http://emedicine.medscape.

com/article/2047916
Author
Mary C Mancini, MD, PhD, MMM Professor and Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery,
Louisiana State University School of Medicine in Shreveport
Mary C Mancini, MD, PhD, MMM is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for
Thoracic Surgery, American College of Surgeons, American Surgical Association, Society of Thoracic
Surgeons, Phi Beta Kappa
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Coauthor(s)
Thomas Scanlin, MD Chief, Division of Pulmonary Medicine and Cystic Fibrosis Center, Department of
Pediatrics, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School
Thomas Scanlin, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the
Advancement of Science, Society for Pediatric Research, American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology, American Thoracic Society, Society for Pediatric Research
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Denise Serebrisky, MD Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of
Medicine; Director, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Lewis M Fraad Department of Pediatrics, Jacobi
Medical Center; Director, Jacobi Asthma and Allergy Center for Children
Denise Serebrisky, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Thoracic Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Specialty Editor Board

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center
College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Shreekanth V Karwande, MBBS Chair, Professor, Department of Surgery, Division of Cardiothoracic
Surgery, University of Utah School of Medicine and Medical Center
Shreekanth V Karwande, MBBS is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for
Thoracic Surgery, American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Surgeons, American Heart
Association, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, Western Thoracic Surgical
Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor
Jeffrey C Milliken, MD Chief, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of California at Irvine Medical
Center; Clinical Professor, Department of Surgery, University of California, Irvine, School of Medicine
Jeffrey C Milliken, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American
Association for Thoracic Surgery, American College of Cardiology, American College of Chest
Physicians, American College of Surgeons, American Heart Association, American Society for Artificial
Internal Organs, California Medical Association, International Society for Heart and Lung
Transplantation, Phi Beta Kappa, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, SWOG, Western Surgical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Additional Contributors
Charles Callahan, DO Professor, Chief, Department of Pediatrics and Pediatric Pulmonology, Tripler Army
Medical Center

Charles Callahan, DO is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of

Pediatrics,American College of Chest Physicians, American College of Osteopathic
Pediatricians, American Thoracic Society, Association of Military Surgeons of the US, Christian Medical
and Dental Associations
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgements
The authors and editors of Medscape Drugs & Diseases gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
previous authors Jane M Eggerstedt, MD, and Allen Fagenholz, MD, to the development and writing of the
source articles.

Background
Hemothorax is the presence of blood in the pleural space. The source of blood may be the chest wall, lung
parenchyma, heart, or great vessels. Although some authors state that a hematocrit value of at least 50% is
necessary to differentiate a hemothorax from a bloody pleural effusion, most do not agree on any specific
distinction.
Hemothorax is usually a consequence of blunt or penetrating trauma. Much less commonly, it may be a
complication of disease, may be iatrogenically induced, [1] or may develop spontaneously.[2]
Prompt identification and treatment of traumatic hemothorax is an essential part of the care of the injured
patient. The upright chest radiograph is the ideal primary diagnostic study in the evaluation of hemothorax
(see Workup). In cases of hemothorax unrelated to trauma, a careful investigation for the underlying source
must be performed while treatment is provided.
Tube thoracostomy drainage is the primary mode of treatment. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery
(VATS) may be used. Thoracotomy is the procedure of choice for surgical exploration of the chest when
massive hemothorax or persistent bleeding is present. (See Treatment.)

Historical background
Hemorrhage from or within the chest has been detailed in numerous medical writings dating back to
ancient times. While lesser forms of trauma were commonly treated in the ancient physician's daily
practice, major injuries, especially those to the chest, were difficult to treat and often lethal.
By the 18th century, some treatment for hemothorax was available; however, controversy raged about its
form. A number of surgeons, including John Hunter in 1794, advocated the creation of an intercostal
incision and drainage of the hemothorax. Those of the opposing viewpoint believed that closure of chest
wounds without drainage and other conservative forms of management of bloody collections in the chest
were proper treatment.
While Hunter's method was effective in evacuating the hemothorax, the creation of an iatrogenic
pneumothorax as a result of the procedure was associated with significant morbidity. On the other hand,
wound closure or conservative management posed the possible risks of subsequent empyema with sepsis
or persistent trapped lung with permanent reduction of pulmonary function.
Observing the advantages and dangers of both forms of therapy, Guthrie, in the early 1800s, gave
credence to both viewpoints. He proposed the importance of early evacuation of blood through an existing
chest wound; at the same time, he asserted that if bleeding from the chest persisted, the wound should be
closed in the hope that existing intrathoracic pressure would halt the bleeding. If the desired effect was
accomplished, he advised that the wound be reopened several days later for the evacuation of retained
clotted blood or serous fluid.
By the 1870s, early hemothorax evacuation by trocar and cannula or by intercostal incision was considered
standard practice. Not long after this, underwater seal drainage was described by a number of different
physicians. This basic technique has remained the most common form of treatment for hemothorax and
other pleural fluid collections to this day.[3]

Anatomy

Normally, the pleural space, which is between the parietal and visceral pleurae, is only a potential space.
Bleeding into the pleural space may result from either extrapleural or intrapleural injury.

