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A. ErgurGradual
N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Passage
IRASM
46 (2015)
1:145-174
Music
Resistance
and Adoption
towards
Written Music
at the Crossroads
of
Gradual
Modernity:
Passage
to Notation
in Turkish
Makam
Music1
iragan Cd No: 36
34349 ISTANBUL
Turkey
E-mail: aergur@gsu.edu.tr
UDC: 781.24-
is a sound
as
socio-cultural
phenomenon,
which
to an
acoustic
kaleidoscope.
Nevertheless
the opposite
side, the fixing of signification on
specific musical units would mean the end of the
music, even of the musicality. (Adorno, 2002: 114)
standardizations
that can
appear
in written
7.033.3.9
Introduction
Music
university
Ortaky
or
- Rsum
Abstract
Turkish makam music was
at its origins, an orally
transmitted, learned and
performed tradition. The
to written music
passage
started a hot debate that
caused
a sharp division
between
among musicians,
the defenders of the mek
system and those who are
for writing both the contem
porary works and the older
ones. We analyze this
apparently technical issue
as a sign of modernization
in Turkey. The rising need
to write music and to
consume
written music
in
have been considered,
our view, as explicit manifes
tations of modern attitudes
related to rationalization
and standardization.
We
stress that the evolution of
the Turkish makam music
reveals a series of indica
tions for situating
modernization
in Turkey.
neyworas:
lunwy
Turkish
modernity
music
Ottoman
music
makam
music
modernization
in music
written
music
Conservatory.
cultural
1 This
article
is an outcome
change
145
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IRASM
46 (2015)
A. Ergur- N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
of Modernity:
Written Music at the Crossroads
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
Gradual Passage
1: 145-174
modernizes.
As
Western
Europe
to
move
toward
an
industrial
currency
measurements
such
as
distance,
and
time,
became
weight
half
of the
eighteenth
and
the
entire
nineteenth
two
centuries,
opposing
forces were observed in Ottoman society: at the same time that state political
power was dramatically declining, cultural change and institutional renovation
were also in play. Especially in urban areas, modern life forms emerged.
As
it has
been
rationalization
characteristics
the
process.
of the
is not exclusive
case
in Western
According
rationalization
to Western
music.
Europe,
music
also
has
been
subject
to a
Europe.
Different cultures
Weber
notes
have
made
that
notation
use of some
notation systems, yet either they remained technically limited, or they vanished
historical forces annihilated them. The growth of polyphonic music in
Europe necessitated the development of a system to communicate a polyphonic
because
musical
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A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
and Adoption towards
Resistance
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
IRASM
46 (2015)
1:145-174
became denser than its older forms, in order to fill this musical void,
instead of emphasizing
the repetitive
creating more virtuosic compositions,
character of the melody. (Feldman, 2002: 122-128) There again, we observe that,
through modernization, the simplification of some basic forms or tools of expres
expression
traditional
of view,
evidence
while
in a more multidisciplinary
trying
to place
it in a more
perspective
dialectical
to refute a clichd
axis.
the historical trajectories of West European and Ottoman musical life, for indicat
and technology
ing the contextual character of each knowledge-engendering
milieu
as
a
sum
of
connected
actors acting
creating
('assemblage'
incessantly
rather as 'mediators', following Latour's thesis [Latour, 2010:189-191]).
Instead of
it
Western
notation
tradition
as
an
essential
a
he
as
an ideo
taking
priori,
presents
forces mobilized by centralizing political
operation of the standardizing
in
the
both
authority,
Carolingian
reign in 8th and 9th centuries, and by the
logical
147
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IRASM
46 (2015)
1: 145-174
A. Ergur- N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
Gradual Passage
evaluates
Karakayali
perspective,
transformation of cultural assets. (Karakayali, 2010) Our study, while drawing on
these approaches, insists on the correlation between the modernization process as
a sociological fact and the motivations of musicians to adopt or to resist written
music. We thus show how the adoption of some techniques
the rising social demands as well as political will.
on
As a methodological
choice, we preferred to write names of persons or
terms in contemporary
Turkish language
(e.g. makam instead of
believe
that
the
correct
form
of a personal name is its
most
maqam). Although we
technical
formulation
instead
of 'Greek'
for
several
reasons.
The
identification
of contemporary
Greek
language with the ancient Greek culture is a doubtful and confusing expression,
which is more ideological
than technical and linguistic.4 We are aware that this
deviation
is
a
linguistic
gift of the 19th century modern and nationalist point of
view for both Western Europe and Turkey, together with a Euro-centric revivalist
tendency that adjusted its historical and ideological genealogy to reflect ancient
Greek civilization. Thus we preferred to use the word 'Hellenic', at least for the
language, and 'Rum' for Greek people of Turkey today as well as in Ottoman era.
