Components Weight Estimating

General Aviation Airplanes

Note: These equations are only valid for the British Units System.
Wing Weight
Cessna method
The following equations should be applied only to small, relatively low performance type airplanes with
maximum speeds below 200 knots. The equations apply to wings of two types: cantilever wings and strut
braced wings. Both equations include, weight of wing tip fairing wing control surfaces both equations
exclude: Fuel tanks wing/fuselage spar carry-through structure effect of sweep angle for cantilever wings,
the wing weight is determined from:
0.397 0.397 0.360
WwCessan 0.04674WTO
S w nult ARw1.712
Eqn-1
Where
WTO
Takeoff Weight
Sw
Wing Area
nult
Ultimate Load Factor
ARw
Wing Aspect Ratio
The wing weight for strut braced wings is found from:
0.611
WwCessan 0.002933S w1.018nult
ARw2.473
Eqn- 2
Note: The equation for the strut braced wing does not account for take-off weight and should therefore be
used with caution.
USAF method
The following equation applies to light utility type airplanes with performance up to about 300 knots.
The wing weight is solved from:
WwUSAF

0.65

W n AR w
96.948 TO 5 ult
10 cos c / 4w

0.57

Where
WTO
Sw
nult
ARw
c/4

Takeoff Weight
Wing Area
Ultimate Load Factor
Wing Aspect Ratio
Wing Sweep Angle @1/4 Chord

w
(t/c)W
VH

Wing taper ratio

Wing thickness ratio
Equivalent Maximum Level Speed

Sw

100

0.61

1
w

2 ct r
w

0.36

VH EAS
1

500

0.993

Eqn- 3

EAS

Torenbeek method
The equation below applies to light transport airplanes with take-off weight below 12,500 lbs (55,603 N).
The wing weight is determined from:
0.75
0.3
0.5

6.25 cos c / 2w

bw
b
S
0.55
w
w
1

WwTorenb 0.00125WTO nult
Eqn- 4
t W cos
cos c / 2

bw
rw TO
c / 2w

For WTO >12500 Ib

Wwg 0.0017Wzf n

0.55
ult

bw

cos c / 2
w

1.05

Where

6.25 cos c / 2w

bw

S w

t W
rw Zf

0.3

Eqn- 5

WTO
Wzf

Takeoff Weight
maximum zero fuel weight = WZf WTO WF

Sw
nult
c/2

Wing Area
Ultimate Load Factor
Wing Sweep Angle @ 1/2 Chord

w
(t/c)W
tr

Wing taper ratio

Wing thickness ratio
The maximum thickness of the wing root chord

The wing span is calculated from: bw

S w ARw

The maximum thickness of the wing root chord for straight tapered wings is found from:

t 2S w

t rw
c rw bw 1 w

Eqn- 6

Notes
Eqn - 5 include weight of normal HLD and aileron
Spoiler and speed brake
+2%
2 wing mounted engine
-5%
4 wing mounted engine
-10%
Landing gear mounted
-5%
Braced wing
-30% and for strut +10%
For fowler flaps
+2%
Horizontal Tail Weight:
Cessna method
The following equations should be applied only to small, relatively low performance type airplanes with
maximum speeds below 200 knots. The horizontal tail weight is found from:

WhCessna
Sh
ARh
tr

0.887 0.101
3.184WTO
S h ARh0.138
174.04t r0h.223

Eqn- 7

Horizontal Tail Area

Horizontal Tail Aspect Ratio
The horizontal tail root maximum thickness is found from:

t 2S h

t rh
c rh bw 1 h
(t/c)r

Eqn- 8

Horizontal Tail thickness ratio

h

bh
Sh

Horizontal Tail span

Horizontal Tail Area
h
Horizontal Tail taper ratio
The horizontal tail span is given by: bh S h ARh
USAF method
The following equation applies to light and utility type airplanes with performance up to about 300 knots.
The horizontal tail weight is solved from:

bh
(t/c)r

0.483
W n 0.87 S 1.2
TO ult h
lh

WhUSAF 127

0.289
10 5 100
10

horizontal tail span

Horizontal Tail thickness ratio

bh

tr
h

0.458

Eqn- 9

The X-distance between the horizontal tail and wing mean geometric chord quarter chord points is
determined from:

l h X apexh xmgch

ch
c
X apexw xmgcw w
4
4

Where:
Xapex

is the X-coordinate of the horizontal tail apex.

xmgc

is the X-location of the horizontal tail mean geometric chord leading edge relative

to the horizontal tail apex.