Extrapleural injury
Traumatic disruption of the chest wall tissues with violation of the pleural membrane can cause bleeding
into the pleural cavity. The most likely sources of significant or persistent bleeding from chest wall injuries
are the intercostal and internal mammary arteries. In nontraumatic cases, rare disease processes within
the chest wall (eg, bony exostoses) can be responsible.

Intrapleural injury
Blunt or penetrating injury involving virtually any intrathoracic structure can result in hemothorax. Massive
hemothorax or exsanguinating hemorrhage may result from injury to major arterial or venous structures
contained within the thorax or from the heart itself. These include the aorta and its brachiocephalic
branches, the main or branch pulmonary arteries, the superior vena cava and the brachiocephalic veins,
the inferior vena cava, the azygos vein, and the major pulmonary veins.
Injury to the heart can produce a hemothorax if a communication exists between the pericardium and the
pleural space.
Injury to the pulmonary parenchyma may cause hemothorax, but it is usually self-limited because
pulmonary vascular pressure is normally low. Pulmonary parenchymal injury is usually associated with
pneumothorax and results in limited hemorrhage.
Hemothorax resulting from metastatic malignant disease is usually from tumor implants that seed the
pleural surfaces of the thorax.
Diseases of the thoracic aorta and its major branches, such as dissection or aneurysm formation, account
for a large percentage of specific vascular abnormalities that can cause hemothorax. Aneurysms of other
intrathoracic arteries such as the internal mammary artery have been described and are possible causes of
hemothorax if rupture occurs.
A variety of unusual congenital pulmonary abnormalities, including intralobar and extralobar sequestration,
[4]
hereditary telangiectasia, and congenital arteriovenous malformations, can cause hemothorax.
Hemothorax can result from a pathologic process within the abdomen if blood escaping from the lesion is
able to traverse the diaphragm through one of the normal hiatal openings or a congenital or acquired
opening.

Pathophysiology
Bleeding into the pleural space can occur with virtually any disruption of the tissues of the chest wall and
pleura or the intrathoracic structures. The physiologic response to the development of a hemothorax is
manifested in two major areas: hemodynamic and respiratory. The degree of hemodynamic response is
determined by the amount and rapidity of blood loss.

Hemodynamic response
Hemodynamic changes vary, depending on the amount of bleeding and the rapidity of blood loss. Blood
loss of up to 750 mL in a 70-kg man should cause no significant hemodynamic change. Loss of 750-1500
mL in the same individual will cause the early symptoms of shock (ie, tachycardia, tachypnea, and a
decrease in pulse pressure).
Significant signs of shock with signs of poor perfusion occur with loss of blood volume of 30% or more
(1500-2000 mL). Because the pleural cavity of a 70-kg man can hold 4 L of blood or more, exsanguinating
hemorrhage can occur without external evidence of blood loss.

Respiratory response
The space-occupying effect of a large accumulation of blood within the pleural space may hamper normal
respiratory movement. In trauma cases, abnormalities of ventilation and oxygenation may result, especially
if associated with injuries to the chest wall.
A large enough collection of blood causes the patient to experience dyspnea and may produce the clinical
finding of tachypnea. The volume of blood required to produce these symptoms in a given individual varies

depending on a number of factors, including organs injured, severity of injury, and underlying pulmonary
and cardiac reserve.
Dyspnea is a common symptom in cases in which hemothorax develops in an insidious manner, such as
those secondary to metastatic disease. Blood loss in such cases is not so acute as to produce a visible
hemodynamic response, and dyspnea is often the predominant complaint.

Physiologic resolution of hemothorax

Blood that enters the pleural cavity is exposed to the motion of the diaphragm, lungs, and other
intrathoracic structures. This results in some degree of defibrination of the blood so that incomplete clotting
occurs. Within several hours of cessation of bleeding, lysis of existing clots by pleural enzymes begins.
Lysis of red blood cells results in a marked increase in the protein concentration of the pleural fluid and an
increase in the osmotic pressure within the pleural cavity. This elevated intrapleural osmotic pressure
produces an osmotic gradient between the pleural space and the surrounding tissues that favors
transudation of fluid into the pleural space. In this way, a small and asymptomatic hemothorax can progress
into a large and symptomatic bloody pleural effusion.

Late physiologic sequelae of unresolved hemothorax

Two pathologic states are associated with the later stages of hemothorax: empyema and fibrothorax.
Empyema results from bacterial contamination of the retained hemothorax. If undetected or improperly
treated, this can lead to bacteremia and septic shock.
Fibrothorax results when fibrin deposition develops in an organized hemothorax and coats both the parietal
and visceral pleural surfaces. This adhesive process traps the lung in position and prevents it from
expanding fully. Persistent atelectasis of portions of the lung and reduced pulmonary function result from
this process.

