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Bridge articulation and bearing specification

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Articulation is the term for the configuration of bridge supports and choice of structural bearings that provides the necessary
restraints to the superstructure whilst at the same time providing freedom to some displacements and rotations in order to avoid
unnecessary forces on both the superstructure and substructure due to constraint.

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A range of different bearing types is available. Selection of the appropriate type and specification of the forces they must resist and
displacements they must permit is a key responsibility for the structural designer.
Clear communication of the requirements for the bearings and for their installation is essential for proper functioning of the structure
and for avoidance of unanticipated maintenance issues.

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Contents
1 Articulation
1.1 Single span bridges
1.1.1 Floating articulation
1.1.2 Articulation from a fixed
point
1.2 Continuous multi-span decks
1.3 Curved bridge decks
2 Expansion joints
3 Bearings
3.1 Elastomeric bearings
3.2 Pot bearings
3.3 Other bearing types
3.3.1 Spherical bearings
3.3.2 Rocker bearings
3.4 Guide bearings
4 Bearing specification
5 Bearing installation
5.1 Initial temperature and
temperature range

Typical elastomeric pot bearing under a steel girder

6 Maintenance of bearings
7 References
8 Further reading
9 Resources
10 See also

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Articulation
Bearings are used to transfer forces from the superstructure to the substructure whilst either tolerating or constraining relative
movement. The principal actions that give rise to displacements and rotations at supports are:
Temperature change (uniform and temperature difference)
Shrinkage of concrete deck slab
Permanent actions (dead loads and superimposed dead loads)
Variable actions mainly traffic loads
Vertical loads
Horizontal loads
Settlement of supports
Accidental actions - vehicular collision

Movements can be either permanent (irreversible) or transient (reversible).

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Generally, the structure will rotate about longitudinal and transverse axes at its supports and these rotations must either be
accommodated in the bearings or the bearings must be designed to resist them (in which case the effects on the structure must
also be considered). In some cases, there is also a rotation about a vertical axis (associated with plan bending of the structure) but
this is usually small in magnitude.
Horizontal displacements at supports arise both from an overall change in length of the structure and due to bending in a vertical
plane (since the centroidal axes are above the levels of the supports). Since it is necessary to resist horizontal forces at at least
one position, it is usual to do so by preventing horizontal displacement at that position; this means that horizontal displacements at
other positions are due to the expansion/contraction of the length from the fixed bearing and to the (vectorial) sum of the
movements due to bending rotation.
The following recommendations relate to the articulation arrangements for typical highway bridges.
As bearings and expansion joints introduce a maintenance liability, it is good practice to limit the number of bearings required and
to minimise the movement to be accommodated by an expansion joint. Spans should be arranged so as to avoid uplift at bearing
positions (it is a very complex and costly matter to provide restraint against uplift in a bearing), particularly when dealing with
skewed structures.
The designer should avoid locking in forces that would hinder bearing replacement. Restraint against longitudinal forces should be
provided at one support, with guided restraints aligned to allow movement at the other supports. Similarly, restraint against
transverse forces should be provided at only one bearing at each support. The construction sequence of the structure should also
be considered, to establish the permanent displacements.
The articulation scheme that the designer chooses should be shown on the drawings and will form the basis of a bearing schedule.
The convention for illustrating the movements and constraints in bearings is given in Table 1 of BS EN 1337-1[1]. A selection of
common symbols is given below.
Symbols for common bearing types (from Table 1 of BS EN 1337-1[1])
Symbol in plan

Type of bearing

Relative movements
X

About

About

About

direction

direction

direction

X axis

Y axis

Z axis

Elastomeric bearing

deforming

deforming

small

deforming

deforming

deforming

Elastomeric bearing with

deforming

none

small

deforming

deforming

deforming

Pot bearing

none

none

very small

deforming

deforming

deforming

Pot bearing with

sliding

none

very small

deforming

deforming

deforming

sliding

sliding

very small

deforming

deforming

sliding

restraints for one axis

unidirectional sliding

Pot bearing with

multidirectional sliding

Note: Some symbols are due to be modified in a future amendment of BS EN 1337-1[1]. The symbols for elastomeric pot bearings
will be solid black, rather than an open square and circle.

