CHAPTER2:CELLSTRUCTUREANDCELL

ORGANISATION
2.1 UNDERSTANDING CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Cell Structure : Organelle
1. What is organelle?
Organelle is a minute structure in the cytoplasm that has a specific function.
a) Organelle
1. Nucleus

2. Vacoule

Characteristics

Function

-the largest organelle

-control all activities of the cell

-has chromatin thread

-contain DNA which determine the

characteristics and cell functions.

-fluid filled sac enclosed by

membrane called tonoplast.

-vacoule in plants store chemicals such as

water, amino acid, sugar, mineral, waste
product.

(plant cell)
-the fluid is called cell sap.

-vacoule regulates water balance in plant cell

and paramecium
-supports herbaceous plants
3. Mitochondrion

-cylindrical shape

-the site of energy production through cellular

respiration.

-made up of two
Glucose + O2 Energy + H2O + CO2
membrane units
-energy released is used for cellular activities
4. Lysosomes

-contain hydrolytic enzyme.

(animal cell)

-membrane-bound sac

-release enzyme to digest material in food

vacuoles in organisms like Paramecium
-break down complex organic molecules(eg
protein, lipid, polysaccharides & nucleic acid).
-digest bacteria, dead or damaged

organelles to enable a cell to renew itself

5. Chloroplast

-lens-shaped

-traps sunlight (energy) during photosynthesis

(plant cell)

-contains chlorophyll.

6. Centriole

-small cylindrical structure

-form spindle fibres during cell division in

animal cells

-small spherical organelles

-the site of protein synthesis

-either attached to RER or

free

-use information from nucleus to make these

proteins.

(animal cell)
7. Ribosome

8. Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
i) RER

-The membranes of ER are

continuous with the nuclear
membrane
-has ribosomes attached to its
surface

i) RER Transports protein (made by

ribosomes) to Golgi apparatus.
-Protein are packaged in vesicles which are
called transport vesicle.

-does not have ribosomes

ii) Synthesis of lipids (phospholipids and

steroids)

attached to its surface

-Detoxification of drugs & poisons

ii) SER

9. Golgi body/

-stacks of flattened
membranous sacs.

apparatus

-processing, packaging and transport center of

synthesized proteins (such as
enzyme/hormone/antibody, phospholipids and
carbohydrate & glycoproteins (such as mucus).

-new membrane is
continuously added to one
end of Golgi apparatus and -all these modified substances, enclosed in a
buds off as secretoryvesicles secretory vesicle and bud off from the Golgi
at the other end.
body to the cell membrane/other parts of the
cell

Mitochondrion (pl: Mitochondria): AC and PC

spherical / rod-shaped organelles

two membranes: Inner membrane form cristae & Outer membrane regular and
smooth

an energy source

site of cellular aerobic respiration

produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

2. Nucleus (pl: Nuclei): AC and PC

contains the genetic material

regulates and controls the activities of the cell

an organelle bounded by double (2) layers of nuclear membrane with pores and
selectively permeable

responsible for all cellular structure, chemical functions, growth and reproduction

separates the genetic materials (chromatin) from cytoplasm

3. Nucleolus: AC and PC

spherical structure within the nucleus

consists of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) and proteins

visible when the cell is not dividing

synthesis RNA which is needed to make ribosomes

4. Nucleoplasm: AC and PC

fluid contained within the nucleus

highly viscous solid

made up of the chromatin and the nucleolus

5. Chromosomes

thread-like structures (consists of genetic material)

appears as chromatin spread throughout the nucleus in the form of tiny granules

chromatin condenses into chromosomes (during cell division)

carry genetic information in its DNA

6. Ribosomes: Ac and PC

small dot-like organelles

protein synthesis

consist of RNA (ribonucleic acids)

smallest cellular organelles

attached on the surface of ER and occur freely in cytoplasm

7. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): AC and PC

connected to the nuclear membrane

synthesises proteins, steroids and lipids

collects, stores and distributes protein, steroids and lipids

exists as rough ER and smooth ER

Rough ER: covered with ribosomes, flat sealed sac which continued from the nuclear
membrane, transports protein, and have a large surface area for chemical reactions.

Smooth ER: does not have ribosomes, transports lipids and presents in large amounts
of cells.

8. Plasma membrane: AC and PC

cell membrane

thin membrane surround the cytoplasm of a cell

selectively permeable / semi permeable

a protective and selective outer barrier

consists of phospholipids and protein molecules

To be continued.. Upcoming post involves Golgi apparatus/body, Cytoplasm, Lysosome,

Centriole, Vacuole, Cell wall, Chloroplast.

Keys:

AC and PC = similarities

AC or PC = differences (Carbohydrates storage: AC = Glycogen / PC = Starch)

. Golgi apparatus / Golgi body: AC and PC

bound sacs

processes, packages and transport molecules synthesised in the cell

forms lysosomes

transports and stores lipids

synthesis of carbohydrate from hormone

changes protein into glycoprotein

excretes waste products out of the cell

10. Cytoplasm: AC and PC

aqueous solution (except nucleus)

stores water, enzymes, nutrient, salts and dissolved gases

provided support, shape and protects the cell organelles

medium for metabolic reactions

provides substances

11. Lysosome: AC

sac-like organelle with one membrane

digest proteins, lipids and carbohydrates

removes undigested materials

releases enzymes to digest external materials

12. Centriole: AC

are paired cylindrical organelles

nine tubes with three tubules each

produces spindle during cell division (mitosis and meiosis)

migrate to the opposite poles of the cell (during cell division will be discussed in
Chapter 5 Cell Division)