Etiology
By far the most common cause of hemothorax is trauma. Penetrating injuries of the lungs, heart, great
vessels, or chest wall are obvious causes of hemothorax; they may be accidental, deliberate, or iatrogenic
in origin.[5] In particular, central venous catheter and thoracostomy tube placement are cited as primary
iatrogenic causes.[6, 7, 8]
Blunt chest trauma can occasionally result in hemothorax by laceration of internal vessels. [9] Because of the
relatively more elastic chest wall of infants and children, rib fractures may be absent in such cases. [10, 11]
The causes of nontraumatic or spontaneous hemothorax include the following:

Neoplasia (primary or metastatic)

Blood dyscrasias, including complications of anticoagulation
Pulmonary embolism with infarction
Torn pleural adhesions in association with spontaneous pneumothorax
Bullous emphysema
Necrotizing infections
Tuberculosis
Pulmonary arteriovenous fistulae
Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia [12]
Nonpulmonary intrathoracic vascular pathology (eg, thoracic aortic aneurysm or aneurysm of the
internal mammary artery)

Intralobar and extralobar sequestration [4]

Abdominal pathology (eg, pancreatic pseudocyst, splenic artery aneurysm, or hemoperitoneum)

Catamenial [13]
Case reports involve associated disorders such as hemorrhagic disease of the newborn (eg, vitamin K
deficiency), Henoch-Schnlein purpura, and beta thalassemia/hemoglobin E disease. [14, 15, 16, 17] Congenital
cystic adenomatoid malformations occasionally result in hemothorax.[18] A case of massive spontaneous
hemothorax has been reported with Von Recklinghausen disease. [19]Spontaneous internal thoracic artery
hemorrhage was reported in a child with type IV Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.

Hemothorax has also been reported in association with costal cartilaginous anomalies. [20, 21, 22, 23] Rib tumors
have rarely been reported in association with hemothorax. Intrathoracic rupture of an osteosarcoma of a rib
caused hemorrhagic shock in a 13-year-old girl. [24]
Hemothorax has been noted to complicate a small fraction of spontaneous pneumothorax cases. Although
rare, it is more likely to occur in young adolescent males and can be life-threatening secondary to massive
bleeding.[25]

Epidemiology
Quantifying the frequency of hemothorax in the general population is difficult. A very small hemothorax can
be associated with a single rib fracture and may go undetected or require no treatment. Because most
major hemothoraces are related to trauma, a rough estimate of their occurrence may be gleaned from
trauma statistics.
Approximately 150,000 deaths occur from trauma each year. Approximately three times this number of
individuals are permanently disabled because of trauma, and the majority of this combined group have
sustained multiple trauma. Chest injuries occur in approximately 60% of multiple-trauma cases; therefore, a
rough estimate of the occurrence of hemothorax related to trauma in the United States approaches
300,000 cases per year.[26]
In a 34-month period at a large level-1 trauma center, 2086 children younger than 15 years were admitted
with blunt or penetrating trauma; 104 (4.4%) had thoracic trauma. [27] Of the patients with thoracic trauma, 15
had hemopneumothorax (26.7% mortality), and 14 had hemothorax (57.1% mortality). Many of these
patients had other severe extrathoracic injuries. Nontraumatic hemothorax carries a much lower mortality.
In another series of children with penetrating chest injuries (ie, stab or gunshot wounds), the morbidity was
8.51% (8 of 94).[28] Complications included atelectasis (3), intrathoracic hematoma (3), wound infection (3),
pneumonia (2), air leak for more than 5 days (2), and septicemia (1). Note that these statistics apply only to
traumatic hemothorax.

Prognosis
At present, the general outcome for patients with traumatic hemothorax is good. Mortality associated with
cases of traumatic hemothorax is directly related to the nature and severity of the injury. Morbidity is also
related to these factors and to the risks associated with retained hemothorax, namely empyema and
fibrothorax/trapped lung. Empyema occurs in approximately 5% of cases. Fibrothorax occurs in about 1%
of cases.
Retained hemothorax with or without one of the aforementioned complications occurs in 10-20% of patients
who sustain a traumatic hemothorax, and most of these patients require evacuation of this collection.
Prognosis after the treatment of one of these complications is excellent.
Short-term and long-term outcome for individuals who develop a nontraumatic hemothorax is directly
related to the underlying cause of the hemothorax.

History
Trauma or recent surgical intervention is usually self-evident. [29] Occasionally, a hemorrhagic diathesis, such
as hemorrhagic disease of the newborn or Henoch-Schnlein purpura, can lead to spontaneous
hemothorax.[16, 15] Internal thoracic artery rupture has been reported in association with Ehlers-Danlos
syndrome. A few patients with spontaneous pneumothorax develop hemothorax. [30, 25]
Chest pain and dyspnea are common symptoms. Symptoms and physical findings associated with
hemothorax in trauma vary widely, depending on the amount and rapidity of bleeding, the existence and
severity of underlying pulmonary disease, the nature and degree of associated injuries, and the mechanism
of injury.
Hemothorax in conjunction with pulmonary infarction is usually preceded by clinical findings associated with
pulmonary embolism.
Catamenial hemothorax is an unusual problem related to thoracic endometriosis. Hemorrhage into the
thorax is periodic, coinciding with the patient's menstrual cycle.

Physical Examination
Tachypnea is common; shallow breaths may be noted. Findings include diminished ipsilateral breath
sounds and a dull percussion note.
If substantial systemic blood loss has occurred, hypotension and tachycardia are present. Respiratory
distress reflects both pulmonary compromise and hemorrhagic shock. Children may have traumatic
hemothorax without bony fractures of the chest wall.