Written Music
as Sign of Modernization
4 The
in the Turkish context, where words 'Grek',
much more complicated
problem becomes
from English in pronunciation
as well as in
'Rum', 'Elen', (even 'Greek' directly borrowed
manner. Finally the inhabitants
of the actual Greece call
confused
writing) coexist in a desperately
'Yunan',
themselves
as 'Ellines'
(EM.r|V) people
(EXkSa).
148
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A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual
Passage
IRASM
46 (2015)
1:145-174
Music
become
forces evolve
connection, its material and immaterial means are systematically simplified, from
the industrial organization
to the cultural expressions.
1995: 24)
(Luhmann,
Modernity develops thus, after the formation of a secular life conception, a stand
ardization
process
that
functions
circumstances,
record
according
to
the
rational
cyclic, unprogressive
becomes
an
important
need
measurement
of the
regime of knowledge.
to
organize
social
In
life
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IRASM
46 (2015)
A. Ergur- N. Dogrusz:
and Adoption towards
Resistance
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1: 145-174
units,
therefore
a commonly
convened
of musical
system
notation
as
well as the inventorying of the historical heritage. This process has long been
thought of as an exclusively West European experience of modernity. Yet several
recent analyses argue that modernity is not merely a historical fact, developed in
some specific economic and cultural circumstances, but is rather a set of categor
ies and a fundamental framework of perception of the world. Indeed, the rise of a
dynamic urban life was indicated by Georg Simmel, as both a source of and a
precondition for modern culture. In close relation with the rise of the individual
ism, the metropolitan life engenders a stimulating milieu for modern man, who
develops there a protection mechanism against the uprooting effect of his/her
intellectual ability. In urban conditions where life is essentially based on calculus
and exactitude, culture becomes a dynamic process through which new syntheses
are constantly made around a monetary economy. (Simmel, 1989: 234-237)
Developments
In accordance
in the Adoption
with
this
theoretical
of Notation
perspective,
for Makam
the
case
Music
of the
transformation
of Turkish music presents an excellent example, through which the social forces
that boosted modern culture in Turkey can be detected. Indeed, particularly the
last quarter of the 18th century in Ottoman Empire has been the scene of signifi
cant social transformations in concert with institutional reformations. Although
Ottoman
150
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A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
and Adoption towards
Resistance
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual
Passage
IRASM
46 (2015)
1: 145-174
Music
to be articulated
capabilities.
centuries towards Western Europe's industrial growth, were realized in the 1770s.
First temporary ambassadors
have been sent, at the beginning of the century, to
main European
take
contact with the rising forces and to explore
to
capitals
different appearances
of the modern culture, as for example the art of opera.
2006:
(Rado,
52-58) European
style military schools have been inaugurated,
with
the
of
a new army organization
(Nizm-i Cedid, New
together
founding
1978:
But
the
transformation
had
not been limited
Order). (Berkes,
87-92)
process
life
and
to military domain; social
cultural practices have been gradually affected
from this changing social milieu, which can also be characterized with a rising
needs and possibilities of social communication. (Mardin, 2004:145)
Economic growth, as it was the case in the European context, also triggered
off popular needs, particularly with the emergence of middle-classes,
for musical
in
written
music
as
well
as
in
commercialized
production
performance. (Martin,
1995:226-227) Music was one of the most directly affected fields of modernization
in Turkey. Indeed a series of indicators about the change in traditional music
(Turkish makam music) help to describe the social orientation to modernity from
18th century on. Such indicators include significant and relatively rapid changes
in the sound system (reduction of makams as a hidden temperament), attempts to
establish
of
the
most
salient
aspects
of
such
transformations
is
of usl-s),
of music
observed
in
the
passage to written music. Although Turkish makam music was basically organized
on the oral transmission, script has been longtime excluded from its practice.
Nevertheless,
several
theoretical
treatises
written
throughout
centuries
explored
E.g.
according
accepted
(Signell,
identification
to a basic
the argh
1986: 24)
151
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IRASM
46
1: 145-174
(2015)
-IJ
V ///
7 c. ~
A-
if fTtwfci
I '".
)t V
~".-T"* '<l'?'
.<x
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? j.ffi;*?
><?
* A/
!-?"''f'
V-.- X "
"
b"-rW*
{f i^
^ -
V*
>1 i ^
W
4^X*
i. O
yj !>^ ~
*
*
>
t
Urmevi
Figure 1: Safiyyddin
Notation (Sezgin, 1984:92)
\f x\
not
interested
in any
notation
in their
works.
captured
and
brought
to
the
Ottoman
court,
that
could
be
perceived
from
his
mastery in dictation (notating the music heard with correct rhythms and inter
vals) and decipheration
(performing by reading from notation without memori
This first attempt of notation was appreciated only
2008:
403).
zation) (Ayangil,
in a limited circle. In the following century, Ny Osman Dede and Dimitrie
Cantemir (1673-1723) also created their own notation systems, with a similar
152
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A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
IRASM
rt
$ ii
\\{;lft
ilftfii
;!!fa
t';i8(i
II;'!