Ch
Xapex
xmgc

is the horizontal tail mean geometric chord.

is the X-coordinate of the wing apex.
w

is the X-location of the wing mean geometric chord leading edge relative to the wing
w

apex.
is the wing mean geometric chord.
Cw
The X-location of lifting surface mean geometric chord leading edge relative to the lifting surface apex is
given by:

xmgcls y mgcls tan LEls

where:
l.s.
ymgcl.

Stands for 'lifting surface'

is the Y-distance between the lifting surface apex and the lifting

LEl

surface mean geometric chord.

is the lifting surface leading edge sweep angle.

The Y-distance between the lifting surface apex and the lifting surface mean geometric chord is given by:
b 1 2 ls
ymgcls ls
61 ls
where:
l.s.
stands for "lifting surface".
bl
is the lifting surface span.
s

is the lifting surface taper ratio.

The lifting surface leading edge sweep angle is computed from:


1 ls
LEls tan 1 tan c / 4ls

ARls 1 ls

where:
C/4
is the lifting surface quarter chord sweep angle.

is the lifting surface taper ratio.

AR
is the lifting surface aspect ratio.
The lifting surface mean geometric chord is given by:
4 1 ls 2ls
Sls
cls
2
ARls
31 ls
It denotes either 'w' for wing, 'h' for horizontal tail or 'c' for canard.
The lifting surface span is given by: bls S ls ARls

Torenbeek method

S h0.2VDEAS
WhlTorenb K h S h 3.81
0.287
1000 cos c / 2h

where
Kh =1.0
Kh = 1.1
where:
kh
Sh
VD

Eqn- 10

for fixed incidence stabilizers

for Variable incidence stabilizers
is a horizontal tail weight constant.
is the horizontal tail area.
is the equivalent flight design dive speed.

EAS

C/2

is the horizontal tail half chord sweep angle.

Vertical Tail Weight:

Cessna method
The following equations should be applied only to small, relatively low performance type airplanes with
maximum speeds below 200 knots.
The vertical tail weight is determined from:
0.567 1.249
1.68WTO
Sv ARv0.482
WvCessna
Eqn- 11
0.747
174.04trv cos c / 4v

where:
Sv
ARv
tr

is the vertical tail area.

is the vertical tail aspect ratio.
is the vertical tail root maximum thickness.

c/4

is the vertical tail quarter chord sweep angle.

USAF method
The following equation applies to light and utility type airplanes with performance up to about 300 knots.
The vertical tail weight is calculated from:
WvUSAF

where:
nult
Sv
bv
tr

0.87
1.2

b
WTO nult Sv

98.5

0.289 v
5
t
10 100
rv

is the airplane ultimate load factor.

is the vertical tail area.
is the vertical tail span.
is the vertical tail maximum root thickness.

0.5 0.458

Eqn- 12

Torenbeek method

Sv0.2VDEAS
WvTorenb K v Sv 3.81
0.287
1000 cos c / 2 v

Eqn- 13

where
Kv =1.0 for fuselage mounted horizontal tails

S z
K v 1 0.15 h h for fin mounted horizontal tails
Svbv

where:
Kv
Sv
VD

is a vertical tail weight constant.

is the vertical tail area.
is the equivalent flight design dive speed.

C/2

is the horizontal tail half chord sweep angle.

EAS
h

Fuselage Weight:
Cessna method
The following equations should be applied only to small, relatively low performance type airplanes with
maximum speeds below 200 knots. The equation does not account for pressurized fuselages. The
fuselage weight is computed from:
W f W f low
z

Z C r / 4 Z fc w f
W f cessna W f low high
Eqn- 14

w
zf
2

where:
Wf
is the fuselage weight for a low-wing airplane according to Cessna method.
low

Wf

is the fuselage weight for a high-wing airplane according to Cessna method.