Blunt chest-wall injuries

Hemothorax is rarely a solitary finding in blunt trauma. Associated chest wall or pulmonary injuries are
nearly always present.
Simple bony injuries consisting of one or multiple rib fractures are the most common blunt chest injuries. A
small hemothorax may be associated with even single rib fractures but often remains unnoticed during the
physical examination and even after chest radiography. Such small collections rarely need treatment.
Complex chest wall injuries are those in which either 4 or more sequential single rib fractures are present
or a flail chest exists. These types of injuries are associated with a significant degree of chest wall damage
and often produce large collections of blood within the pleural cavity and substantial respiratory impairment.
Pulmonary contusion and pneumothorax are commonly associated injuries.
Injuries resulting in laceration of intercostal or internal mammary arteries may produce a hemothorax of
significant size and significant hemodynamic compromise. These vessels are the most common source of
persistent bleeding from the chest after trauma.
Delayed hemothorax can occur at some interval after blunt chest trauma. In such cases, the initial
evaluation, including chest radiography, reveals findings of rib fractures without any accompanying
intrathoracic pathology. However, hours to days later, a hemothorax is seen. The mechanism is believed to
be either rupture of a trauma-associated chest wall hematoma into the pleural space or displacement of rib
fracture edges with eventual disruption of intercostal vessels during respiratory movement or coughing.

Blunt intrathoracic injuries

Large hemothoraces are usually related to injury of vascular structures. Disruption or laceration of major
arterial or venous structures within the chest may result in massive or exsanguinating hemorrhage.
Hemodynamic manifestations associated with massive hemothorax are those of hemorrhagic shock.
Symptoms can range from mild to profound, depending on the amount and rate of bleeding into the chest
cavity and the nature and severity of associated injuries.
Because a large collection of blood will compress the ipsilateral lung, related respiratory manifestations
include tachypnea and, in some cases, hypoxemia.
A variety of physical findings such as bruising, pain, instability or crepitus upon palpation over fractured
ribs, chest wall deformity, or paradoxical chest wall movement may lead to the possibility of coexisting
hemothorax in cases of blunt chest wall injury.
Dullness to percussion over a portion of the affected hemithorax is often noted and is more commonly
found over the more dependent areas of the thorax if the patient is upright. Decreased or absent breath
sounds upon auscultation are noted over the area of hemothorax.

Penetrating trauma
Hemothorax from penetrating injury is most commonly caused by direct laceration of a blood vessel. While
arteries of the chest wall are most commonly the source of hemothorax in penetrating injury, intrathoracic
structures, including the heart, should also be considered.
Pulmonary parenchymal injury is very common in cases of penetrating injury and usually results in a
combination of hemothorax and pneumothorax. Bleeding in these cases is usually self-limited. [31]

Clinical caveats in traumatic hemothorax

Positive physical findings noted by percussion and auscultation are best appreciated in the upright patient
and, even then, may be subtle. As much as 400-500 mL of blood may obliterate only the space comprising
the costophrenic angle.

Many trauma victims are initially examined in the supine position. In such cases, a collection of blood within
the pleural space will not occupy the diaphragmatic surface, but will be distributed along the entire posterior
aspect of the affected pleural space. Physical examination techniques such as percussion and auscultation
may produce equivocal findings even though a substantial collection of blood is present.
A hemothorax found in association with a diaphragmatic injury in either penetrating or blunt trauma may
actually have its origin from an intra-abdominal source. Blood from injured abdominal organs may traverse
a diaphragmatic tear and enter the thoracic cavity. In cases of hemothorax with diaphragmatic injury, the
clinician should strongly consider the possibility of intra-abdominal injury.[32]

Nontraumatic hemothorax
Symptoms and physical findings are variable, depending on the underlying pathology.
Hemothorax secondary to acute hemorrhage from structures within the chest can produce profound
hemodynamic changes and symptoms of shock. Massive hemothorax can result from vascular structures
such as a ruptured or leaking thoracic aortic aneurysm or from pulmonary sources such as lobar
sequestration or arteriovenous malformation. Disruption of a vascular pleural adhesion unrelated to trauma
can produce a significant hemothorax with an associated spontaneous pneumothorax.
Occult hemorrhage is most commonly related to metastatic disease or complications of anticoagulation. In
these situations, bleeding into the pleural cavity occurs slowly, resulting in subtle or absent changes in
hemodynamics. When the effusion is large enough to produce symptoms, dyspnea is usually the most
prominent complaint. Signs of anemia may also be present. Physical examination reveals findings similar to
those for any pleural effusion, with dullness to percussion and decreased breath sounds noted over the
area of the effusion.

Differential Diagnoses

Emergent Management of Pleural Effusion

Intrathoracic malignancy

Mesothelioma

Metastatic malignacy

Pediatric Empyema

Approach Considerations
Upright chest radiography is the ideal primary diagnostic study in the evaluation of hemothorax. Additional
imaging studies, such as ultrasonography and computed tomography (CT), may sometimes be required for
identification and quantification of a hemothorax noted on a plain chest radiograph.
In some cases of nontraumatic hemothorax, especially those resulting from metastatic pleural implants,
patients may present with the finding of a new pleural effusion of unknown etiology, and hemothorax may
not be identified until the initial diagnostic needle aspiration is performed.

