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Computer Networks
Class XI (Chapter # 2)
Ans. A computer network is an interconnection between two or more computers so that they
communicate with each other. A network is made up of collection of computers and the
connection between them that allow information exchange to take place.
Form of Connection
• Cable
• Wireless
• Satellite
In peer-to-peer networks, every computer can acts as a client, server or both at the same
time. In this type of networks, each computer is referred to as peer or peer computer. Son
each peer computer can share files and printers with other computer and it can also access
other shared resources on the network. Large peer-to-peer networks become difficult to
manage.
Ans. A LAN interconnects computers, terminals and peripheral devices within a geographical
area such as office building or university campus and provides high-speed communication.
A WAN interconnects widely separated computers and terminals together and it may
operate nationwide or worldwide. Normally public transmission media such as telephone
lines, coaxial cables or optics or fiber are used in WANs
Ans. It allows the multiple users to access and share program and data simultaneously.
It allows multiple users to share peripheral devices, such as printers and hard disks.
It allows sending e-mails along with files.
It allows the users to communicate via teleconferencing and video-conferencing.
Ans. In networking, the term topology is the way of connecting nodes or devices on a network.
In other words, a topology represents the shape of networks. Network topology can be
divided into the following basic types.
Bus topology
In Bus networks, all nodes are connected to a common communication medium or central
single cable. This single cable is called BUS. The devices or nodes are attached with the central
cable through interface connector. The central cable is the backbone cable, which functions
as shared communication medium. In bus network, node sends a broadcast message onto
central cable with address of destination computer. Only the destination node accepts and
processes the message.
Star topology
In a star networks, each node or device directly connected to a central connection point
HUB. The central connection may be an actual HUB or a switch. Typically nodes or devices are
connected to the HUB with unshielded twisted pair (UTP) Ethernet. Star topology is most
commonly used in LAN.
Ring topology
In ring network, each node is connected
The ring network is shaped just like a ring. It is made up of an unbroken circle of network
nodes. Essentially each node is directly connected to its immediate neighbors. Data on the
network flows in one direction around the ring, traveling from one node to the next along the
way.
Mesh topology
IP - is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node. IP forwards each packet
based on a four byte destination address (the IP number). The Internet authorities assign
ranges of numbers to different organizations. The organizations assign groups of
their numbers to departments. IP operates on gateway machines that move data from
department to organization to region and then around the world.
TCP - is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data from client to server. Data
can be lost in the intermediate network. TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to
trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and completely received.
Sockets - is a name given to the package of subroutines that provide access to TCP/IP on
most systems
TCP/IP software is popular on large networks because it works and is available for
practically in all computers.
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TCP and IP perform primarily what the OSI model terms Iayer-3 (Network) and layer-4
(Transport) functions.
Particularly important is the capability to communicate and to order data among two or
more different computer systems.
Ans. X.25 protocol defines how communication devices such as routers package and route
data over a connecting circuit.
X.25 data packaging and routing can be used over any satellite or Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) communication circuits.
X.25 can also be used over any type of point-to-point circuits but the protocol is better
known for its packet- switching capabilities
Q.9. Explain circuit switching and packet switching techniques used in data
communication.
Early telephone systems are a suitable example of circuit switching. The subscriber would
ask the operator to connect them to another subscriber, whether on the same exchange or
via an inter-exchange link and another operator. In any case, the end result was a physical
electrical connection between the two subscribers' telephones for the duration of the call.
The copper wire used for the connection could not be used to carry other calls at the same
time, even if the subscribers were in fact not talking and the line was silent.
In later years it became possible to multiplex multiple connections over the same physical
conductor, but nonetheless each channel on the multiplexed link was either dedicated to
one call at a time, or it was idle between calls. Circuit switching can be relatively
inefficient because capacity is wasted on connections which are set up but are not in
continuous use (however momentarily). On the other hand, the connection is immediately
available and capacity is guaranteed until the call is disconnected.