Zf
Zcr/4

is the fuselage height at wing root.

is the Z-coordinate of wing root quarter chord point.

high

Zfc

is the Z-coordinate of fuselage centerline in region of wing.

w

The fuselage weight for a low-wing airplane is found from:

0.692 0.374 0.590
W f low 0.04682WTO
Pmax L f

where:
Pmax
is the maximum fuselage perimeter.
Lf
is the fuselage length.
The fuselage weight for a high-wing airplane is determined from:
0.778
Lf
0.455
0.144

W f high 14.86WTO
L0f.383 N pax N crew
P
max
where:
Npax
is the number of passengers.
Ncrew
is the number of crew.
The maximum perimeter is calculated from:
Pmax D f maxw

Eqn- 15

Eqn- 16

Eqn- 17

where:
Dfmax is the fuselage maximum diameter.
w

Torenbeek
For cylindrical cabin sections of fuselages with high fineness ratio, L/d >5, the gross area may be
estimated with the following equation:


2
S g dL 1

L / d

2/ 3

2
1
2
L / d

Eqn- 18

The fuselage weight may then be approximated by

W f Toreen 0.021S 1g.2 VD ,E

lt
d

Eqn- 19

Sg
fuselage gross shell area in ft2
In this equation the lengths are in feet, the weight is in pounds, and the design dive speed, VD,E, is in
knots. The length lt is the distance between the root quarter-chord points of the tail and the wing, and, for
a first approximation, it may be taken to be the estimated value for lh . To this basic weight, 8% should be
added to account for a pressurized cabin and 7% added if the engines are mounted on the aft fuselage.
USAF method
The following equation applies to light and utility type airplanes with performance up to about 300 knots.
The fuselage weight is calculated from:
W fUSAF

W n 0.286 L f 0.857 w f h f Vc
max
EAS
200 TO ult max
10
100 10
100

where:
Lf
wf

is the fuselage length.

is the maximum fuselage width.

hf

is the maximum fuselage height.

0.338 1.1

Eqn- 20

max

max

Vc

is the equivalent design cruise speed.

EAS

Landing Gear Weight

Cessna method
The following equations should be applied only to small, relatively low performance type airplanes with
maximum speeds below 200 knots. Also, the method is not suitable for airplanes with tail gear(s). The
gear weight is determined from:
Wg cessna Wngcessna Wmg cessna
Eqn- 21
The main gear weight is found from:
0.950 0.183
Wmg cessna 0.013WTO 23 KretractWTO 0.362WL0.417nult
Lssmg
Eqn- 22
The nose gear weight is calculated from:

Wngcessna 6.2 0.0013WTO 13 K retractWTO 0.00715WL0.749nult L0ss.788

ng

Eqn- 23

where:
Lss mg
is the shock strut length for the main gear.
Lss ng
is the shock strut length for the nose gear.
WL
is the design landing weight.
Kretract = 0.0
for non-retractable gears.
Kretract = 0.012 - .016
for retractable gears.
Torenbeek method
The landing gear weight for General Aviation airplanes is calculated using the Torenbeek equations for
Commercial Transport Airplanes. The following method applies to transport airplanes and business jets
with the main gear mounted on the wing and the nose gear mounted on the fuselage. Each gear group is
evaluated separately using the following equation and the appropriate constants for the gear configuration.
The gear weight is computed from:
WgTorenb WmgTorenb WngTorenb WtgTorenb
Eqn- 24
The gear weight is given by:
0.75
1.5
WxgTorenb k gr AxgTorenb BxgTorenbWTO
CxgTorenbWTO DxgTorenbWTO
Eqn- 25

where,
xg = mg for main gear,
xg = ng for nose gear,
xg = tg for tail gear.
Note: BxgToren and DxgTorenb are zero for the tail gear.
The landing gear weight wing location correction factor is determined from:

0.5 z f z fcw zcr / 4w

k gr 1 0.08
zf

Eqn- 26

The above equation yields:

Kgr = 1.0
for low wing airplanes.
Kgr = 1.08
for high wing airplanes.
A/c Type
Jet Trainer
Business Jet

Gear Type
retract
Fixed

Other civil
Aircraft

retract

Gear Comp
Main
Nose
Main
Nose
Tail
Main
Nose
Tail

Ag
33.0
12.0
20.0
25.0
9.0
40.0
20.0
5.0

Bg
0.04
0.06
0.10
0.0
0.0
0.16
0.10
0.0

Cg
.021
0.0
.019
0.0024
0.0024
0.019
0.0
0.0031

Dg
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.5x10-5
2.0x10-5
0.0

USAF method
The following equation applies to light and utility type airplanes with performance up to about 300 knots.
The gear weight is solved from:

.501
WgUSAF 0.054L0ssmg
WL nultL

0.684

Eqn- 27

where:
Lss mg
is the shock strut length for the main gear.
Note: This equation includes nose gear weight. The ultimate load factor for landing may be taken as 5.7.
Powerplant Weight

