Lydia Harrison

(2015)

What kind of threat did lesbianism pose in the early modern period?
Gregorio Lpez, a Spanish jurist writing in the sixteenth century, puts pen to paper to claim:
Female homosexuals are less of a threat than male homosexuals. 1 Lpez writes his opinion after
the Portuguese Supreme Court clarified their 1527 papal brief on the punishment for female
same-sex relationships. Certainly, many historians tend to agree with such an opinion, with many
playwrights using the notion of lesbianism as a humourous device in their works. 2 Despite this,
however, there is plenty of evidence to suggest that homosexual female relationships posed just
as significant of a threat to early modern European society as their male counterparts. Indeed,
records show that the issue was taken seriously enough that women could be and in some cases
were executed for their sexual behaviour. The question remains, though, of precisely what threat
lesbianism posed. Using various sources and close analysis, this essay will introduce the
important themes that will contribute to the argument of which aspects of early modern life, if
any, lesbianism threatened.
To contextualize: early modern Europe was in the process of recovering from the Black
Death, one of the most pivotal disasters of the time. The disease, which broke out in 1347, had
severely damaged the continents population and, consequently, meant that there was an
inclination more than ever to procreate and sustain Europes life. Indeed, Marsilio Ficino, writing
in the fifteenth century, states: Our soul is engendered in such a condition that, contained in an
earthly body, it is inclined to procreate. 3 With these words, he presents the idea that reproduction
is instinctive: a basic human need. And, while the population was steadily increasing during the
fifteenth century onwards, the rate of increase was slow and often fluctuated. 4 Fitting with
Ficinos statement, Ian Maclean described a society where any sex other than for reproductive
1 Francois Soyer, Ambiguous Gender in Early Modern Spain and Portugal: Inquisitors, Doctors and the
Transgression of Gender Norms (Leiden: Brill, 2002), p. 42

2 Rudolf M. Dekker, The Tradition of Female Transvestitism in Early Modern Europe (London: Macmillan, 1989)
3 Clement Salaman, Echoes of Egypt in Hermes and Ficino, ed. Michael J. B. Allen and Valery Rees, Marsilio
Ficino: His Theology, His Philosophy, His Legacy (Leiden: Brill, 2002), p. 115

4 Paolo Malanima, Energy and Population in Europe: The Medieval Growth (10th 14th Centuries) (2010), p. 5
1

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purposes as a waste of male seed. 5 In this way, lesbianism became a threat to early modern
society because homosexual relationships were not contributing to building the continents
population back up.
To view things more broadly, though, the idea of lesbianism contradicting population growth
must be traced back to roots. In short, it was mainly the heterosexual marriages in Europe that
were behind the steady increase of population during the medieval period. If lesbianism
threatened population, it threatened and undermined marriage on an equal scale. Indeed, many
feared the sanctity of heterosexual marriage was being undermined and it was mostly the
connotations that this brought that distressed them. In a patriarchal society, many men feared
independent women that they believed could take their male privileges. Women who lived alone
or with other women were viewed as suspicious by others; they believed a woman in early
modern Europe could not make an honest living because it was difficult for her to gain her own
property and career. Indeed, Julia Adams writes of the inheritance system in fifteenth-century
Netherlands: When deprived of a son family heads turned to grandsons, sons-in-law, and
relatives by previous marriages to fill the gap women were only temporary substitutes for
men.6 In short, in a society dominated by men, the male bloodline was used to owning property,
working and making a living. Women such as Margaret Cavendish, who writes in The Convent of
Pleasure: I will take so many Noble Persons of my own Sex, as my Estate will plentifully
maintain to live incloisterd with all the delights and pleasures that are allowable and lawful,
were viewed as threatening the order that European society viewed as normal. 7 Many men and
indeed, some women, were afraid of the disintegration of patriarchy. Accordingly, lesbianism was
seen to pose a threat to everything that was familiar and, in a period that was already recovering
from Black Death a few centuries earlier, was an unwelcome societal presence. To potentially
5 Ian Maclean, The Renaissance Notion of Women (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), p. 35
6 Julia Adams, The Familial State: Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern Europe (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 2005), pp. 85 93