y
46
1: 145-174
(2015)
C$1" *#\i
Li j^jijji
Figure 2: Ali Ufki Notation
result,
though
(Elin, 1976:243)
remained
they
less
theoretical
and
more
relatively
used
frequently
by musicians. Osman Dede (d. 1730), who was sheikh of Galata Mevlevi Lodge,
used a kind of alphabetical
notation system in his book. (See figure 3) Dimitrie
Prince
of
Cantemir,
Bogdan, wrote his theory book called Kitab-u ilmil Musiki
'ala vechil-Hurufat,
and he used an alphabetical
system as well. (See figure 4)
The alphabetical
the
are
pitches
shown
pitch. Osman
Dede's
the
some
but
same,
also
some
musical
the
by
letters
that
and Cantemir's
letter
combinations
are
using
the
pitch.
has
different
dgh
pitch
Cantemir
the
performer
general principles
combinations
same
for gevet
remind
different.
symbols,
system, in which
of the
of notational
On
the
other
for example,
name
systems are
hand
in Osman
of pitches
for example,
of the
there
are
Dede's
used
uzzal
instead
of nikriz pitch and rehavi pitch instead of gevet. Therefore these pitch symbols are
Both notational system used some of the same letters used for the
changeable.
etc.
Such
include
sequences
examples
of two
instrumental
in
genres
the collection of Cantemir, perev and semai, and specific pieces in both would also
have been included in two other and quite distinct repertories. (Wright, 2000: 7)
At
music
the
and
end
the
of the
social
18th
tastes
century,
that
the
technical
surrounded
and
features
shaped
of the
it were
Turkish
changing
makam
more
rapidly. The most prominent names of that period in musical notation were
Neyzen Mustafa Kevseri (d. 1770) and Abdlbaki Nasir Dede (1765-1821). Kevseri
used a notation system by combining Osman Dede's and Kantemir's systems.
in total.
(See figure 5) The collection comprises 539 instrumental compositions
Nasir Dede, created a
(Ekinci: 2012: 18) Osman Dede's
grandchild, Abdlbaki
system based on ebced notation by the order of Sultan Selim III, and wrote his
153
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IRASM
46 (2015)
Resistance
and Adoption towards
A. Ergur- N. Dogrusz:
of Modernity:
Written Music at the Crossroads
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
Gradual Passage
1: 145-174
Figure 3: Ny Osman
2006:59)
(Dograsz,
Dede
Notation
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A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
of Modernity:
Written Music at the Crossroads
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
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Figure 6: Abdiilbk
Dede Notation (Dogrusz
Uslu, 2009:149)
(Dogrusz,
book Tahririye. (See figure 6) This enterprise was in full conformity with the
reformist attitude of the Sultan Selim III, who, during his reign, tried to institute a
series
of structural
in mind
that
Mevlevi
musician
changes
Kevseri
was
and
in cultural
attached
scholar,
life
to the
Osman
as
well
Mevlevi
Dede,
had
as
in state
order,
recently
Bearing
organization.
and
that
a highly
developed
revered
a notational
selected
the
superior
authority,
for
Cantemir's
theoretical
treatise
is
and comprehensive
than that of Osman Dede, his
definitely more advanced
master. (Wright, 2007: 12) Yet, although this observation is correct, one cannot
155
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IRASM
46
A. Ergur - N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1: 145-174
(2015)
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make
of the
comparisons
Pj
>j
,:
<4
f^.rv^/;
Notation
same
9
yy
U'y 9
order
between
the
two
notational
Collection)
systems,
which
are in fact so similar to each other that one may suspect interaction or imitation in
their creation.6 (Ekinci, 2012:17)
By
the
Turkish
zum
19th
music.
was
system
century,
These
were
named
two
main
notation
and
Hampartzum
after
its
developer,
systems
had
Western
staff
Hampartzum
come
to
notation.
be
used
in
Hampart
Limoncuyan
(1768
neumatic
system.
(See
figure
8) The
Western
staff notation
was
introduc
ed in Turkey by Giuseppe
Donizetti (1788-1856), who was assigned to create a
new and European kind of military band in Ottoman Empire. The first students
6 Selim III is a
of cultural synthesis manner against the traditional purist
typical representative
one, since he tended on the one hand to keep some fundamental
aspects of the Ottoman culture, while,
on the other, he didn't hesitate to start an ambitious
transformation
and ney
project. As a composer
of makam
musicians
to adapt the existing heritage to a modern
music, Selim III encouraged
In contrast with his pacific character of artist, he presented
a vigorous posture of a force
who took severe measures
on the way to transform the existing state apparatus,
particu
of the Selim period, Nasir Dede notated the Mevlevi Ayin in makam
larly the army. As a composer
Szidilar
(which is also created by Selim III) composed
by Sultan Selim III. This is the first Mevlevi
This is again an indication to the musical reformism
Ayin written in the period it has been composed.
player
perspective.
ful monarch
of Sultan
Selim
III.