The aircraft powerplant weight, weight ,Wpwr will consist of the following
1. Engine We (engine, exhaust, cooling, supercharger and lubrication system)
2. Air induction system Wai ( inlet ducts, ramps, spikes and associated controls)
3. Propellers
4. Fuel System
5. Propulsion system( engine controls, starting system, propeller controls)
WPwr We Wai Wprop W fs Wp
Eqn- 28
Obtain actual weight data from engine manufacturers is highly recommended
Engine
Cessna method
The following equations should be applied only to small, relatively low performance type airplanes with
maximum speeds below 200 knots. The total engine weight is found from:
Wengcessna kengCessna SHPTO
Eqn- 29
Where:
SHPTO
takeoff shaft horse power
KengCessna =1.1 to 1.8 for piston engines.
KengCessna =0.35 to 0.55 for turboprop and propfan engines.

Note: These weights represent the so-called dry weight. Normal engine accessories are included in this
weight and engine oil.
USAF method
0.922
WengUSAF Wai Wprop Wp 2.575Weng
Ne

Eqn- 30

Use engine manufactures data to obtain Weng or use ( Cessna method engine weight)
Weng
Weight per engine in Ibs
Ne
Number of engine
Torenbeek method
For piston engine airplanes, the total engine weight is determined from:

WengTorenb 4.486 Neng K s Kinject K gearedVcyl Ncyl

1 / 3 0.6582

Eqn- 31

where:
Kinject piston engines with fuel injection ( correction factor)
1.00 for carburated engines
1.08
for engines with fuel injection
Kgeaed = 1.00 for direct drive engines
1.12 For piston engine gearing correction factor
Ks
is factor for supercharged and turbocharged piston engines
=
Vcyl
is the total swept cylinder volume per engine
Ncyl
is the number of cylinders
Neng
is the number of engine
Ks = f (Pmani/Pair) from figure
For jet engine airplanes, the total engine weight is found from:
P
10.0 N eng 32.174m a t 3

1
Pt 2 0.12 K
WengTorenb
FanTypeTTO 1
0.5
1 BPR
1 0.75BPR
where:
KFanType =1
for conventional turbofans
KFanType =1.2
for geared turbofans
KFanType =1.2
for variable pitch fans
KFanType =1.4
for geared and variable pitch fans

Eqn- 32

Propulsion System Weight

Torenbeek method
0.3
0.7
0.943
WPTorenb 1.03Neng
SHPTO
Wai 0.455Weng
KOilSysWeng

Neng
Number of engine
SHPTO
the takeoff power
Weng
engine weight
KoilSystem
Engine Type Correction Factor for Oil System and Oil Cooler Weight
Typical value:
Engine Type
Jet Engines(Included in Engine Weight)
0.0
Turboprop Engines
0.07
Radial Piston Engines
0.08
Horizontally Opposed Piston Engines
0.03
Air induction system
Cessna method
Wai is included in the propulsion system weight Wp
USAF method
Wai is included in the propulsion system weight Wp

Eqn- 33

Torenbeek method

Wai _ Toren

1.03K ais 0.3

0.7
N eng SHPTO
1 K ais

Eqn- 34

Propeller weight Estimation

Its recommended to use propeller manufacturer data where ever possible
GD method

W prop_ GD

PTO

Dp N
e
K prop1 N p N bl0.391
1000

0.782

Eqn- 35

The Constant Kpropl take on the following values:

Kprop1
24 for turboprops above 1500shp
31.92 for piston engines and turboprops below 1500 shp
Np
is the number of propellers
Nbl
is the number of blades per propeller
Dp
is the propeller diameter in ft
PTO
is the required take off power in hp
Ne
is the number of engines
Torenbeek method

Wprop_ Toren K prop2 N p0.218 D p PTO N bl0.5

Kprop1

0.782

Eqn- 36

0.108 for turboprops

0.144 for piston engines

Fuel System Weight

Cessna method

For aircraft with internal fuel system no tip tanks

W fs _ Cessna

0.40W f

Eqn- 37

K fsp

With external fuel system ( tip tanks)