7 Margaret Cavendish, The Convent of Pleasure (Newcastle, 1668)

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challenge an established social structure in an already fragile time was a very real threat to many.
Lyndal Roper sums this up nicely, writing: In marriage, education, politics and religion, the
sixteenth century does indeed seem to be the crucible of a stable patriarchal society. 8
It was not just patriarchy that appeared to be an established order, however. Lesbianism and
same-sex relationships seemingly posed a threat onto the beliefs of monarchy, too. In England,
Henry VIII passed laws to try to prevent sodomy in 1533 and, later in 1643, Charles I attempted
to ban crossdressing, stating: no lady should be on the battlefield. 9 The Buggery Act of 1533,
which originated in the House of Lords, stated that sodomy was detestable and abominable Vice
of Buggery committed with mankind or beast, and that trials would not be given the benefit of
clergy; if found guilty, offenders would face capital punishment or death. The importance of this
Act comes with the fact that Henry VIIIs reign made sodomy a felony, where previously it had
only been regarded as an ecclesiastical crime since early times. If the King believed that same-sex
relationships were a serious enough issue to prohibit them completely, then it should be
considered that lesbianism posed a serious threat to society in the early modern period; a monarch
was seen to have an almost omnipotent knowledge, and their beliefs were taken very seriously by
their people. By threatening the belief of their King, lesbianism was thus viewed by many citizens
as dangerous, as Jenny Bjrkland explains in her examination of early modern Swedish literature:
[In Kvinnogatten], lesbianism in general is threatening and dangerous the homosexual incident
[that] involved King Gustav V had a messy ending homosexuality came to be seen as a
threat to society.10
Not only this, but in the eyes of nature, there was essentially little point to same-sex
couples, as they did not contribute to the greater good of European population increase. 11 Thus,
8 Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil: Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early Modern Europe (London:
Routledge, 1994), p. 39

9 David Clark, A Brief Guide to British Battlefields (London: Hachette, 2015), p. 266
10 Jenny Bjrklund, Lesbianism in Swedish Literature: An Ambiguous Affair (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014),
pp. 70 71

11 Ryan Avent, Growth is Good, The Economist (Washington, 2010)

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women had to find alternative ways to marry, which led to increased cases of crossdressing. As
Vem and Bonnie Bullough write: Cross dressing and impersonation was an increasingly
important theme in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it became important to women who
would try to fool ministers into think they were unifying a heterosexual couple. 12 There are
certainly many cases of women marrying of women, but to find a case in which both women
were indeed acting as women is reasonably rare. The betrayal of honesty that marrying through
the method of crossdressing presented was, by law, a reason to trial a woman. This is represented
by the case of Catharina Linck and Catharine Muhlhahn in Saxony, in 1721. Linck lived as a male
and, despite finding out eventually that her husband was in fact a woman, Muhlmahn resumed
sexual relations with Linck. It was only after being outed by Muhlhahns mother that the couple
were prosecuted. Linck was beheaded and her body burned; Muhlhahn was sentenced to three
years imprisonment and then banishment. 13 From this, it must also be noted that it is not just
society that was threatened by lesbianism. Individual lives were also affected or, indeed, ended by
same-sex relationships. The marriage of two women in which a female husband was involved put
both parties at risk. Sodomy laws passed in Spain in 1484, Germany in 1532 and England in 1533
meant that a lesbian couple who had penetrative sex with an instrument of any kind could be
sentenced to capital punishment or, in worst cases, to death. It was not as if women were not
aware of this either, as Anne Lister writes of how she hides her burdensome sexuality in her
journal in June 1824: What a comfort is this journal. I tell myself to myself & throw the burden
on my book & feel relieved.14 Indeed, with the potential death penalty for anyone found guilty of
the aforementioned crime, it is not unreasonable to argue that lesbianism actually posed a threat
to those who engaged in it, whether knowingly or not. The irony that lesbianism actually

12Bonnie Bullough and Vem Bullough, Crossdressing, Sex and Gender (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1993), p. 74

13 Rictor Norton, Paradigms of Same-Sex Marriage in the Long Eighteenth Century (Canterbury: University of Kent
Press, 2011), p. 16

14 Diary entry of Anne Lister, ed. Helena Whitbread, The Secret Diaries of Miss Anne Lister (London: Hachette,
2010), p. 206

Lydia Harrison

(2015)

threatened those who wanted to exercise it is perhaps a superficial argument, but nonetheless, it
represents a different dimension from the threat on society that has been observed thus far.
What must be addressed, however, is the precise definition of the word threat. Indeed, to
use the term too loosely, and without contextualising, is to risk overlooking a significant point
about exactly why women engaged in homosexual relationships. It is true that many men feared
the usurping of their male privileges by women and, therefore, considered lesbianism a threat, as
Margaret Hunt states nicely: Women debated the legitimacy of male power women [were]
hospitable to attempts to usurp male prerogatives, whether sexual or otherwise. 15 However, it must