156
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A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
IRASM
46 (2015)
1: 145-174
MAKAM TAIT.
TAT.
t
Z
VV?
V-"f?T
M ou
ou ou ou net
oa
^ - v-v-;
a
r*~
'
A
o ^
tpo ico o?
I1
V-
et
et
lew to
w
to <o
et
. r1"
a pa
p* a a
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r1-
A.r^
/.rr~
vai Pa a
vat
<rrt
ye
it
7
e
.r1"
v-t
ti
va
'
oe
Jt
_.-r"
rr"
r
il
#i
r1-
nyo
v^
Xet
-r*~ r
rr^ v V ^^ ^ A
ov cou
va a a
Ooi
9o>
ko
xo
ooo 11
77
pe
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ov
et
r*"
no> <o{
io
u
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a Y
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to
t
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oto
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<S\
of Donizetti were the Turkish members of the band, Muzika-yi Hiimayun, and
these members learned, adopted and disseminated
the staff notation. Unlike the
earlier
notation
both
systems,
and
Hampartzum
Western
widely.
modified
version
of Western
staff
notation
became
were
systems
system disappeared
dominant.
Therefore
used
and a
we
can
argue, from the evolution of notation systems in Turkish makam music, that
technical innovations become only socially legitimate when they acquire concep
tually
functional
status
and
needs
in accordance
with
the
necessities
of everyday
life practices. Notation initiates into the existing musical system, including the
need to link memory and foresight, when social sphere in which it dwells supports
When traditional systems of protection and
objectification. (Adorno, 2006:159-160)
dissolve
under
the
have to obey
solidarity
pressure of capitalism, musicians
demands configured in the market relations (Adorno, 1994: 212), which imply
methods, tools and code systems.
structurally the proliferation of standardized
Modern life experience implies thus the emergence of standardized
categories
and
which
criteria,
paradigm
meant,
of perception
Forms of Resistance
Although
the
first
in the
context
of Ottoman
musicians,
a shift
onto
a new
as well as of practice.
and Practices
steps
in
written
of Adoption
music
were
welcomed
among
some
musical authorities, the general tendency of musicians was quite cautious towards
the possibility of abandoning
of the oral tradition. Yet the gradual spread of the
157
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IRASM
46 (2015)
A. Ergur- N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1: 145-174
did not cease, at least in urban musical practices, and the three
from 1790s to 1820s is considered by several historians to be a transfor
mation phase of the Ottoman social and cultural spheres. Indeed, during this era,
musical life underwent several changes, including the general adoption of the
written music
decades
music were reduced into a limited number, and complicated rhythmic structures
(large usl-s) were simplified. As musical performance evolved from the rather
private sphere of the court and its circles to a commercial activity, instruments
with louder timber replaced those with weak ones, shorter and simpler forms as
arki (song) were more appreciated, and new theorization of the makam music
was
constructed
onto
a Western
twelve-tone
staff
music
schema.
(Ergur&Aydm,
2006: 95-97) The progressive adoption of the notation in Ottoman music is one of
the most significant signs of such a modernizing process.
Besides the progressive expansion of the need to write music, there had always
been diverse foci of resistance to adopt written music. Makam music was consid
ered to be a genuinely oral culture that could not be fixed, and also had strong
roots as a musical practice. In this context, memory was conceived as the very basis
and founding quality that made makam music valuable. Great masters and virtuosi
in makam music were appreciated for their capacity to memorize musical works.
For example, Haci Arif Bey (1831-1885), one of the most talented composers of the
19th century, has been renowned by his ability to recall a musical work, only
having listened to it once. This valorizing of the memory as musician's best quality
was not only a matter of tradition nor a pragmatic technical preference, but also a
part of a culture surrounding the imagination, creation, education, performance
and sharing of the music from master to pupil as rings of a chain. Besides its
cultural, even ideological meaning, memory has also an economic value. Learning
of the music through oral tradition (mek) usually necessitated a long period of
education, which in turn guaranteed regular revenue to the teacher. The passage
to the written music was naturally threatening such an economic cycle. As it was
the case in 19th century in Europe, the learning as well as the practice of music
became a matter of capitalistic activity in the world of makam music in the Ottoman
social sphere, though it does not fully constitute an ordinary good that acquires
exchange value in market relations, because of its immaterial characteristic. (Attali,
to use
written
expressions
for learning
music.