W fs _ Cessna

Kfsp
WF

0.70WF
K fsp

Eqn- 38

5.87 Ibs/gal for aviation gasoline

6.55 Ibs/gal for JP-4
mission fuel includes reserves

USAF method

Kfsp
int
Nt
Ne

0.3
W 0.6

1
0.2
0.13

W fs _ USAF 2.49 f
N
N

t
e
K fsp 1 int

5.87 Ibs/gal for aviation gasoline

6.55 Ibs/gal for JP-4

fraction of fuel tanks which are integral

number of separated fuel tanks
number of engines

1.21

Eqn- 39

Torenbeek method
For single piston engine installation

W fs _ Toren_ sp

W
2 f
5.87

0.6

Eqn- 40

For aircraft equipped with non self sealing bladder tanks

W fs _ Toren_ ssb

W
3.2 f
K
fsp

0.727

Eqn- 41

For aircraft equipped with integral fuel tanks wet wing

W fs _ Toren_ it

W
80N e N t 1 15 N f
K
fsp

0.333

0.5
t

Eqn- 42

Propulsion System Weight

Depending on aircraft type, the propulsion system weight Wp is either given as function of total engine
weight and /or mission fuel or by

Wp Wes Wess Wpc Wosc

Eqn- 43

Where
Wec
weight of engine controls
Wess
weight of engine starting system
Wpc
weight of propeller controls in Ibs
Wosc
weight of oil system and oil cooler in Ibs.
Cessna method

Use actual data

USAF method
Wp is included in Eqn-30
Torenbeek method
Wp is included in Eqn-31
Fixed Equipment Weight
The list of fixed equipment carried on board aircraft varies significantly with aircraft type and aircraft
mission it will be assumed that the following items are to be included in the fixes equipment cateqory:
1. Flight control system , Wfc
2. Hydraulic system, Whps
3. Electrical system , Wels
4. Instrumentation, avionics and electronics, Wiae
5. Air-conditioning, pressurization, anti- and de-icing system Wapi
6. Oxygen system, Wox
7. Auxiliary power unit (APU) , Wapu
8. Furnishings, Wfur
9. Baggage and cargo handling equipments, Wbc
10. Operational items, Wops
11. Auxiliary gear, Waux
12. Ballast, Wbal
13. Paint, Wpt
14. Wetc

W feq W fc Whps Wels Wiae Wapi Wox Wapu

W fur Wbc Wop Waux Wbal W pt Wetc

10

Eqn- 44

Flight control system

Cessna method

W fc _ cessna 0.016WTO

Eqn- 45

WTO take off in Ibs <8000 Ibs

Aircraft with two sets and mechanical flight controls includes all flight controls system
hardware, cables, pulleys, pushrods, cockpit controls plus any required backup structure.
USAF method
For airplane with un powered flight controls:
0.626
W fc _ USAF 1.066WTO

Eqn- 46

For aircraft wit powered flight controls

0.7
W fc _ USAF 1.08WTO

Eqn- 47

2/ 3
W fc _ USAF 0.23WTO

Eqn- 48

Torenbeek method

Hydraulic and or Pneumatic system weight

The weight of the hydraulic and or pneumatic system needed for powered flight controls
The following weight ratio
For business jets
0.007-0.015 WTO
For regional turboprops
0.0060-0.0120 WTO
For commercial transports
0.0060-0.0120 WTO
For military patrol transport and bombers
0.0060-0.0120 WTO
For fighter and attack aircraft
0.0050-0.0180 WTO
Electrical system weight
Cessna method

Wels _ Cessna 0.26WTO

USAF method

Wels _ USAF

Eqn- 49

W fs Wiae
426

1000

0.51

Eqn- 50

Torenbeek method

Whps_ Toren Wels _ Toren 0.0078WE1.2

Eqn- 51

Where WE is the empty weight

Instrumentation Avionics and electronics
Cessna method

For single engine propeller driven aircraft

Wiae _ cessna 33N pax N cr
For multi engine propeller driven aircraft
Wiae _ cessna 40 .008WTO