be noted that the term threat can be viewed as a social construction. That is to say, the possible
threat posed by women in same-sex relationships, or women that lived together, can be seen as
unjustified and superficial. It is wholly possible that the idea of women engaging in homosexual
relationships because of a genuine love, mutual respect or, certainly, reasons other than to spite or
usurp men, was disregarded. Indeed, Judith Brown writes: Europeans had long found it difficult
to accept that women could be attracted to other women. 16 If those during the period did and
could not view lesbian couples as a loving unit, the notion of men viewing lesbian relationships
as a threat can be argued to be a product of their own making. If this is the case, then the debate
surrounding the threats of lesbianism can be rendered invalid; if male fears were unjustified then
it would not be unreasonable to say that lesbianism, certainly in terms of male privileges and
social hierarchy, did not pose a threat in the early modern period.
The viewing of lesbian couples as a loving unit also poses the argument of the morality of
lesbianism. Indeed, it is easy to see same-sex couples as threatening to society when only the
political and religious debates are studied. To clarify: while many believed the union or close
relationship of two women was suspicious, there is evidence to suggest that others, including
15 Margaret Hunt, The Sapphic Strain: English Lesbians in the Long Eighteenth Century, ed. Judith M. Bennett and
Amy M. Froide, Singlewomen in the European Past , 1250-1800 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,
1999), p. 276

16 Judith C. Brown, Lesbian Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ed. Martin Duberman et. Al, Hidden
from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, (New York: Penguin, 1991), p. 67

Lydia Harrison

(2015)

ministers and parishes, which were not fazed. While the supposed threat to the holiness of a
heterosexual marriage was present, there are recorded marriages between women in which were
absent of fraud.17 Indeed, two entries on the Taxal marriage register appear to document the
solemnizing union of two lesbian couples at the Parish of Presbury: Hannah Wright and Anne
Gaskill in 1707 and between Anne Norton and Alice Pickford a year later.18 That being the case,
the minister conducting the marriage would have known he was unifying two women. While
guessing his reasoning would be pure speculation, the connotations of these cases would be that
lesbianism could not have posed a threat so substantial to society that they were denied religious
recognition and union; that officials and Church ministers could not have cared about same-sex
couples enough to refuse them marriage in all cases.
The degree of care towards same-sex couples by officials also extends all the way up to the
English monarchy. It is well known that King James I was involved in a string of homosexual
relationships with his courtiers, the most well-known being with George Villiers. The nickname
James called George, Steenie, derived from the biblical description of St. Stephen having the
face of an angel.19 The pair wrote each other numerous love letters for several years until
Villierss death in 1628. The monarchy was given the right to rule by Divine Right, something
which James himself was keen to impose. His speech to his Lords and Commons at Whitehall in
1609 included the phrase: The State of Monarchie is the supremest thing upon Earth: for Kings
are not onely Gods Lieutenants upon Earth, and sit upon Gods throne, but even by God himselfe
they are called Gods.

20

If James believed his words to be true, like so many of his subjects and

citizens during the period did, then this presents the idea that the King was engaging in
17 ibid., Norton, Paradigms of Same-Sex Marriage in the Long Eighteenth Century, p. 16
18 Valerie Traub, The Renaissance of Lesbianism in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2002), p. 382

19 Rictor Norton, My Dear Boy: Gay Love Letters through the Centuries (Canterbury: University of Kent Press,
1998), p. 1

20 James I, A Speach to the Lords and Commons of the Parliament at White-Hall, on Wednesday the XXI of March.
Anno 1609 [1610], in The Workes of the most High and Mightie Prince James, King of Great Britaine, France and
Ireland (London, 1616), p. 529

Lydia Harrison

(2015)

homosexual relationships, despite it being against the religion that he claimed to be a God of.
By setting this example, with the case of George Villiers, it can be argued that lesbianism did not
pose a threat to early modern Europe because the King himself, who was viewed by many as a
God, or at least a servant of God, practically condoned homosexual behaviour by declaring his
love for another man in various letters between the pair.
Finally, to further counter the notion of lesbianism posing a threat to early modern Europe, the
reason for which women were actually put on trial for must be examined. While some women,
such as Catharina Linck, were executed for their homosexual crimes, it is important to note
precisely what women during the period were actually convicted of. Indeed, the Discipline
Ordinance of 1537 in Augsburg condemned damned, forbidden copulation (sex using
instruments), as did the Spanish sodomy laws of 1484. 21 However, the confusion over whether to
convict women for homosexual crimes remained even decades later. In 1560, the Inquisitorial
tribunals were, according to Sherry Velasco, inconsistent, and even after consultation with
lawyers and theologians, were not sure whether to prosecute women who had sex with each other
without instruments.22 In many cases, women brought to court for same-sex crimes were charged
for the felony of crossdressing or fraud, which was usually due to a lack of evidence of them
engaging in forbidden copulation. Indeed, Martin Duberman writes: Cases of lesbian
sexuality [were] related to concerns about womens gender behaviour rather than sexual object
choice.23 That is to say, the threat that lesbianism was perceived to have focused more on the
fraud and apparent attempted destruction of patriarchy than it was on actual same-sex
relationships. From this, it must be considered that lesbianism itself did not actually pose a threat
in the early modern period, but it was rather the female behaviour that could potentially arise
from it.
21 George Haggerty and Bonnie Zimmerman, Encyclopedia of Lesbian and Gay Histories and Cultures (Basingstoke:
Taylor & Francis, 2002), p. 279