Pleural fluid hematocrit

Measurement of the hematocrit of pleural fluid is virtually never needed in a patient with a traumatic
hemothorax, but may be indicated for the analysis of a bloody effusion from a nontraumatic cause. In such
cases, a pleural effusion with a hematocrit value more than 50% of that of the circulating hematocrit is
considered a hemothorax.

Chest Radiography
Plain radiography of the upright chest may be adequate to establish diagnosis by showing blunting at the
costophrenic angle or an air-fluid interface if a hemopneumothorax is present. (See the image below.) If the
patient cannot be positioned upright, a supine chest radiograph may reveal apical capping of fluid
surrounding the superior pole of the lung. A lateral extrapulmonary density may suggest fluid in the pleural
space.

Upright posteroanterior chest radiograph of

patient with right hemothorax.

In the normal unscarred pleural space, a hemothorax is noted as a meniscus of fluid blunting the
costophrenic angle or diaphragmatic surface and tracking up the pleural margins of the chest wall when
viewed on the upright chest x-ray film. This is essentially the same chest radiographic appearance found
with any pleural effusion.
In cases in which pleural scarring or symphysis is present, the collection may not be free to occupy the
most dependent position within the thorax, but will fill whatever free pleural space is available. This situation
may not create the classic appearance of a fluid layer on a chest radiograph.
In the acute trauma setting, the portable supine chest radiograph may be the first and only view available
from which to make definitive decisions regarding therapy. The presence and size of a hemothorax is much
more difficult to evaluate on supine films. Although as much as 400-500 mL of blood is required to obliterate
the costophrenic angle on an upright chest radiograph, as much as 1000 mL of blood may be missed when
viewing a portable supine chest x-ray film. Only a general haziness of the affected hemithorax may be
noted.
In blunt trauma cases, hemothorax is frequently associated with other chest injuries visible on the chest
radiograph, such as rib fractures (see the image below), pneumothorax, or a widening of the superior
mediastinum.

Left hemothorax in patient with rib fractures.

Ultrasonography
Trauma ultrasonography is used at some trauma centers in the initial evaluation of patients for hemothorax.
Even with the use of chest radiography and helical CT, some injuries can remain undetected. In particular,
patients with penetrating chest injuries may harbor serious cardiac injury and a pericardial effusion that
may be clinically difficult to determine. Bedside echocardiography can provide immediate, accurate
information regarding the pericardium and the need for immediate surgery. It can also improve patient
outcome.[33]
One drawback of ultrasonography for the identification of traumatic hemothorax is that associated injuries
readily seen on chest radiographs in the trauma patient, such as bony injuries, widened mediastinum, and
pneumothorax, are not readily identifiable on chest ultrasonograms. Ultrasonography more likely plays a
complementary role in specific cases where the chest x-ray findings of hemothorax are equivocal.

Computed Tomography
Thoracic CT (see the image below) has a definite role to play in evaluation, particularly if plain radiography
results are ambiguous or initial therapy is inadequate. [34, 35] CT is a highly accurate diagnostic study for
pleural fluid or blood and is particularly helpful in localizing loculated collections of blood.

Contrast-enhanced CT scan of patient with

right hemothorax.

In the trauma setting, CT does not hold a primary role in the diagnosis of hemothorax but is complementary
to chest radiography. Because many victims of blunt trauma do undergo evaluation with chest CT,
abdominal CT, or both, hemothorax not evident on initial chest radiographs might be identified and treated.
Currently, CT is of greatest value later in the course of management of the chest trauma patient, in
particular for localization and quantification of any retained collections of clot within the pleural space.
Although multidetector CT allows for the accurate diagnosis of most traumatic injuries, in pediatric patients
it should be used in selected cases only. Routine use would result in an unacceptably high radiation
exposure to a large number of patients without proven clinical benefit. [36]

Approach Considerations
Blood in the pleural space can be associated with both hemorrhagic shock and respiratory compromise. It
must be effectively evacuated to prevent complications such as fibrothorax and empyema.
If chest radiography shows that a hemothorax is large enough to obscure the costophrenic sulcus or is
associated with a pneumothorax, it should be drained by tube thoracostomy. In cases of
hemopneumothorax, placement of two chest tubes may be preferred, with the tube draining the
pneumothorax placed in a more superior and anterior position. (See the video below.)
Insertion of chest tube. Video courtesy of Therese Canares, MD, and Jonathan Valente, MD, Rhode Island Hospital,
Brown University.

Surgical exploration in cases of traumatic hemothorax should be performed in the following circumstances:

Evacuation of more than 1000 mL of blood immediately after tube thoracostomy; this is considered
a massive hemothorax

Continued bleeding from the chest, defined as 150-200 mL/hr for 2-4 hours

Repeated blood transfusion is required to maintain hemodynamic stability

The late sequelae of hemothorax, including residual clot, infected collections, and trapped lung, require
additional treatment and, most often, surgical intervention.
Retained clot (defined as an undrained collection of 500 mL or more as estimated by computed
tomography [CT] or opacification of one third or more of the chest on chest radiography) is a well-known

sequela after initial tube thoracostomy for hemothorax and should be evacuated early in the patient's
hospital course, if the clinical condition permits. Early intervention in the case of a retained clot can be
performed with thoracoscopy, provided that the operation is planned within 1 week of the bleeding episode.
Empyema usually develops from superimposed infection in a retained collection of blood. It requires
surgical drainage and, possibly, decortication.
Fibrothorax is a late uncommon complication that can result from retained hemothorax. Thoracotomy and
decortication are required for treatment.
Needle aspiration of a hemothorax is generally not indicated for definitive treatment. Even in cases of
nontraumatic hemothorax that are not identified until diagnostic needle aspiration is performed, complete
evacuation of these collections often requires treatment with tube thoracostomy, similar to hemothoraces
resulting from other causes.