Eqn- 52
Eqn- 53

Air-condition Pressurization Anti-And De-icing systems

USAF method

0.52
N pax Ncr Wiae0.17M D0.08
Wapi_USAF 0.265WTO
0.68

11

Eqn- 54

MD is design dive mach number

Torenbeek method
For single engine, unpressurized aircreaft

Wapi_ Toren 2.5N pax

Eqn- 55

Wapi_ Toren .018WE

Eqn- 56

For multi engine

Oxygen system
Cessna method

Wox _ GD 7N cr N pax

0.702

Eqn- 57

Torenbeek method
For flight below 25,000ft

Wox _ Toren 20 0.5N pax

Eqn- 58

Wox _ Toren 30 1.2 N pax

Eqn- 59

Wox _ Toren 40 2.4 N pax

Eqn- 60

For short flight above 25,000 ft

For extended overwater flights

Auxiliary Power unit

Auxiliary power units are often used in transport or patrol type aircraft, commercial as well as military.
The weight ranges are typical of these weight fractions:
Wapu=0.004-0.013 WTO
Eqn- 61
Furnishings weight
The furnishings category includes the following items:
1. Seats insulation, trim panels, sound proofing, instrument panels, control stand Light and wiring.
2. Galley (pantry ) structure and provisions.
3. Lavatory (toilet) and associated system
4. Overhead luggage containers, hattracks, wardrobes
5. Escape provisions, fire fighting
6. Food, Potable water, Drinks, Lavatory supplies
Cessna method
.145
0.489
W fur _ Cessna 0.412 N 1pax
WTO

Eqn- 62

W fur _ Toren 5 13N pax 25N row

Eqn- 63

Torenbeek method
For single engine aircraft
For short flight above 25,000 ft

W fur _ Toren 15N pax 1.0V paxc argo

Where Vpax+cargo is volume of the passenger cabin plus the cargo volume in ft
Baggage and Cargo Handling Equipments
456
Wbc _ GD K bc N 1.pax

Eqn- 64
3

Eqn- 65

Kbc

0.0646 without preload provisions

0.316 with preload provisions
Torenbeek method

Wbc _ Toren 3S ff

12

Eqn- 66

Where Sff is the freight floor area in ft2

For baggage and cargo containers, the following weight may be used
Freight pallets including nets
Weight
88x108 in
225Ibs
88x125 in
262 Ibs
96x125 in
285Ibs
3
Containers 1.6 Ibs/ft (for container dimensions)
Ballast weight
When looking over the weight statements for various airplanes carry amount of ballast. This can have
detrimental effects on speed , pay load and rang performance.
The following reasons can be given for the need to include ballast in the aircraft:
1. The designer goofed in weight and balance calculation.
2. To achieve certain aerodynamic advantages it was judged necessary to locate the wing or to size
the empennage so that the static margin became insufficient. This problem can be solved with
ballast. In this case, carrying ballast may in fact turn out to be advantageous.
3. To achieve flutter stability within the flight envelope ballast weights are sometimes attached to
the wing and/or to the empennage.
Note: balance weights associated with flight control surfaces are not counted as ballast weight.
The amount of ballast weight required is determined with the help of the X-plot. It is can be helpful in
determining the amount of ballast weight required to achieve a certain amount of static margin.
Paint
Transport jets and camouflaged military airplanes carry a considerable amount of paint. The amount of
paint weight is obviously a function of the extent of surface coverage. For a well painted airplane a
reasonable estimate for the weight of paint is:
Wpt 0.003WTO to 0.006WTO
Eqn- 67
Estimation of Wetc
This weight item has been included to cover any items which do not normally fit in any of the previous
weight categories.

13

Empty Weight

Powerplant Weight

Fixed Equipment
Weight

Wing

Propellers

Flight Control

Horizontal Tail

Engines

Hydraulic &
Pneumatic

Vertical Tail

Air induction

Instrumentation
Avionics &
Electronics

Fuel system

Electrical

Structure Weight

V- Tail

Canard
Auxiliary Power

Fuslage

Furnishings

Baggage & Cargo

Handling

Landing Gear

Nacelles
Operational Items
Tailboom

14

Wing Group Center of Gravity

The center of gravity (CG) of the wing group may be estimated according to the suggestions provided in
Table 8-15 of Torenbeek. We may examine this case more closely by consulting the schematic diagram of
the wing shown in Fig 1.
fuselage skin

centerline

wing group CG at 0.7(Xrs-Xfs)

mean aerodynamic chord (MAC)

front spar at 0.25C
rear spar at 0.55C to 0.6C

0.35b/2
YMAC
b/2

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of wing layout for estimating the

location of the wing CG
Fuselage Group Center of Gravity
The fuselage center of gravity (CG) may be taken from the estimates given by Torenbeek (Table 8-15)
and illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3.