The
master
answered
158
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that
A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual
Passage
IRASM
46 (2015)
1:145-174
Music
learning by written material would result with more difficulty in learning and
'colder' style in performance. (Notaci Emin Bey, 1885/1305: 13) Musical notation
has gained ground particularly in the imperial palace, with the encouragement
of
the reformist sultans, like Selim III and Mahmud II. The founding of the first
court band
which evolved
into a
(Muzika-yi
Hmayn),
European-type
symphonic orchestra accelerated also the need for written music that engendered
the birth of a second tendency in written music, by an adoption of the European
staff notation. Thus Hampartzum
and staff notation system coexisted through
decades, which means that it doesn't correspond, as some would think, to a
division
between European-type
musicians and traditional musicians. During
this period of transformation in music as well as in every part of the social life,
practices of performance constituted an important divide as old and new Fasil
- Fasl-i
Cedd). Although this separation seems to be a
conceptions (Fasl-i Atik
in
both
sharp polarization,
practice,
styles were often combined. Same musicians
took place in old and new performance styles, though western instruments and
lighter genres were introduced into Fasl-i Cedid formations. Indeed the Hampartzum
was
notation
adopted
served
court
among
also
makam
as an articulation
musicians.
Moreover,
the
mean
Hampartzum
memory
an
anecdote
from
music
the
and
early
those
nineteenth
who
tried
century.
to expand
The
the
inventor
written
of the
music,
with
Hampartzum
system, Hampartzum
Limoncuyan wanted to notate the Beyati Perev of ishak
a
Ottoman
Jewish
(1745-1814),
composer. Ishak refused this proposition, because,
to
makam
music
cannot and should not be written. His pretext
him,
according
was
that
such
a notation
would
need
too
much
time,
because
it is too
complicated.
already played this work to anyone, ishak said no. The friend said to him that
there was nevertheless someone who could play this music. At this moment Ham
and played the piece correctly. This made ishak extremely
partzum appeared
angry
and
incited
(Kerovpyan&Yilmaz,
him
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IRASM
A. Ergur- N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
of Modernity:
Written Music at the Crossroads
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1: 145-174
46 (2015)
between defenders of the memory and those who try to spread out the written
music was still continuing.
In sum, in contrast to the generalized opinion on the adoption of European
system in Turkey, we argue that this was neither an absolutely imposed
top-down cultural transformation nor a matter of strict opposition between East
and West. Instead it is possible to analyze such a change as a dialectical process
including both the rising needs of accelerating urban life and reformist political
interventions in culture. Written music as a distinct sign of modern culture
musical
in these circumstances,
of different
evolved
throughout an interpntration
attitudes among musicians. It is thus possible to assemble them in a typology with
three principal attitudes: Traditional conservatism in defense of the oral musical
learning and performance as a force of resistance; inner reformism of the makam
music which becomes visible with the adoption of the letter-based notations,
system; and finally outer reformism which consists of
especially the Hampartzum
of the tempered twelve-tone system and its technical expressions,
particularly writing on the staff. Traditional conservatism was not only an ideologi
cally conditioned reactionary positioning towards a relatively quickly transform
ing Ottoman musical sphere, but also rather a state of mind mostly animated by
the adoption
were
composers
Western
the
new
completely
tried
based
music's
to
isolated
from
understand
the
practices.
More
music
sensual
as
well
as
the
sense
or less
technical
cultural
changing
of
the
environment.
to
transformation
unconsciously,
properties.
they
Some
were
tried
Some
written
affected
to compose
and
by
in
emerging popular forms and styles, though they were valorizing older ones as
essential. The debate around and then the ideological split throughout the adop
tion of the written music was seemingly the most rigid faade of reactions towards
new musical
tastes, styles and practices. Given that the musical sphere was not a
small field, most of the musicians had close relationships and exchanges, there
fore these attitudes were connected. Especially inner reformism can be considered
modernization,
notation, on the contrary, constituted the most visible side and
the most sensitive point on which conflicts were crystallized. While discussing the
uncertainties about the period of transformation, Ekinci underlines that until the
mid-eighteenth century no meaningful changes were noted in style or the techni
cal specificities of Ottoman music. He stresses that, though some scholars pretend
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A. ErgurGradual
IRASM
46 (2015)
1:145-174
Music
second quarter of the 18th century. The famous controversial and somehow mys
terious treatise, Kevser Mecmuasi,
presents a series of contradictions of that
special period. By adopting the principals of Ali Ufk's and then Cantemir's times,
Kevser7, represents, in the eyes of Ekinci, either an indication to a gradual and
slow passage to notation, even the coexistence of different systems, or an example
of a traditionalist attitude which can be translated as resistance towards new tech
niques and styles. (Ekinci, 2012: 224-225) However, the emergence of a more or
less generally adopted system of notation can be conceived as a turbulent process,
albeit seemingly evolutionary, implying conflicts and exchanges between the
actors of the musical milieu. Even outer reformism ought to develop modalities of
articulation with the existing musical practices and actors, instead of trying to
promote a tabula rasa through a radical rejection of older forms and styles as out
fashioned
ones. In spite of constituting absolute
forces, these
antagonistic
tendencies were articulated through mixed forms, for example, the usage of
notation by Donizetti in his first years of teaching, and transposi
Hampartzum
tion of the makam
passage
in Turkey.
discussed,
the adoption
it gathered
Instead,
through
a functional
of letter
intersection
based
systems and Western staff notation. Nevertheless, this process was neither
linear and tranquil nor enforced and imposed.