Single span bridges

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Floating articulation

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If a bridge deck is relatively small and the associated horizontal forces are not too big, the deck can effectively float on bearings
that will each accommodate rotational and translational displacements and will each provide part of the resistance to horizontal
forces. The bearings for this articulation arrangement will be elastomeric bearings. All horizontal forces and movements are then
accommodated by shear deformation of the bearings.

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Floating bearing layout (single span on elastomeric bearings)

Articulation from a fixed point

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Most bridges will require some form of mechanical restraint to resist the horizontal forces and ensure that thermal expansion and
contraction occurs in the right direction. This is most easily achieved using pot bearings.

Simple bridge bearing layout (single span on pot bearings)

The arrangement above shows the layout for a simple single span structure with skew. The bridge deck is fixed in one corner and
horizontal movements are controlled by the use of guided (unidirectional) bearings. A free (multidirectional) bearing is provided for
the diagonally opposite corner to the fixed bearing. Longitudinal forces are taken by both the fixed and guided bearing at the
fixed end of the span. In a wider deck, it would be preferable to locate the fixed bearing closer to the centre of the deck so as to
minimise the relative transverse movement and thus limit the movements to be accommodated by the expansion joint.

Continuous multi-span decks

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For longer spans, the magnitude of the movements increases and therefore these should be minimised by locating the fixed
bearing at the centre of the bridge to ensure the thermal expansion is split between each end of the bridge. Care should be taken
to ensure that the pier is designed for the resulting horizontal forces, particularly from braking and acceleration actions.

Examples of bearing layouts for a 2-span bridge (on pot bearings)

On multi-span structures, care should be taken to ensure movements are not restrained, however the use of slender piers that are
able to flex may allow for load sharing between bearings at a support location.
Further examples of bridge articulation arrangement are given in Guidance Note 1.04.

Curved bridge decks

Curved decks can be guided either radially

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from a fixed point or tangentially to the radius

of curvature. If the deck is guided radially,
then the accuracy of the geometry becomes
critical for the bearings furthest from the fixed
point.
For structures with a constant curvature it is
best to align the bearings tangentially to
effectively guide the deck around the curve
Radial alignment on a curved bridge
as it expands and contracts. The resulting
horizontal forces are often accommodated by
the use of specific guide bearings which may not be vertical load carrying.

Tangential alignment on a curved bridge

Expansion joints

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Most historic bridges had no specific means of articulation between the deck and substructure: movements would produce local
cracking at the abutments. In modern bridges, articulation arrangements, such as those described above, accommodate thermal
and other movements by selecting appropriatebearings as fixed and allowing controlled movements to take place elsewhere. At
road level, these movements are accommodated by an expansion joint, which isolates the abutments from the displacements and
maintains the integrity of the surfacing at the end of the bridge.
The bridge designer should specify the expansion joints in a similar manner to bearings, giving details of characteristic and design
values of displacements to the joint designer.
Annex B of BS EN 1993-2[2] contains guidance for the preparation of a technical specification for expansion joints.
By introducing bearings, and particularly by introducing expansion joints at road level, a significant maintenance liability is created.
To reduce such liability, integral construction is often considered for short bridges. For example, BD 57[3] currently recommends
that integral construction be considered for all bridges up to 60m overall length and less than 30 skew. This reduces, and in some
cases eliminates, the need for maintenance but the designer must still consider the movements (displacements and rotations) that
are induced by traffic and thermal actions and make appropriate allowances.