0.42 to 0.45 L
L

Figure 2 Approximate location of CG of fuselage group alone

for wing-mounted engines

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0.47L
L

Figure 3Approximate location of CG of fuselage group alone

for fuselage-mounted engines
Landing Gear Group Center of Gravity
The nose gear is placed near the nose of the aircraft and the main landing gear must be placed aft of the
overall CG of the complete aircraft. A first approximation would place the nose and main landing gear at
the approximate locations , depending upon the engine mounting configuration. Using the estimated
weights of the nose and main landing gear and the fuselage length one may approximate the location of
the CG of the complete landing gear system.

0.17L
0.55L

0.14L
0.6L

Figure 4 Approximate locations of landing gear components as

length for different engine mounting configurations

functions of fuselage

Tail Group Center of Gravity

The CG of the tail group is dependent on the nature of the tail configuration. Torenbeek (Table 8-15)
provides some estimates of the CG location for conventional and T-tail arrangements, as shown in Figs.5
and 6.

16

0.42c
0.42c

0.38bh/2

0.38bh/2

(a)
(b)
Figure 5 Approximate location of the CG location of the horizontal tail
for (a) wing-mounted engines and (b) fuselage-mounted engines

0.42c

0.42c
hv
0.38hv
hv
0.55hv

Figure 6 Approximate location of the CG location of the vertical tail

for (a) wing-mounted engines and (b) fuselage-mounted engines
These approximate locations may be used along with the estimated weights of the tail surfaces to develop
the location of the CG of the entire aircraft.
Propulsion Group Center of Gravity
The engine CG should be obtained from the engine manufacturer, or from and estimate based upon the
general configuration of the engine using actual dimensions. The nacelle housing the engines may be
assumed to have a CG located 40% of the length of the nacelle, as measured from the lip of the nacelle.
centerline

fuselage
skin
main landing gear CG at rear spar
and Y=0.22(b/2)
wing group CG at 0.7(Xrs-Xfs)
fuel tank
front spar at 0.25C
rear spar at 0.55C to
0.6C
0.35b/2
0.45b/2
b/2

Figure 7 Composite sketch of wing group, fuel tank, wing-mounted engine,

17

and

landing

gear from which a collective CG may be determined

Aircraft Center of Gravity
The center of gravity (CG) of the aircraft is of great importance with respect to stability and control. This
aspect of the design process follows directly after the weight estimation process and is described in some
detail in Section 8.5 of Torenbeek. Table 8-16 of Torenbeek gives CG limits for a number of different
aircraft and Section 8.5.4 outlines a design procedure to obtain a balanced aircraft. As pointed out in
previous sections of this chapter, Table 8-15 gives the CG locations of various aircraft components. In
addition, information on nacelle placement is given on p. 211 and on wing spar locations on p. 261.
One method for proceeding with the determination of the center of gravity of the complete airplane
involves dividing the airplane into two groups: the fuselage group that includes the fuselage and the tail
surfaces, and the wing group that includes the wing engines, and landing gear. Side and plan views of
these two groups with appropriate dimensions are shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
XFG

XOE
cMAC
XW
XLEMAC

Figure8 Schematic diagram of the two mass groups used in determining the
complete airplane
Taking moments about the nose of the aircraft yields
WOEXOE = WFGXFG + WWG(XLEMAC + XWG)

center of gravity of the

Setting X*=XOE XLEMAC and solving for XLEMAC leads to the following result:
XLEMAC = XFG + (WWG /WFG)XWG (1 + WWG /WFG)X*
The displacement of the center of gravity of the airplane ahead of its Center of pressure determines the
degree of the airplanes longitudinal static stability. If the two points coincide the stability is neutral,
while if the center of gravity falls aft of the center of pressure the airplane will be unstable. It is desirable
in a commercial passenger transport to have sufficient static stability for comfort and robustness of safety
margins while maintaining a level of maneuvering agility suitable to its mission.

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XFG

XOE

cMAC
XLEMAC
XWG

Figure 9 Plan view of the two mass groups for determining the center of gravity of the complete airplane
Presentation of Weight and Balance Results
The results of this chapter are to be presented in a table of group weights as suggested by Table 1, the
diagram of CG locations and travel, and the three-view of the design aircraft showing pertinent
dimensions.
Table 1 Table of aircraft weight breakdown by groups
Group
Weight (lbs)
Wing group
Tail group
Body group
Landing gear group
Surface controls group
Nacelle group
Propulsion group
Airframe services and equipment
Empty weight (WE)
Operational items
Operational empty weight (WOE)
Payload weight (WPL)
Fuel Weight (WF)
Take-off Weight

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XCG(in.)