Besides, contributions from
different cultural and ethnic sources to the process of passage in music were
important for diversifying forms of exchange between musicians. The first half of
the
nineteenth
century
was
particularly
a period
of cultural
encounters
in musical
circles, due to the transitory nature of the era, during which old and new tenden
cies melted into the same cultural sphere. Representatives of the traditional artis
tic or aesthetical codes were confronted with newly emerging ones. Especially with
the founding of the Imperial Music Institution (Muzika-yi Hiimayn) in 1826, the
Western music system was spreading out among some musical circles, though a
series of reactionary attitudes persisted in several others. Musicians of the tradi
tional mek system were reacting not only to the promotion of the Western music
by the court, but also to the progressive adoption of the techniques of writing
7 We know
(probably
nearly
died c. 1750).
nothing
about
Kevseri,
unless
the approximate
period
in which
he lived
161
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IRASM
46 (2015)
A. Ergur- N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
of Modernity:
Written Music at the Crossroads
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1:145-174
music. In addition, this highly agitated period was also the beginning of contacts
with European cultural products and values, which consequently were engender
ing a multi-cultural and dynamic intellectual milieu. Finally, this was a period of
change in the Ottoman social order as well as in the political system. Therefore
conflicts and contradictions projected onto an artistic domain were giving rise to
fruitful artistic inventions, particularly in music. Attempts to write music were
notation
progressing at that time, by two principal lines: (1) Hampartzum's
Although
is known
and
unknown
(2) Chrisantos's
alphabet;
as the
sole
creator
notation
system
renowned
by
Limoncuyan
actors
of the
on the
to create
collaborated
a notation
with
system
Arme
nian letters. More precisely, the house of the Family Dzyan at Kurueme was a
privileged cultural milieu where a group of musicians regularly assembled not
just for playing and singing, but also, more importantly, for discussing theoretical
problems of makam music, and to shape a specific letter-based code of notation.
Limon
As the latter was finally systematized and disseminated by Hampartzum
art world,
in accordance
would
erroneous
be
with
to attribute
some
the
socially
approved
to written
passage
conventions.
This
in Ottoman
forms
in an
is why
it
makam
music to the special gift of one artist, who is thus considered more privileged in
with other members of the society. (Becker, 1984: 50) Indeed, the
comparison
name
of Hampartzum
remained
associated
Father Minas
with
this
system
of notation,
although
Andon
II, discussion continued in the period of Sultan Selim III, who had close relation
the real adoption of the
ships with the influent Dzyan family. Nevertheless
notation
in
musical
circles
was
realized
between 1830-1833,
Hampartzum
system
after Limoncuyan
was
Patriarchate. (Kerovpyan
nominated
as
the chief-instructor
of the Armenian
& Yilmaz, 2010: 92) We should also note that this cultural
synthesis was also sparked by the reformist ambiance of the reign of Mahmud II
162
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A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
IRASM
46 (2015)
1:145-174
confused domain, the Karamanh culture was, per se, a bilingual form of expression.
is none other than a Central Anatolian Turkish
Indeed, Karamanh
language
dialect written in the Greek alphabet. As a non-Muslim Turkish community, the
Karamanh
people were also known for their ability to use Arabic letters. As for
the documented musical literature of the 19th century the secular songs recorded
in Armenian new notation had the Turkish lyrics written with Armenian charac
ters. A similar method was applied by the Karamanh Greeks, a Turkish speaking
population of Anatolia, who used to print materials written in Karamanh Turkish
with Greek letters. The Karamanh publications of musical scores and lyrics con
tinued to be available
about 1914 the Karamanh publications printed Greek and Turkish melodies with
Greek script. In principal the publications were bilingual and bi-musical. The
bulk of the Turkish songs were arki-s, then beste-s and few yiiriiksemai-s authored
by composers mostly from the second half of the eighteenth century and the nine
teenth century. (Popescu-Judetz,
1996: 44) (Bardaki, 1993: 29-61)
Replacement
Although
of the Letter-Based
it served
of the makam
as
an
important
component
during
the
transformation
music in Ottoman
process
Empire, around the end of the eight
eenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries, the alphabetical notations,
particularly the Hampartzum
system, gradually lost ground and were nearly
totally replaced by the staff notation in the 1830s, even if a minor tradition
survived until recent times. In the first years of his residence, Giuseppe Donizetti
used Hampartzum
notation for facilitating the passage to the tempered twelve
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IRASM
46
-o
J
rc
VA,
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f t
>5
y/
z/
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i
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4m
V.lf"
S .A,
i/
>
fy. Jjl
Donizetti
\^
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f.i
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a-iaA
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t
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Hamparsum
Notation
-r
^iyhtuU- 'ftytu*.
as,
yi/.lvW-
a/,
(Gazimihal,
1939:103-Araci,
2006: 61)
'
Quit**1
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111
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r V
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A. Ergur- N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1: 145-174
(2015)
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A. Ergur - N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
of Modernity:
Written Music at the Crossroads
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
works
system.