Bearings

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The product standard for bearings is BS EN 1337 and this is the standard referred to in the Eurocodes. BS EN 1337 comprises 11
Parts, of which the most relevant are:
1. Part 1: General rules[1]
2. Part 2: Sliding elements[4]
3. Part 3: Elastomeric bearings[5]
4. Part 5: Pot bearings[6]
5. Part 8: Guided bearings and Restrained Bearings[7]

The choice of bearing will be governed by both the values and directions of the actions and also by the magnitude and directions
of the allowed and restrained displacements. Typical load bearing capacities (at ULS) are tabulate below.
Further guidance on the types of bearings and their usage can be found in Guidance Note 3.03.
Load capacity of bearing types
Type

Load capacity (kN)

Strip

200 1,000

Pad

10 500

Comments
Limited translation and rotation, and used only for very short spans and light loads

Elastomeric

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Laminated
Pot

100 1,000

Widely used for short spans

500 30,000

Proprietary product, widely used on steel bridges

Line rocker

1,000 10,000

No lateral rotation, fixed bearings, rail bridges, large longitudinal rotation

Spherical

1,000 12,000

Expensive, large rotation capacity, used on major steel bridges

Elastomeric bearings

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Elastomeric bearings normally consist of a number of rubber layers separated by

steel plates. These are normally laid in pads or strips and are ideally suited for
small structures. They accommodate movements by deformation. It is not
normally required to fix the bearing in place as friction between the rubber and
the support surfaces will normally be adequate.
Elastomeric bearings provide an excellent economic solution for applications
where structure movements, longitudinal, transverse and rotational are small.
They provide vibration isolation and are generally simple to install. Elastomeric
bearings are relatively maintenance free but will degrade over time and require
replacement.
Larger movements require taller bearings and possibly additional mechanical
means of preventing the bridge deck from effectively floating from the desired
position. When used on steel bridges, elastomeric bearings can be positively
located using perimeter keep strips welded to the underside of the bottom girder
flange.
Elastomeric bearing

Pot bearings

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The elastomeric pot bearing consists of a confined disk of elastomer within a short cylinder (the pot). Loading is then applied via a
close fitting steel piston. This puts the elastomer under high pressure, making it behave like a liquid, permitting rotation in any
direction with very little resistance.
A sliding surface can be included to accommodate translational movement, which can be in any direction or constrained by guides.
The rotations and the translations, as well as the loads carried, can be greater than for elastomeric bearings.

Elastomeric pot bearing with multi-directional sliding part

Other bearing types

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Spherical bearings

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Spherical bearings are used to accommodate large rotations by the use of a lower spherical surface. This is normally lined with
dimpled PTFE and matched to an upper stainless steel surface. These types of bearings are more expensive than pot bearings
due to the increased machining and would only be used on major structures, to accommodate increased deck rotations. Generally,
these bearings require a minimum co-existent vertical load to prevent instability.
Spherical bearings

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Plain spherical bearing

Spherical bearing with sliding guided element

Rocker bearings

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These bearings allow rotation about a single axis (usually transverse to the
girder). The advantage of these bearings is that torsional restraint is provided
about the axis orthogonal to the line of contact and therefore can be useful in U
frame bridges. They are often used when impact loading is high, such as on
railway bridges.

Guide bearings

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As the name suggests, these bearings are used to ensure the structure
maintains the correct location or expansion/contraction path and take no vertical
load. These types of bearings are occasionally used on heavily skewed or
multispan structures.

Line rocker bearing

Guide bearing

Bearing specification

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It is the bridge designers responsibility to prepare the bearing schedule. The schedule should contain the following information:
A list of forces on the bearings from each action
A list of movements of the bearings from each action
Other performance characteristics of the bearings

The bearing designer (normally the manufacturer) will then use this information to determine the design values and therefore the
full specification.
There are currently two alternative templates given for the bearing schedule, one is given in Table A.3 of Annex A
of BS EN 1993-2[2] and the other in Table B.1 Annex B of BS EN 1337-1[1].
Table A.3 of BS EN 1993-2[2] requires the designer to give characteristic values due to the separate actions, which then need to

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have partial and combination factors applied to them to give the design value for the bearings. Generally, the bearing designer will
be unaware of the relevant design combinations and will thus not be able to determine design values for the bearings from these
characteristic values.
Table B.1 of BS EN 1337-1[1] simply expects the designer to give the relevant design values of loads (forces on the bearings ) and
displacements. This schedule also requires reference data, maximum dimensions and fixing details to be indicated. This is more
informative for the bearing designer but still does not give the full range of coexisting combination of forces and displacements for
each bearing. (This deficiency will be addressed in the planned Amendment to BS EN 1337-1[1], which will give new schedule
tables.)
Bearing schedule (as in Table B.1 of BS EN 1337-1)[1]
Structure Name or Reference
Bearing Identification Mark
Type of Bearing (see Table 1 of BS EN 1337-1)[1]
Number off
Seating Material

Upper Surface
Lower Surface

Average Design

Upper Face

Serviceability

Contact Pressure
(N/mm2)

Ultimate
Lower Face

Serviceability

(Capacity of structure)
Design Load Effects

Ultimate
Serviceability Limit State

Vertical

(kN)

Max.
Perm.
Min.