Emergency Department Care

Initial treatment is directed toward cardiopulmonary stabilization and evacuation of the pleural blood
collection. The patient should be sitting upright unless other injuries contraindicate this position. Administer
oxygen and reassess airway, breathing, and circulation. Obtain an upright chest radiograph as quickly as
possible.
If the patient is hypotensive, establish a large-bore intravenous line. Immediately commence appropriate
fluid resuscitation (eg, with 20 mL/kg of lactated Ringer solution), including blood transfusion as necessary.
Evaluate for the possibility of tension pneumothorax. Needle decompression of a tension pneumothorax
may be necessary.
The need for a chest tube in an asymptomatic patient is unclear, but if the patient has any respiratory
distress, perform thoracostomy. If a conventional chest tube is not removing the blood collection, further
steps may be necessary. Conventional treatment involves placement of a second thoracostomy tube.
However, in many patients, this therapy is ineffective, necessitating further intervention.

Tube Thoracostomy
Tube thoracostomy drainage is the primary mode of treatment for hemothorax. In cases of trauma, patient
assessment should be performed using the advanced trauma life support (ATLS) protocol before tube
thoracostomy for hemothorax.
This procedure is relatively contraindicated when significant pleural adhesions are known to be present.
Incomplete drainage or inability to effectively access the area is likely. Also, blunt division of pleural
adhesions may cause additional bleeding and result in lung laceration. If evacuation of such collections is
mandated clinically, thoracotomy with division of adhesions under direct vision is the safer approach.

Drainage in patients with coagulopathy

Although not contraindicated, drainage of hemothorax or any pleural effusion in an individual with a
coagulopathy should be performed with great care. This group includes patients receiving anticoagulation
therapy and those with significant liver disease or inherited coagulation factor deficiencies. Normalization of
coagulation function by cessation of anticoagulants or correction of factor deficiencies using appropriate
blood products, if necessary, should be initiated before a drainage procedure, if possible.
Needle aspiration should not be performed if clotting deficiencies are present. Rather, tube thoracostomy
should be used, with the ability to visualize and control any chest wall bleeding that is encountered. If
necessary, in individuals requiring long-term anticoagulant therapy, this medication can be resumed 8-12
hours after the thoracostomy has been completed.

Equipment
A tube thoracostomy tray or kit should be readily available in every hospital emergency department. In adult
patients, large-bore chest tubes (usually 36-42 French) should be used to achieve adequate drainage.
Smaller-caliber tubes are more likely to occlude. In pediatric patients, chest tube size varies with the size of
the child. In patients older than 12 years, the chest tube size used is usually the same as that for adults. In
smaller children, a 24- to 34-French chest tube should be used, depending on the size of the child.

Procedure

Although tube thoracostomy may be performed rapidly in some circumstances, sterile technique should
always be employed. The insertion site should also be infiltrated with a local anesthetic.
On insertion, the thoracotomy tube is directed toward the costophrenic angle. Attention should be given to
the location of insertion on the chest wall and the intrathoracic position of the tube as seen on the chest
radiograph. For maximum drainage, thoracostomy tube placement for hemothorax should ideally be in the
sixth or seventh intercostal space at the posterior axillary line. In the supine trauma victim, a common error
in chest tube insertion is placement too anteriorly and superiorly, making complete drainage very unlikely.

Follow-up
After tube thoracostomy is performed, a repeat chest radiograph should always be obtained immediately.
This helps identify chest tube position, helps determine completeness of the hemothorax evacuation, and
may reveal other intrathoracic pathology previously obscured by the hemothorax.
A chest tube is usually put to water seal after the lung is fully reexpanded on radiography, fluid drainage is
less than 50 mL in 24 hours, and no significant residual air leak is present. Situations may exist when a
chest tube must be clamped. When no recurrence of air or fluid collection occurs on follow-up radiographic
studies, the tube is then usually removed. A postremoval radiograph should be obtained.
If drainage is incomplete as visualized on the postthoracostomy chest radiograph, placement of a second
drainage tube should be considered. Preferably, a video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) procedure
should be undertaken to evacuate the pleural space.
As many as 70-80% of individuals who sustain traumatic hemothorax are successfully treated by tube
thoracostomy drainage and require no further therapy. Obtain at least one or two additional chest
radiographs over a period of 1-2 weeks to confirm that no further intrathoracic collections or abnormalities
are present.
The need for further follow-up chest radiographs may be dictated by the presence of other intrathoracic
pathology and by additional symptoms and physical findings. Further treatment or follow-up is determined
by the nature of any other injuries.

Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery

Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) is an alternative treatment that permits direct removal of clot
and precise placement of chest tubes. Several centers have used this modality successfully to help identify
and control the source of bleeding in a number of cases. [37] In comparison with thoracostomy, VATS is
associated with fewer postoperative complications and shorter hospital stays.

Thoracotomy
Thoracotomy is the procedure of choice for surgical exploration of the chest when massive hemothorax or
persistent bleeding is present. At the time of surgical exploration, the source of bleeding is controlled and
the hemothorax is evacuated.
Surgical exploration of the chest may be required later in the course of the patient with hemothorax for
evacuation of retained clot, drainage of empyema, or decortication. Cases with retained clot can often be
treated successfully with a VATS procedure, especially if this is accomplished within 7 days of initial
drainage of the hemothorax, but thoracotomy is usually required for adequate empyema drainage or
decortication.
In nontraumatic cases of hemothorax resulting from surgically correctable intrathoracic pathology,
correction of the underlying disease process and evacuation of the hemothorax should be undertaken. This
may include stapling or resection of bullous disease, resection of cavitary disease, resection of necrotic
lung tissue, sequestration of arteriovenous malformations, or resection or repair of vascular abnormalities
such as aortic aneurysms.[26]
The decision to perform surgical exploration in cases of hemothorax from acute trauma is based on a
number of factors, including the volume and persistence of blood loss, the overall hemodynamic state of
the patient, and the amount of blood replacement required. (See Approach Considerations .)
Volume resuscitation should be performed according to ATLS protocol and should be continued en route to
the operating room. Some forethought must be given to the availability of blood products if needed rapidly.
Anesthesia should be started rapidly, and all maneuvers should be employed to prevent aspiration.
Although a double-lumen endotracheal tube is a very useful luxury to have in thoracic surgical cases, it is

only absolutely necessary in a few cases and should not be considered unless it can be placed without
delaying the operative procedure. Standard endotracheal intubation is adequate in most cases.
At least two secure large-bore intravenous lines must be established before surgery so that fluids and
blood products can be administered rapidly if needed. An arterial line should be placed, but central
intravenous access is not an absolute necessity, and surgery should not be delayed for such procedures.
Pulse oximetry and the end-tidal carbon dioxide value should be monitored during the procedure.
If stability of the spine or other skeletal structures has not been fully determined before exploratory
thoracotomy, every effort must be made to maintain proper support and stabilization of these structures
when positioning the patient for thoracotomy.
In hemodynamically unstable patients, volume resuscitation must be maintained during the administration
of any anesthetic agents because further instability and hypotension may ensue with anesthesia induction.
A dose of intravenous antibiotics should be administered before emergency exploration. Generally, a
broad-spectrum cephalosporin is advisable. If thoracoabdominal injury is present and bowel injury is
considered, coverage for gastrointestinal tract organisms should be added.
Conservation of patient body temperature in trauma surgery is extremely important. A variety of surfacewarming devices are available and can be used to cover the patient, leaving only the operative field open.
Warmers should also be used for intravenous crystalloid and blood products. Raising the ambient
temperature in the operating room may be necessary. Maintenance of body temperature is extremely
important to prevent complications such as coagulopathy and cardiac arrhythmias.

Intraoperative details
In the majority of trauma cases necessitating chest exploration, the bleeding source is from the chest wall,
most commonly intercostal or internal mammary arteries. Once identified, these can be easily controlled
with suture ligatures in most cases. After control of obvious bleeding and evacuation of clot and blood, a
rapid but thorough exploration of the entire chest cavity should be performed.
Unstable rib fractures found at the time of surgery may require some debridement of sharp rib edges to
prevent further injury to the lung or adjacent chest wall structures. At some centers, flail segments or
extensive rib fractures are stabilized with wires or other types of support in an attempt to improve
postoperative chest wall mechanics.
A thoracic surgeon should be present or immediately available at the time of emergency thoracic
exploration because control of bleeding from difficult areas such as the hilum of the lung, the heart, or the
great vessels may require a surgeon with expertise in that field.
Patients with injuries between the level of the nipples and the umbilicus may have injuries in both the chest
and abdomen. If surgical exploration is mandated, proper positioning, prepping, and draping of these
patients is wise so that access to both cavities is possible.
With the patient prepared in this manner, an unanticipated abdominal bleeding source beneath a ruptured
diaphragm found at the time of chest exploration for hemothorax can be addressed more easily. The chest
can be rapidly explored to help rule out additional intrathoracic sources, and attention can then be quickly
turned to abdominal exploration. This preparation also allows ready thoracic access for clamping the
thoracic aorta if hemodynamic instability arises from massive or uncontrolled hemorrhage at the time of
abdominal exploration.
Diaphragmatic injuries may be closed from either the thorax or the abdomen. In the acute trauma setting, it
is usually closed from the abdomen.
Adequate drainage of the chest after control of bleeding is very important. Because chest drainage tubes
are placed under direct vision, the complication of retained hemothorax should occur with extreme
infrequency. A minimum of two large-bore chest tubes should be used, with one positioned posteriorly and
the other positioned anteriorly. Some surgeons prefer the addition of a right-angled chest tube positioned
over the diaphragm.