Yet
notated
already
by
notation
Hampartzum
IRASM
Hampartzum
in some
remained
1: 145-174
(2015)
were
system
46
translated
limited
circles
into
staff
of musicians.
the
Western
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the
engendered
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of a reverse
emergence
in notation
logic
of the
discrepancy
to the
passage
staff
system
in makam
music
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IRASM
46 (2015)
A. Ergur - N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
of Modernity:
Written Music at the Crossroads
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1:145-174
they
were
trying
to reconstruct
a new
conception
of memory
based
on
the
conception
of the
memory.
Most
of the
composers
of nineteenth
century
favored the use of written material in music. Among other documents, lyrics col
lections (gfte mecmualan) occupied a privileged place during the expansion of
written music in different social spheres. The number of lyrics collections pub
lished
during the nineteenth century was around 500. (Uslu, 2001: 167) These
popular publications helped also to transform genres of traditional makam com
position. Kr and beste which were the most long-lived genres across centuries,
were replaced by arki (literally 'song') as a highly popular form in the nineteenth
century. This tendency has evoked, until today, a arki-centered perception of the
makam music, rather than the older divisions into vocal and instrumental types.
Actually persons who identify themselves as lovers of makam music (popularly
known as Trk Sanat Mzigi/Turkish Art Music) are categorical listeners of arki
genre.
Beside
such
inner
transformations
of
the
makam
music,
new
genres
emerged
society received other cultural influences.
The rise of published musical material as a response to a public demand in
cited the formation of a score and lyrics market. A culturally dynamic urban life,
the emergence of new Western-oriented life-styles among elite classes, the relative
rise of the literacy rate in cities due to the adoption of modern policies of educa
tion, the growing of the contacts established with the world played major roles on
the proliferation of the interest in learning and playing music, through written
as the Ottoman
material. More the urban life entered into a commercial logic, more the demand
for cultural market rose. Some composers began to fully or partially think of their
which could acquire exchange value in this
own compositions
as commodities
I
is
one
of the best examples of this market-based
market.
laim Bey
emerging
In
his
collection
entitled 'Haim Bey Collection' he
of
music.
conception
lyrics
estimates that the lyrics of several arki-s that he gathered had a high potential to
be published and sold as European ('Alafranga') scores, with low prices. (Him
Bey, 1864: 87) Although his prediction never came true, music became in nine
teenth century a matter of marketing, implying technical simplification of music,
as popular tendencies spread. The adoption and use of European staff notation
played a major role in the expansion of popular music, through the high demand
for lyrics collections. The European
staff notation began progressively
to be
in
and
institutionalized
makam
music
as
a
of
adopted
practice
consumption as
well as a process of learning, particularly during the last quarter of the nineteenth
century, given that scores were systematically published after 1875. At the turn of
the 20th century, notation was extensively adopted by musicians as an important
method of learning music. Ismail
performing tool, as well as an indispensable
166
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A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
of Modernity:
Written Music at the Crossroads
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
IRASM
46 (2015)
1:145-174
Hakki
ing that reading and writing are vital tools for both of them. He stressed that one
who is perfectly competent in a language but lacking the ability to read and write
should be considered ignorant. As in the case of the language, music, in the eyes of
Ismail Hakki Bey, has the same status, since it is a language and science (au
thors' emphasis).
Conclusion
In today's modern world conception, music is usually thought of as insepa
rable from its written expressions. Yet writing music was not a widely admitted
prerequisite for its reception and performance. Much of the world's music has
been performed and transmitted exclusively through oral forms. Even in today's
there are several musical practices based on oral
global cultural exchanges,
performances. Nevertheless, the development of systems of notation in different
musical traditions was largely developed
as part of a socio-historical process of
articulation
of expressions.
the
and complicated
the
of standardization
century.
The
of more
This passage
several
contrary,
rise
most
of makam
forms,
productive
as in other experiences
and
motifs
and
actors
of resistance
for this
resistance
appeared
was
process. On
in the
argument
forms
simplified
therefore
rational,
the
process
the nineteenth
oral
character
economic
the education
several forms of resistance, written music spread out along the modernization
process in Turkey. The dialectics of social need and institutional resistance can
best be observed in the period of transition between 1790s and 1820s, which
consisted on contradictions between musicians of different artistic vocations, and
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IRASM
46 (2015)
A. Ergur- N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1:145-174
This old
process as binary oppositions.
debate on writing music in makam tradition is still continuing. Even though it has
been marginalized, defenders of an exclusively oral tradition represent the inner
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GLOSSARY
Turkish letters and their pronunciations:
C: j or dj
: ch
G: ygh as the letter gamma
(y) in Greek
o, as it is used in German
: rounded
: sh
u as it is used in German
: rounded
Makam:
Scale of microtonal
Nizm-i
Cedid:
quences
construction.