Transverse
Longitudinal
Ultimate Limit State

Vertical
Transverse
Longitudinal

Displacement (mm)

Serviceability

Irreversible

Limit State

Transverse
Longitudinal

Reversible

Transverse
Longitudinal

Ultimate Limit

Irreversible

State

Transverse
Longitudinal

Reversible

Transverse
Longitudinal

Rotation (Radians)

Serviceability

Irreversible

Limit State

Transverse
Longitudinal

Reversible

Transverse
Longitudinal

Maximum Bearing

Maximum Rate

Transverse

(Radians / 100kN)

Longitudinal

Upper Surface

Transverse

Dimensions (mm)

Longitudinal
Lower Surface

Transverse
Longitudinal

Overall Height (mm)

Tolerable movement of bearing under transient loads (mm)

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Bridge articulation and bearing specification - Steelconstruction.info

Transverse
Longitudinal
Maximum acceptable reaction to displacement under

Transverse

serviceability limit state (kN)

Longitudinal

Maximum acceptable reaction to rotation under serviceability Transverse

limit state (kNm)

Longitudinal

Type of fixing required

Upper Face
Lower Face

The designer must be aware of the difference between the two schedules and ensure that adequate information is supplied to the
bearing supplier. It is also important, for correct installation, that the orientation of the bearing is clear; see advice in Guidance
Note 2.09.
It is important to note that, for steel bridges, the bearings are normally installed before completion of the bridge deck and therefore
bearings will have to accommodate additional thermal displacements and also movements due to construction activities. A
common situation that must be considered is rotation due to pre-camber and the drop-out during construction, particularly in
heavily skewed structures where may be large transverse rotations at the supports. These rotations are a function of the plan
geometry and are related to the magnitude of the dead load effects and the pre-camber provided, they cannot be avoided.

Bearing installation

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Bearings are normally bolted to the girders above and the substructure below to allow replacement. Normally the bearing surface is
set to be horizontal and therefore taper plates are normally required to follow the geometry of the steelwork above. These taper
plates should be designed along with the main girders, taking into account the final geometry of the bridge post camber. The
bearings are normally bolted through the girder bottom flange though difficulties do arise with thick flanges and moderate to large
gradients since it is only feasible to drill square to the flange surface. A common solution to this problem is to use tapped holes in
the taper plate, which is then welded to the underside of the girder; when using this detail, the horizontal forces on the bearing
need to be minimised. Refer to Guidance Note 2.08 for more information.

Skew ladder deck being lowered onto an elastomeric pot bearing

(Image courtesy of Arup)

Attachment of bearing by bolting through girder flange

Initial temperature and temperature range

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An estimate for the initial installation temperature for the installation of the bearing should be given by the designer to the
constructor enable the bearing to be set correctly prior to installation, in order to allow the full expansion and contraction
displacements to be accommodated. This is not explicitly stated in Annex B of BS EN 1337-1[1] but is stated in Annex A of BS EN
1993-2[2]. Some guidance for this installation temperature and the associated temperature range is found in the Eurocodes but
there remains some potential confusion. The following is an attempt to guide the designer through the relevant parts of the
Eurocodes relating specifically to bearings and expansion joints as the onus is on the designer to specify the range of
displacement at the ultimate limit state.
An initial bridge Temperature T0 is given in the National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-5[8], clause NA.2.21 states that "In the absence of
specific provisions to control the temperature at which a bridge is restrained, the initial temperature T0 should be taken as 0C for
expansion and 20C for contraction." This would then be taken in conjunction with BS EN 1991-1-5[9] clause 6.1.3.3 (3) Note 2 for
bearings which adds 20C to both the expansion and contraction range of the uniform temperature component if no further
information is available. This may be reduced to an additional 10C if an initial installation temperature is specified. However,
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clause NA.2.6 of the National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-5

then points the designer to BS EN 1993-2 .