Circuit switching contrasts with packet switching which splits traffic data (for instance,
digital representation of sound, or computer data) into chunks, called packets that
are routed over a shared network. Packet networks do not require a circuit to be
established and allow many pairs of nodes to communicate almost simultaneously over
the same channel. Each packet is individually addressed precluding the need for a
dedicated path to help the packet find its way to its destination.
Packet routing
Packets are routed to their destination as determined by a routing algorithm. The routing
algorithm can create paths based on various metrics and desirable qualities of the
routing path. For example, low latency may be of paramount concern and everything else
is secondary, or a minimum hop count.
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It's also entirely possible to have to weigh the various metrics against each other. For
example, reducing the hop count could increase the latency to an unacceptable limit and
some kind of balance would need to be found. For multi-parameter optimization,
some form of optimization may be needed.
Once a route is determined for a packet it is entirely possible that the route may change
for the next packet, thus leading to a case where packets from the same source headed
to the same destination could be routed differently.
The most well-known use of the packet switching is the internet. The internet uses the
internet protocol suite over a variety of data link layer protocols. For example, Ethernet
and Frame relay are very common. Newer mobile phone technologies (e.g., GPRS, I-mode)
also use packet switching.
X.25 is a notable use of packet switching in that, despite being based on packet switching
methods, it provided 'Virtual Circuits' to the user. In 1978, X.25 was used to provide the first
international and commercial packet switching network, the International Packet Switched
Service (IPSS).
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a hybrid technology, which uses cell relay instead of
packet switching.
Fast packet switching is a packet switching technique that increases the throughput by
eliminating overhead.
Data travels from one node to another through communication media. LAN does not use
telephone line for this purpose. In low cost LANs, the nodes are connected with twisted
wire pairs, but many LANs, use coaxial cable or fiber optical cable, which are both
more expensive and faster, some LANs, use wireless transmission media in which data is
communicated through the air or space, using radio signals or infrared signals, instead of
cables. Wireless networks are easy to set up and configure, but they have slower
transmission rates and limited distance between nodes.
A network interface card is used to connect a computer to other computer in the local
area networks. It is a circuit board that is installed inside the computer’s internal
expansion slots.
iii) Bridge
A bridge is an electronic device that connects two similar networks and the data flow
between them. A bridge recognizes the message on a network and passes on those addresses
to nodes in other networks.
iv) Gateway
A gateway is also an electronic devices or system (Collection of hard ware and software)
that connects two networks and translates information from one to the other. It enables a
computer or node to communicate with a computer on other different networks.
v) Router
Router is a communication device that connects two or more networks is called router and
transmits data to the correct destination on the network. It uses the routing protocols.
The brief description about seven layers of OSI model is given below.
Application Layer
This layer of OSI model provides network services to user applications. It is responsible for
exchanging information between programs running on the machine, such as an e-mail
programs, and other services running on a network such as a print server or another computer's
application.
Presentation Layer
This layer of OSI model performs data transformations to provide a common interface for
user applications. It means that data is translated between the formats the network
requires and the format the computers of the end-users expect.
Session Layer
This layer of OSI model establishes maintains and manages connections between devices,
so that they can talk to each other. These connections are called sessions.
Transport Layer
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This layer of OSI model is responsible for breaking the data into segments, establishing an
end-to-end logical connection between machines, and providing for error handling.
Network Layer
The Network layer of OSI model is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and
terminating connections of networks. It means that the function of the network layer is to
manage communication between computers/terminals.
Data link Layer
This layer of OSI model is responsible for the reliability of the physical link established at
physical layer. This layer provides for the error free transfer of data from one computer to
another.
Physical Layer
This layer of OSI model specifies how data is processed into bits and physically transferred
over medium, such as cables. It's responsible for activating and maintaining the physical link
between systems.
What is meant by network protocol? Also write the name of LAN's protocols?
All machine-base communications must follow certain set of rules for exchange of data
between nodes connected to a network. The rules to send and receive data are called
protocols. These rules are defined in the network software. The most common and popular
LAN network protocols are:
(i) Ethernet
(ii) Token Ring
(iii) ARC net