendicular to plane)

The general equations of motion for a rigid body moving in its plane is therefore
* *
F = m aG
P P
MG = IG α (6/1)

Equation (6/1) represents three scalar equations, two force or translation equations and
one moment or rotation equation, and also applies for a three dimensional body moving
parallel to the xGy-plane on the condition that the xGy-plane is a symmetry plane of the
body (given without proof).

21
Alternative moment equation

The general moment equation about an arbitrary point P states that:

X * * * *
˙
M P = r G/P ×m a G + H G (4/11)
* * *
= r G/P ×m a G +IG α k (for plane motion)

* * *
r G/P ×m a G = −dmaG k
* * *
r G/P 0 ×m a G = +d0 maG k

Therefore, in the case of plane motion expression (4/11) simplifies to:

MP = ±dmaG + IG α
P
(6/2)

Special case

Rotation about fixed axis O:

X * * * *
˙
M O = r G/O ×m a G + H G
* * * *
= −d e n ×m(dω 2 e n +dα e t ) + IG α k
* * *
= −md2 α( e n × e t ) + IG α k
* *
= md2 α k +IG α k
* * *
= (IG + md2 )α k = IO α k
X
MO

P
MO = IO α (6/4)

22
System of coupled bodies

Sometimes it is convenient not to consider the parts in isolation but rather the system as
a whole.

* *
reaction forces Rij = −Rji

For each body i individually we have

*i *i * * *
N P = r Gi/P ×mi a Gi +IGi α i
P P
MP + i = 1, 2, 3, ... (I)

*i
M P ⇒ moments of external forces about P .
P

*i
N P ⇒ moments of reaction forces at coupling points (internal forces for system).
P

P P *i *
Sum (I) over all the bodies: i N P = 0 , i.e. moments due to internal reaction forces
vanish.

Set
XX *i X *
MP = MP
i

then it follows that *

X X * * X *
MP = r Gi/P ×mi a Gi + IGi α i
i i
or
±di mi aGi +
P P P
MP = i i IGi αi (6/5)

23
Analysis procedure

In solving force-mass-acceleration problems for the plane motion of rigid bodies, the fol-
lowing steps should be taken:
Step (i) Kinematics
Identify the class of motion (translation, rotation or general), and write down the equa-
tions for the geometrical constraints (absolute or relative). Analysis of the constraints
then give expressions for the relationships between different velocities and accelerations,
in particular for example between linear and angular accelerations.
Step (ii) Free body diagram
Draw the complete free body diagram and indicate the sign convention for the directions
of the accelerations.
Step (iii) Equations of motion
Write down the three equations of motion:
P 
F = maGx
P x


F = maGy (6/1)
P y 
MG = IG α 

or X
MP = ±dmaG + IG α (6/2)
or X
MO = IO α (6/4)
for rotation about a fixed axis through O.
Step (iv) Solution
Solve the equations for the unknowns.

Centre of Percussion (M&K pg. 430)

Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed point O.

Theorem: There exists a point C on line

OG such that the sum of moments about C
of all externally applied forces is equal to a
P * *
zero vector, M C = 0 . This point is a fixed
characteristic point for the rigid body, inde-
pendent of the applied forces, the angular ve-
locity or angular acceleration.

Proof: If we accept that there exists some or other point C for which it is true that
P * * P * *
M C = 0 and we would then write the expression M C = 0 in a general form in terms

24
of the position of point C relative to G and/or O and we find that the expression becomes
* *
independent of ω, α and all applied forces, we can claim that we have proven the second
part of the theorem. The proof of the first part follows from the result that an expression
identifying the point is obtained thus proving its existence.