22 Sherry Velasco, Lesbians in Early Modern Spain (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2011), p. 38
23 Martin Duberman, et. al, Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past (New York: Penguin, 1991),
p. 67

Lydia Harrison

(2015)

To conclude, though, despite the fears of the potential movement away from patriarchy and the
fluctuating population, the threat that lesbianism posed to the early modern period was actually
rather minimal. The perception of a patriarchal society still remains a popular topic in modern
times and, perhaps more importantly, though it is true that lesbianism did not contribute to the
importance of population increase, demographic trends prove that since the period the European
population has increased dramatically.24 Not only this, but the unifying of women such as Alice
Pickford and Anne Norton by a religious official enforces the idea that even ministers did not
mind same-sex couples, despite religion being such a huge part of early modern life. Indeed, in
many cases where there was prosecution, it would not be down to the act of lesbianism but rather
its connotations, as Isabell Hunt states: Because the [justice] system was so strongly social,
peoples attention tended to focus on the relational aspects of sexual behaviour, on who was being
linked, rather than on what they were doing.25 Overall, then, the kind of threat that lesbianism
posed to the early modern period was mildly social, but was not significant enough to remain a
focal point of society, especially with the Buggery Act being repealed by the Offences against the
Person Act in 1861.26
Word count: 2,530

24 Martin Slattery, Key Ideas in Sociology (Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes, 2003), p. 163
25 Isabell V. Hull, Sexuality, State and the Civil Society in Germany, 1700-1815 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
1996), p. 44

26 National Archive, Offences against the Person Act 1861 [www.legislation.gov.uk], (last accessed:
28.10.2015)
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Bibliography
Primary sources
Cavendish, Margaret, The Convent of Pleasure (Newcastle, 1668)
James I, A Speach to the Lords and Commons of the Parliament at White-Hall, on Wednesday
the XXI of March. Anno 1609 [1610], in The Workes of the most High and Mightie Prince
James, King of Great Britaine, France and Ireland (London, 1616)
Secondary sources
Adams, Julia, The Familial State: Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern
Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005)
Avent, Ryan, Growth is Good, The Economist (Washington, 2010)
Bjrklund, Jenny, Lesbianism in Swedish Literature: An Ambiguous Affair (London: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2014)
Brown, Judith C., Lesbian Sexuality in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, Hidden from
History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, (New York: Penguin, 1991)
Bullough, Bonnie and Bullough, Vem, Crossdressing, Sex and Gender (Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press, 1993)
Clark, David, A Brief Guide to British Battlefields (London: Hachette, 2015)
Dekker, Rudolf M., The Tradition of Female Transvestitism in Early Modern Europe (London:
Macmillan, 1989)
Duberman, Martin, et. al, Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past (New
York: Penguin, 1991)
Haggerty, George and Zimmerman, Bonnie, Encyclopedia of Lesbian and Gay Histories and
Cultures (Basingstoke: Taylor & Francis, 2002)
Hull, Isabell V., Sexuality, State and the Civil Society in Germany, 1700-1815 (Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1996)
Hunt, Margaret, The Sapphic Strain: English Lesbians in the Long Eighteenth Century,
Singlewomen in the European Past, 1250-1800 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,
1999)
Maclean, Ian, The Renaissance Notion of Women (Chicago: University of Chicago Press)
Malanima, Paolo, Energy and Population in Europe: The Medieval Growth (10 th 14th
Centuries) (2010)
Norton, Rictor, My Dear Boy: Gay Love Letters through the Centuries (Canterbury: University of
Kent Press, 1998)
Norton, Rictor, Paradigms of Same-Sex Marriage in the Long Eighteenth Century (Canterbury:
University of Kent Press, 2011)
9

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(2015)

Roper, Lyndal, Oedipus and the Devil: Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early Modern
Europe (London: Routledge, 1994)
Salaman, Clement, Echoes of Egypt in Hermes and Ficino, Marsilio Ficino: His Theology, His
Philosophy, His Legacy, ed. Michael J. B. Allen and Valery Rees (Leiden: Brill, 2002)
Slattery, Martin, Key Ideas in Sociology (Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes, 2003)
Soyer, Francois, Ambiguous Gender in Early Modern Spain and Portugal: Inquisitors, Doctors
and the Transgression of Gender Norms (Leiden: Brill, 2002)
Traub, Valerie, The Renaissance of Lesbianism in Early Modern England (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002)
Velasco, Sherry, Lesbians in Early Modern Spain (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2011)
Whitbread Helena, The Secret Diaries of Miss Anne Lister (London: Hachette, 2010)
Online sources
National Archive, Offences against the Person Act 1861 [www.legislation.gov.uk], (last accessed:
28.10.2015)

10