Annex A of BS EN 1993-2[2] requires a reference T0 to be calculated as above. The uncertainty of the position of a sliding bearing
at installation should be accounted for by adding T0 as described in Table A.4. The design value for temperature difference is
then determined by adding T0 to TK and including a safety term Ty, which is given as 5C.
It is sensible to give the assumed installation temperature, so as to reduce the temperature range of the bearings a value should
be selected to be such that the temperature expansion and temperature contraction are similar (i.e. in the middle of the range), a
value for T0 of 10C would be reasonable.
Using this installation temperature T0 of 10C as the reference temperature will give similar but not identical results for both
methods. As the designer should use the temperature ranges given to estimate the maximum reversible displacements, there is
scope for conservatism here without undue cost.
Verification of the initial installation temperature on site will need to be made in accordance with BS EN 1337-11[10].
Further guidance on how designers should calculate the movement range to be specified for bridge bearings, taking account of
both thermal change and uncertainty in the relative positioning of bearings on the sub- and superstructures, is available in SCI
P406.

Maintenance of bearings

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Clause A.3.1 (6) of BS EN 1993-2[2] states that
bearings and supports should be designed in such a
way that they can be inspected, maintained and
replaced if necessary. To achieve this, access for
inspection must be provided, there must be means to
relieve the bearings of load, and it must by physically
possible to extract the old and insert a new bearing.
At an abutment, a common design feature that
facilitates inspection and maintenance of the bearings
is the abutment gallery. An example of the arrangement
for a composite bridge is shown right.

Abutment gallery for a composite bridge

References

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1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 BS EN 1337-1:2000. Structural bearings. General design rules. BSI
2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 BS EN 1993-2:2006 Eurocode 3 - Design of steel structures: Steel Bridges. BSI
3. ^ BD 57/01 Design for Durability. The Design Manual for Roads and bridges. TSO
4.
5.
6.
7.

^ BS EN 1337-2:2004.Sliding elements. BSI

^ BS EN 1337-3:2005. Structural bearings. Elastomeric bearings. BSI
^ BS EN 1337-5:2005. Structural bearings. Pot bearings. BSI
^ BS EN 1337-8:2007. Guided bearings and Restrained Bearings. BSI

8. ^ 8.0 8.1 NA to BS EN 1991-1-5. UK National Annex to Eurocode 1: Actions on structures: General actions Thermal actions. BSI
9. ^ BS EN 1991-1-5. Eurocode 1: Actions on structures: General actions Thermal actions. BSI
10. ^ BS EN 1337-11:1998. Structural bearings. Transport, storage and installation. BSI

Further reading

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Hendy, C.R.; Murphy, C.J. Designers Guide to BS EN 1993-2 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 2 Steel bridges. Thomas
Telford Ltd.
Hayward, Alan; Weare, Frank. (1989) Steel Detailers Manual. BSP.
Ray, S.S; Barr, J.; Clark, L. (1996) Bridge detailing guide. (Report R155) CIRIA.
Souby, M. (2001) Bridges design for improved durability. (Report C543) CIRIA.

Resources
Iles, D.C. (2010) Composite highway bridge design. (P356 including corrigendum, 2014). SCI
Section 8.8

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Hendy, C.R.; Iles, D.C. (2015) Steel Bridge Group: Guidance Notes on best practice in steel bridge construction (6th Issue). (P185).
SCI
Guidance Note 1.04 Bridge articulation
Guidance Note 2.08 Attachment of bearings
Guidance Note 2.09 Alignment of bearings
Guidance Note 3.03 Bridge bearings
Steel Bridges: A practical approach to design for efficient fabrication and construction. (51/10). BCSA
Section 3.10: Bearings
Iles, D.C. (2015) Determining design displacements for bridge movement bearings. (P406, 2015). SCI

See also

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Integral bridges
Half-through bridges
Skew bridges
Category: Bridges

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