By applying the moment equation about a general point, eq. (4/11), to point C, we have
X * * * ˙
*
M C = r G/C × m a G + H G
* * * *
= d × m a G + IG α = 0 (1)

But
* * *
aG = rG ω 2 e n + rG α e t
Therefore,
* * * * *
2
d × m a G = d e n × m(rω e n + rG α e t )
*
= −mrG αd k * * *
en × e t = −k
Substitute in (1):
0 = −mrG αd + IG α
and therefore
2
IG mkG k2
d= = = G
mrG mrG rG
*
P 2
(This is the same as saying: for M C to be equal to a zero vector, d = kG /rG according
to eq. (4/11).)

Since the distance d is calculable in terms of characteristic properties of the body and
* *
independent of ω, α and all externally applied forces, the theorem has been proven.

Point C is called the centre of percussion of the body.

Furthermore we can say that C lies a distance q from point O, where q = rG + d =

2 2 2
rG + kG /rG = (rG + kG )/rG = ko2 /rG .
P * *
Further note that since M C = 0 , we can say that the resultant of all externally applied
P*
forces F is working in at C. This means that if a collision occurs at C between another
body and the rigid body rotating about point O, there can be no additional reaction force
due to the collision at O.

It can be shown that at any give point in time there are also other points for which it
P * * *
may be true that M C = 0 , but the positions of these points are not independent of ω
*
and α and therefore these points are not fixed points for the body.

25
Chapter 8

Vibration and time response

Damped free vibration

Assume viscous damping:

damping force = −cẋ

Equation of motion

−kx − cẋ = mẍ

or
c k
ẍ + ẋ + x = 0
m m
q
k c
Now set ωn = m
and m
= 2ζωn where ζ = c/(2mωn ), from which the standard form
follows:
ẍ + 2ζωn ẋ + ωn2 x = 0 (8/9)
where ζ is called the damping factor.

General solution

Assume a solution of the form x = Aeλt and substitute in equation (8/9). This gives the
characteristic equation:
λ2 + 2ζωn λ + ωn2 = 0
The roots of this equation are
 q   q 
λ1 = ωn −ζ + ζ2 −1 λ2 = ωn −ζ − ζ2 −1

By superposition, the general solution is:

x = A1 eλ1 t + A2 eλ2 t

26
  √   √ 
−ζ+ ζ 2 −1 ωn t −ζ− ζ 2 −1 ωn t
x = A1 e + A2 e (8/10)

Since 0 ≤ ζ ≤ ∞ the radicand (ζ 2 − 1) may be positive, negative or even zero, giving rise
to the following three categories of damped motion:

Underdamped system (ζ < 1)

q q
ζ2 − 1 = i 1 − ζ2

The general solution (8/10) now becomes

 √ √ 
−ζωn t i 1−ζ 2 ωn t −i 1−ζ 2 ωn t
x=e A1 e + A2 e
√
Set ωd = 1 − ζ 2 ωn and recalling that e±iθ = cos θ ± i sin θ the solution may be written
as:

x = e−ζωn t {(A1 + A2 ) cos ωd t + i(A1 − A2 ) sin ωd t}

= e−ζωn t {A3 cos ωd t + A4 sin ωd t}

x = Ce−ζωn t sin(ωd t + ψ) (8/12)

ωd is called the damped natural frequency.

x (mm)
The damped period is given by: 30

τd = ω2π = √ 2π
d ( 1−ζ 2 ωn ) Ce−ζωn t
20
The constants C and ψ are determined from τd
 -
the initial conditions 10

• x(0) = the initial displacement, and 0

• ẋ(0) = the initial velocity. −10

−Ce−ζωn t
−20

−30
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t (seconds)

Conditions: m = 1 kg, k = 36 N/m

c = 1 N·s/m (ζ = 0.0833)
x(0) = 30 mm, ẋ(0) = 0

The damping factor ζ may be determined experimentally as follows:

27
 τd = 2π/ωd
x
Assume two successive measured amplitudes x1
 -
are given by x1 and x2 respectively (t2 = t1 +
τd ):

x1 Ce−ζωn t1 sin(ωd t1 + ψ) x2
= t
x2 Ce−ζωn (t1 +τd ) sin(ωd (t1 + τd ) + ψ)
t1 t2
= eζωn τd


x1

δ x = Ce−ζωn t sin(ωd t + ψ)
δ = ln = ζωn τd ζ=
x2 ωn τd

Alternatively
2π ζωn 2π
δ = ζωn =√
ωd 1 − ζ 2 ωn
from which it follows that
δ
ζ=q
(2π)2 + δ 2
(ωn or τd not necessarily known.)