13. Vacuole: AC (temporary / lower class species) and PC

small cavity in the cytoplasm

bound by a single membrane

filled with cell sap

storage of food (protein, oil and water)

some vacuoles remove metabolic waste

functions as cell expansion

Amoeba: food vacuoles (phagocytosis)

Paramecium: contractile vacuoles (expel water)

14. Cell Wall: PC

rigid and tough cellulose layer surrounding the plasma membrane (cell membrane)

protects and supports the cell

maintains the shape

prevents the cell from busting (excessive intake of water)

allows substances to move freely through the cell wall

15. Chloroplast: PC

disc / lens-shaped organelle

have two membranes: inner and outer membrane

contains chlorophyll in the grana to trap sunlight energy

carry out photosynthesis in the chlorophyll

storage of food and pigments

Keys:

AC and PC = similarities

AC or PC = differences (Carbohydrates storage: AC = Glycogen / PC = Starch)

Mitochondria

Animal: High density at sperm cells (at middle piece to provide sufficient energy for
motive power), flight muscle cells (bird / avian), liver cells, meristematic / meristemic
cells (involve with cell division), kidney cells, heart muscle cells, brain cells.

Chloroplasts

Plant: High density at palisade mesophyll (leaf: below upper epidermis). It functions
to trap sunlight to synthesise sugar during photosynthesis.

The Uniqueness of The Cell

A cell is unique:
1. Specialisation
2. Division of labour
3. Coordination and integration
Example of specialisation of cells :

Animal smooth muscle cell, neuron (nerve cell), white blood cell, red blood cell
(erythrocyte), cheek cell (lining epithelial cell), sperm, ovum cell (the biggest cell in
human)

Plant palisade mesophyll cell, xylem, phloem, guard cell.

Cell Organisation
Unicellular A single cell performs all the basic life process. Example: Amoeba sp.,
Paramecium sp., Chlamydomonas, Bacteria and Euglena.
Multicellular An organism consists of more than one cell. Each group of cell specialized to
carry our life processes. Example: Homo sapien (human), animals and plants. It has five
levels of organisation
1. Cells: basic units of structure and function.
Example: Red blood cells and xylem vessel cells.

2. Tissues: made up of cells with similar in structure and function.

Example: Epithelial tissues and vascular tissues.
3. Organs: made up of tissues that perform a specific function.
Example: Heart and flower.
4. System: two of more organs that perform a specific function.
Example: Digestive system and root system.
5. Organisms: whole living thing that carry out all the basic life processes.
Example: Human and durian tree.
Cell Organisation (Unicellular) in Amoeba sp. (lives in freshwater ponds) and
Paramecium sp. (lives in soil and moist area)
1. Cell structure

Amoeba sp.: plasma membrane, food vacuole, contractile vacuole, pseudopodium,

nucleus, ectoplasma, endoplasm.

Paramecium sp.: food vacuole, posterior contractile vacuole, cytostome, gullet, oral
groove, cilia, macronucleus, micronucleus, anterior contractile vacuole.

2. Locomotion

Amoeba sp.: Pseudopodium (false foot) helps it to move forward slowly and it is
known as amoeboid movement.

Paramecium sp.: Hair-like cilia to beat against water. It beats its cilia backwards
diagonally (swim forward) and it rotates on its axis. It beats its cilia forward (swim
backwards).

3. Feeding

Amoeba sp.: Omnivore. Eat bacteria, plant cells, algae and other microscopic
organisms.

1. Entrapment extend pseudopodium.

2. Engulfment engulf tiny food (phagocytosis) with its pseudopodia.
3. Digestion food enclosed in food vacuole
4. Absorption enzyme digests the bacteria
5. Egesting expel indigestible material.

Paramecium sp.: Eat bacteria, organic material and other microscopic organisms.

1. Sweeping movement of cilia. Food moves along the oral groove into the gullet and
cytostome.
2. Digestion food vacuole circulates round the cell.
3. Elimination undigested food is eliminated at the anal pore.
4. Reproduction

Amoeba sp.: two types of reproduction.

1. Binary Fission nucleus divides (favourable condition) and then follows by division
of cytoplasm. Two daughter cells are formed (mitotic division).
2. Spore Formation spores form (bad condition) and germinate into new amoeba under
favourable condition.

Paramecium sp.: two types of reproduction.

1. Binary Fission micronucleus undergoes mitosis (favourable condition).

Macronucleus begins to elongation and form two. Cell content divide and two
daughter cells are formed.
2. Conjugation (Sexual reproduction) two same species parent paramecia exchange
genetic material of their micronuclei. Each parent divides and forms four daughter
cells.
5. Osmoregulation

Amoeba sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it has a
contractile vacuole.

Paramecium sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it
has two contractile vacuoles.

6. Respiration

Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): exchange gases throughout the whole cell
membrane

7. Excretion

Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): waste products are ammonia and carbon
dioxide by diffusion. Solid waste in paramecium is expelled through its anal pore.

Cell Organisation (Multicellular) in Human

1. Cells: Epithelial cells, muscle cells, white blood cells, red blood cells, sperm, nerve
cells.

2. Tissues: Epithelial tissue, smooth muscle tissue, connective tissue, skeletal tissue,
nerve tissue.
3. Organs: Stomach, heart, kidney, lung, liver.
4. Systems: Circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system, excretory system,
muscular system, lymphatic system, integumentary system, skeletal system, nervous
system, endocrine system, reproductive system.
5. Organisms: Human.
Cell Organisation in Plant
1. Cells: Parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, epidermal cells.
2. Tissues: Epidermal tissue, meristem tissue, vascular tissue.
3. Organs: Leaf organ, flower organ, stem organ, root organ.
4. Systems: Shoot system, root system.
5. Organisms: Plant.