Postoperative details
Ventilator management should progress according to the individual status of the patient. In cases where no
other significant injury or disease process is present, weaning and extubation may proceed in a routine

fashion. In more critically ill patients such as those with severe chest wall injuries or those requiring
massive transfusion, ventilator management must be tailored to the condition of the patient.
After extubation, pulmonary toilet and adequate pain control are critical in preventing pulmonary
complications such as atelectasis and pneumonia.
Chest tubes are maintained on underwater seal suction, and the volume of drainage and air leak are noted
and recorded daily. If pulmonary injury is found or resection of lung tissue is required at the time of surgery,
chest tubes are not removed until any air leak has disappeared and the lung is fully expanded as viewed on
the chest radiograph. Drainage should be less than 100 mL in 24 hours before chest tube removal.
Antibiotic coverage begun preoperatively should be discontinued after 48 hours unless a definite reason
exists for continuance.
Ventilator management should progress according to the individual status of the patient. In cases in which
no other significant injury or disease process is present, weaning and extubation may proceed in a routine
fashion. In more critically ill patients, such as those with severe chest wall injuries or those requiring
massive transfusion, ventilator management must be tailored to the condition of the patient. After
extubation, pulmonary toilet and adequate pain control are critical in preventing pulmonary complications
such as atelectasis and pneumonia.

Management of Retained Clot

Approximately 20% of patients who initially have tube thoracostomy for drainage of hemothorax will have
some amount of residual clot in the thoracic cavity. Some controversy exists regarding the management of
retained clot after tube thoracostomy. Opinions range from conservative watchfulness to additional chest
tube placement to surgical evacuation. Current opinion seems to favor some form of clot evacuation.
Many trauma centers are moving away from additional tube thoracostomy and, instead, advocating an
early VATS procedure. This is usually performed within 7-8 days of the initial injury and, in some centers, is
performed within 48-72 hours if a retained clot is identified within the thorax. [38, 39, 40, 41] However, VATS may be
successful even in patients presenting late after injury.[42]
For VATS evacuation of the hemothorax or retained clot, one-lung ventilation is not required. A single-lumen
tube can be used with directions to the anesthesiologist to decrease tidal volume or intermittently hold
ventilation during the procedure. If cardiac, great vessel, or tracheobronchial injury is found, conversion to
thoracotomy can be performed expeditiously.
The decision to perform early evacuation of retained hemothorax with VATS technology is likely to greatly
diminish the number of patients who develop the sequelae of empyema and fibrothorax. Although it adds
an operative procedure to the patient's management, this approach provides definitive treatment while
avoiding the morbidity of a formal thoracotomy, and it shortens the total hospital stay when compared with
more conservative management methods.
Patients undergoing surgical intervention for retained hemothorax in either an acute or late setting are
monitored in the same fashion as any patient who has undergone VATS or thoracotomy. Generally, the
chest tube is removed when drainage is less than 100-150 mL in 24 hours. A chest radiograph is often
obtained after removal. Additional chest x-rays films are obtained as previously noted. Care of the thoracic
incision(s) is the same as for any thoracic surgical case.
If conservative management of retained collections is chosen, serial chest x-rays should be obtained to
assure that resolution is occurring. Once the pleural collection has resolved, a recurrence is unlikely and
the patient may be discharged. Increase in size of the collection, development of an air-fluid level, or the
new onset of symptoms (eg, fever, cough, dyspnea, pleuritic pain) may warrant CT evaluation and
reassessment for surgical intervention.

Intrapleural Fibrinolysis
Intrapleural instillation of fibrinolytic agents is advocated in some centers for evacuation of residual
hemothorax in cases in which initial tube thoracostomy drainage is inadequate. The proposed dose is
250,000 IU of streptokinase or 100,000 IU of urokinase in 100 mL of sterile saline. [43] Some centers prefer
the use of tissue plasminogen activator (TPA).[44]
In a study of intrapleural fibrinolytic treatment of traumatic clotted hemothorax, daily instillations of
fibrinolytic agents into the intrapleural the space for 2-15 days resulted in an overall success rate of 92%.
[43]
Nevertheless, the use of intrapleural instillation of fibrinolytic agents for the evacuation of hemothorax is

not likely to become routine, because of the length of in-hospital time required for complete treatment and
the risk of untoward effects.

Complications
Reexpansion pulmonary edema after evacuation of retained hemothorax is a rare reported complication.
Associated factors in the development of this problem appear to be hypovolemia and the administration of
large amounts of blood products and other volume expanders in the perioperative period.
Empyema can develop if a retained clot becomes secondarily infected. This can occur from associated
pulmonary injuries or from external sources such as the penetrating object or missile that caused the
original injury or the presence of a long-standing clotted thoracostomy tube.
Fibrothorax and trapped lung develop if fibrin deposition occurs within a clotted hemothorax. This can lead
to persistent atelectasis and a reduction of pulmonary function. A decortication procedure may be
necessary to permit lung expansion and reduce the risk of empyema.

Medication Summary
No data support routine antibiotic coverage of chest tubes in patients with hemothorax. Pain control may
require intravenous opioid analgesic agents, intracostal nerve blocks around the chest tube site, or both.
Low suction should be used on the chest tube.

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