Overdamped system (ζ > 1)

The roots λ1 and λ2 are now distinct real negative numbers. The motion as given by
equation (8/10) decays for large values of t. There is no oscillation and therefore no
period associated with the motion.
x (mm)
30

25

20
c = 15 N·s/m (ζ = 2.5), overdamped
15

c = 6 N·s/m (ζ = 1), critically damped

10

5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

t (seconds)

Conditions: m = 1 kg, k = 9 N/m

x(0) = 30 mm, ẋ(0) = 0

28
Critically damped system (ζ = 1)
In this case λ1 = λ2 and a special mathematical procedure must be followed to obtain the second solution.
It can be shown that the general solution in this case is given by:

x = (A1 + A2 t)e−ωn t

and again the motion decays with x approaching zero for large time t.

Undamped forced vibration

In the case where damping is negligible (c = 0) the equation of motion becomes:

F0
ẍ + ωn2 x = F (t) = sin ωt (8/15)
m
The complete solution is given by
x(t) = xc + xp
where
xc = complimentary solution to the homogeneous equation = C sin(ωn t + ψ) and
xp = particular solution.

We assume xp is of the same form as the excitation force:

xp = X sin ωt

Substitute xp in equation (8/15). This gives

F0 /k
X=
1 − (ω/ωn )2

The complete solution is therefore:

F0 /k
x(t) = C sin(ωn t + ψ) + sin ωt (8/18)
1 − (ω/ωn )2

The complimentary solution xc is known as the transient solution and decays with time because of
damping which will always be present. xp is the steady-state solution with period τ = 2π
ω . The amplitude
X is of particular significance.

Let δst denote the static deflection under the static load F0 : kδst = F0 ; δst = F0 /k. It then follows that
the magnification factor is given by:

29
 6

|M | 3

X X 1
M= = = (8/19)
δst F0 /k 1 − (ω/ωn )2 2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

ω/ωn

Note that for ω < ωn the vibration is in phase with the excitation force F and for ω > ωn the motion is
180◦ out of phase with F (both X and M negative).

Damped forced vibration

Equation of motion
mẍ = −cẋ − kx + F0 sin ωt
or in standard form:
F0
ẍ + 2ζωn ẋ + ωn2 x = sin ωt (8/13)
m

Again the complete solution is

x(t) = xc + xp
where xc in the case of an underdamped system (ζ < 1) is given by (8/12). xp will now, because of
damping, be more complicated (xp = X sin ωt is not an acceptable solution).

Try a solution of the form:

xp = X1 cos ωt + X2 sin ωt
or equivalent
xp = X sin(ωt − φ)
Substitute in (8/13):

F0
−ω 2 X sin(ωt − φ) + 2ζωn ωX cos(ωt − φ) + ωn2 X sin(ωt − φ) = sin ωt
m
This expression must apply for all t, in particular for ωt − φ = 0 for which it follows that
F0 (1)
2ζωn ωX = sin φ
m

30
Also for ωt − φ = π/2 it follows that:

F0 (2)
X(ωn2 − ω 2 ) = cos φ
m

(1)2 + (2)2 :
F02
= X 2 (ωn2 − ω 2 )2 + (2ζωn ω)2

m 2

therefore

F0 /m F0 /k
X=p =p (8/20)
(ωn2 − ω 2 )2 + (2ζωn ω)2 {1 − (ω/ωn )2 }2 + (2ζω/ωn )2

where we use k/m = ωn2 .