Nizmi Jedid (New Order) (1) The generic name for the conse
of a reformist era at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th
171
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46 (2015)
IRASM
A. Ergur - N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1: 145-174
centuries. (2) The specific name of the newly founded army during this peri
od, in accordance with modern military organization principles.
Usl: Preconceived
in
Ney: Ney or nay. A wind instrument of seven holes, made of reed by emptying
the interior with hot iron. Ney is a typically mystic-timbered instrument in
makam music. It is also the most persisted instrument across periods. Indeed
all instruments were replaced by others during centuries with the sole excep
tion of ney.
Nyi or Neyzen:
Ney player.
Mevlevi
Hiimayn:
Imperial Orchestra or Court Band. Founded circa 1828,
the
date
exact
is unknown, by Giuseppe Donizetti, as part of modern
though
ist reforms for teaching and performing the European
music. Today, the
Presidential Symphonic Orchestra in Ankara, and some military bands can
Muzik-yi
be considered
as its continuation.
arki: Sharqi. Song. A Turkish makam music form with lyrics and relatively short
duration, often destined to a larger audience, with popular themes and musi
cal language.
Mek:
Meshq.
from
The fundamental
a master.
It consists
on
method
a transmission
of musical
and
cultural
heritage,
Fasil: Fasl. A package of makam music forms composed in the same makam per
formed in pre-reformist era mostly in friend circles.
Fasl-i Atik: Fasliatiq. (old fasil) The musical ensemble of Turkish makam music in the
Ottoman court. Pieces in fasil are given in a specific order (taksim, kar, beste etc)
in different forms using traditional instruments (tanbur, ud, kanun, etc)
Fasl-i Cedd:
ble
consists
Perev: Peshrev.
of both
instruments
European
Instrumental
and
Turkish
traditional
ones.
prelude.
172
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A. Ergur-
N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual
Yrksemai:
Passage
IRASM
46 (2015)
1: 145-174
Music
Gfte Mecmualan:
are collected.
Gufte mejmualari.
music
Driilelhan:
Alafranga:
Dede:
of the time.
Sufi master.
ilmiT Musik 'al vechiT-Huruft:
cording to the Alphabetic Notation).
Kitbu
for
period.
173
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IRASM
46 (2015)
A. Ergur - N. Dogrusz:
Resistance
and Adoption towards
Written Music at the Crossroads
of Modernity:
Gradual Passage
to Notation in Turkish Makam Music
1:145-174
Sazetak
i prihvacanje
Otpor
postupni
ini se
ja prema
da glazba
koncepciji
na raskrizjima
moderniteta:
u turskoj maqam
glazbi
pisane
glazbe
na notaciju
prijelaz
nudi
razne
modernoga
znakove
i vrijednosti
mentaliteta
promjene
To je bio slucaj
svijeta.
turske
maqam
na putu
razvo
koji se
dogo
glazbe
dio u zapadnoj Europi tijekom uspona kapitalizma i moderniteta. Iako su rijetkiprvi pokusa
ji primijeceni u sedamnaestom stoljecu, glazbena notacija nije bila dominantna karakteristi
ka maqam
Tijekom
glazbe
procesa
koja
se
bitno
modernizacije
temelji
na
usmenoj
Turske
od
osamnaestog
i njezinu
melodije
predaji
stoljeca
nadalje
poznavanju.
su
glazbenici
ra
zvijali razlicite sustave glazbene notacije. Unatoc tomu sto se radilo o teorijskim pokusaji
ma
s ogranicenom
bastine
interes
jentiran
njome
glazbenih
na
uporabom,
bila
znak
modemog
krugova,
trgovinu,
vec
dakle
je
sama
pojava
svjetonazora.
i to upravo
moderan
onda
kada
ideje
Ustvari,
zapisane
tek su
je drustveni
u socioloskom
smislu.
noviji
zivot
i registriranja
glazbe
postajao
U ovom
privukli
pokusaji
radu
ubrzaniji,
autori
siri
ori
nastoje
izloziti oblike otpora i usvajanje sustava glazbene notacije kao pokazatelja promjena u zi
votu osmanskog/turskog drustva na osi modernizacije, od zapadne notacije Alija Ufkija do
sadasnjih
Dedea
praksi
notiranja,
i Hampartzuma
s posebnim
Limonciyana,
naglaskom
kao
i vaznost
na
povijesne
drugog
uloge
rukopisnog
Abdlbakija
i objavljenog
174
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Nsira
mate