(1)/(2) gives:
2ζωn ω 2ζω/ωn
tan φ = =
ωn2 − ω 2 1 − (ω/ωn )2
The phase angle φ is thus:
 
−1 2ζω/ωn
φ = tan (8/21)
1 − (ω/ωn )2
and the complete general solution:

x(t) = Ce−ζωn t sin(ωd t + ψ) + X sin(ωt − φ) (8/22)

Again with δst = F0 /k the magnification factor is given by

X 1
M= =q (8/23)
δst 2 2
{1 − (ω/ωn )2 } + {2ζω/ωn }

π
6
ζ=0
ζ=0
5
ζ = 0.1 -
 ζ = 0.1 ζ = 0.2 -

 ζ=1
4
M φ @
I
(rad) @
3
π/2
@ ζ = 0.5
 ζ = 0.2


 ζ=1 
2

)  ζ = 0.2


 ζ = 0.5
 

1 
9  ζ = 0.1
ζ=1 ζ=0
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

ω/ωn ω/ωn

M = Magnification factor φ = Phase angle

31
Appendix B: Mass moments of
inertia

B/3 Parallel-axis theorem

IC = IG + md2 where the respective axes through C and G are parallel to each other and perpendicular
to the plane.

Proof: r and r0 are the perpendicular distances of the mass-element dm from the respective axes
through C and G. The origin of the u-axis is at G which means that uG = 0.
Z Z
IC = r dm = (r02 + d2 + 2r0 d cos θ)dm
2

Z Z Z
= r02 dm + d2 dm + 2d udm

= IG + md2 + 0
R R R
The last term is zero since, by definition, uG = u dm/ dm and with uG = 0 it follows that u dm = 0.

32
B/7 The thin plate theorem

For a thin plate IOz = IOx + IOy

Proof: the z-axis is perpendicular to the x − y
plane of the plate

Z Z
IOx = y 2 dm IOy = x2 dm

Z Z Z Z
2 2 2 2
IOz = r dm = (x + y )dm = y dm + x2 dm = IOx + IOy

Example
Find IOx of a solid semi-ellipsoid.

Solution
Equation of an ellipsoid
2
z2
a2 + yb2 = 1
z=0 y=b
y=0 z=a
2
b2
y 2 = b2 (1 − az 2 ) = a2 (a
2
− z2)

Choose a disk element (mass dm)

dIOx = 14 dmy 2 + dmz 2 (parallel axes)
= 14 ρπy 4 dz + ρπy 2 z 2 dz
4 2
= 41 ρπ ab 4 (a2 − z 2 )2 dz + ρπ ab 2 (a2 − z 2 )z 2 dz

4 Ra 2 Ra
IOx = 41 ρπ ab 4 h0 (a4 − 2a2 z 2 +
i z 4 )dz +h ρ πb
a2 0 i (z 2 a2 − z 4 )dz
1 b4 5 2a5 a5 b2 a5 a5
= 4 ρπ a4 a − 3 + 5 + ρπ a2 3 − 5
2
  (1)
= 15 ρπb2 a a2 + b2

but

2
dm = ρπy 2 dz = ρπ ab 2 (a2 − z 2 )dz
Ra 2
m = 0 ρπ ab 2 (a2 − z 2 )dz = 32 ρπb2 a

33
or
3m (2)
ρ=
2πb2 a
Substitute (2) in (1):  
2 3m  1
πb2 a a2 + b2 = m(a2 + b2 )

IOx =
15 2ρπb2 a 5

B/9 The parallel-axis theorem for products of inertia

O G
Ixy = Ixy + mdx dy

Proof:
Z
O
Ixy = xydm
Z
= (x0 + dx )(y 0 + dy )dm
Z Z Z Z
= x0 y 0 dm + dx dy dm + dx y 0 dm + dy x0 dm
G
= Ixy + mdx dy + 0 + 0

where y dm = x0 dm = 0 because G is at the origin of the x0 y 0 z 0 coordinate system.

R 0 R

34