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The Internet is the network of networks around the world. It is made up of thousands of smaller, national, regional,
governmental, academic and commercial networks. It is a global network.
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An organization network through which the files and messages can be exchanged among the users of the organization
only is called the Intranet.
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An extranet is a network of multiple intranets. It means that intranets of different companies are connected together for
the collaboration among the companies.
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TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. It is a real communication protocol that drives the
Internet. Every computer to access the Internet must be installed TCP/IP. This protocol provides connectivity between
browsers and servers on the Internet for data communication.
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ISP stands for Internet Service Provider. It is a company that provides the Internet connections to the users. There are
many ISP companies in each big city of each country of the world. You have to get an Internet connection from any ISP
company of your local city to connect to the Internet.
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The World Wide Web is simply referred to as web. It consists of a world wide collection of electronic documents stored
on the special servers known as web servers. These documents are known as web pages. The web pages are accessible on
the Internet. So we can easily access the information available on the Internet.
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FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a way for transferring files from one computer to another. The process of
transferring a file from a network computer to your local computer is called  The process of transferring a
file from your own computer to the server on the Internet is called  
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Gopher is an Internet service that organizes resources into multilevel menus to make finding information easier on the
Internet. Before Gopher, it was difficult to find information on the Internet.
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IP stands for Internet Protocol. It is a unique identifier for a host or node on the Internet. It is I numerical address with
four numbers separated with dots. A typical IP address looks like this: "#$27. $##%&
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DNS stands for Domain Name System. The human-readable name assigned to the computer (server) on the Internet is
called the domain name. It is a common and unique text name and is alternative to an IP address. The domain name
system (DNS) stores the information about domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. For this purpose DNS
server is used, which translates the domain name into its IP address. - --
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Searching information on the World Wide Web is referred to as Web Browsing. A software known as Web browser is
used to search and view web pages.
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A Web Browser or simply a Browser is software that allows the Internet users to find, retrieve, view, and send
information over the Internet. Many Web Browsers are available but the most commonly used Web Browsers are
Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator.
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URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. Every page has a unique address on World Wide Web. This is called Uniform
Resource Locator (URL). If you want to access a web page on the World Wide Web, you will have to specify the URL of the
required page in the web browser.
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Search engines are the special websites that provide facility to Internet users to search information on the Internet.
Search engines maintain a list of billions of web pages containing information on variety of topics.
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These are discussion groups or forums that provide the services to exchange messages on the Internet (not on the Web,
which is only one area of the Internet) about a particular subject. Newsgroups are classified by subject and do not
necessarily deal with journalism or "news". Health, hobbies, celebrities, and cultural events are the subjects of many
newsgroups.
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E-mail stands for electronic mail. It is the most popular service or facility provided by the Internet through which we can
electronically send and receive messages anywhere in the world.
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E-mail is sent with the reference of e-mail address. Each Internet user has its unique e-mail address. All ISP companies
also provide the e-mail address when their membership is obtained. The format of e-mail address is given below.
username @ domain-name
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Composing e-mail means to prepare a message that is to be sent. It is composed very easily into any utility e-mail
program.
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You can attach files of any type with message you compose and send via e-mail. This process is called attaching files. You
can send complete software to any one via e-mail. Usually, the files ͻ are compressed or zipped using Zip utility program
before to attach with e-mail. j
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Sending back an e-mail that one has received to the sender person with new message is called replying e-mail.
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Sending an e-mail message that one has received to another person is called forwarding e-mail.


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Data is defined as; collection of raw facts and figures, which is collected for specific purpose. The data may be in the form
of text, numbers, sounds, images, video clips etc.
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When raw facts & figures are arranged in such a suitable manner that they give the clear & proper meanings then they
are called information.
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Data processing is defined as: a sequence of operations performed on data to convert it into useful information. Data
processing is also known as computing.
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A system that processes the raw data to convert it into useful information is referred to as information system. An
information system or computer-based system includes hardware, software, data, procedures and the users that interact
with the computer. The data is provided to the information system and processed information is obtained.
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Information technology is a technology that combines computing with high-speed communication links for
carrying data from one place to another, all over the world (i.e. over this global village).
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A computer is an electronic machine that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it into useful information
(output), and store it (in a secondary storage device) for later reuse.
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The physical components of a computer are called hardware. You can touch, see and tfeel hardware. The input/output
devices, CPU, Memory unit etc. are examples of hardware.
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A set of instructions given to the computer to perform a specific task, is called software. It tells the computer what to do
and how to do.

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A program or set of programs that is specially designed to control different operations of computer system is called
system software. The system software also enables the other application programs to execute properly. Operating
systems, utility programs and device drivers are the examples of system software.
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A program or set of programs that are specially designed to solve the specific problems of user, are called application
software or software packages.

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These are the programs that are developed by software development organizations and sold on.the open market to any
customer. Actually, these softwares are developed to provide common applications on a computer. The examples of
these softwares are, Ms-Word, Ms-PowerPoint, Ms-Access, Ms-Excel etc.
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The devices that are used to enter data and instructions into the computer are input devices. The input device is
hardware component. It accepts input (data & programs) in a form that the computer can use, and then sends to the
processing unit.
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A pointing device is an input device that is used to control the movement of the pointer or cursor on the screen and to
send command signals to the computer. Usually, the pointing device is used to select items on the screen, to select
commands from commands menu, to draw graphs etc.
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A trackball is also a pointing input device. It performs functions like a mouse but it is a stationary device with a moveable
ball on its top. The ball is rotated or rolled with fingers (or palm of the hand).
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Touch Pad is a pointing input device. Touch pad is also known as track pad. It is also stationary device like trackball but it
has no moving parts. It is a small, flat surface (or sensitive pad) over which we slide our fingertip to move the pointer on
screen for pointing a desired icon (or item). As we slide our fingertip on the flat surface of Touch Pad, the pointer (or
cursor) moves on the screen.
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Bar code is a unique identification code in the form of light and dark vertical lines (or vertical zebra-stripped marks) or
bars with spaces between them of different widths. It is printed on most of the manufactured products. Actually, the
name of product, its price and other descriptions are coded as bar codes. There are several bar coding schemes or
systems. The most popular and
commonly used bar code is UPC (Universal Product Code).
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A magnetic-stripe card has a stripe of magnetically encoded information on its back. Usually, the magnetic stripe cards
are used for personal identification during driving, in the departmental stores, at public places etc.
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Smart card looks like a credit card or ATM card. It contains a thin microprocessor and memory chip that is embedded in it.
When this card is inserted into a card reader (a device used to read the card), it exchanges data with the corresponding
information on a central computer. It can store and update some basic information also. A mobile SIM card and an ATM
card are examples of smart cards.
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Dedicated Fax machine is an independent normal fax machine, which can send and receive information to and from the
other fax machines.
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An audio-input device enters analog signals of sound and translates it to digital form to store into computer for further
processing. The main purpose of audio-input device is to provide digital input for multimedia computers. Microphone is
mostly used as an audio-input device.
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Video input device is used to record films and video images. VCR and video camera are examples of video input devices.
For this purpose, there must be a special circuit board known as video-capture card inside your computer.
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To enter sound signals inside the computer, a computer must have a sound card. It is a special circuit board also known as
audio board.
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Video input device is used to record films and video images. For this purpose, there musi be a special circuit board known
as video-capture card inside your computer. The video capture card converts the video signals into digital signals that a
computer can use.
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The output received on the display screen or in the audio or video form, is called softcopy output. This kind of output is
not tangible and it cannot be touched.
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The output printed on the paper is called hardcopy. The printers and plotters devices are used for this purpose. »

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A computer must have a video display adapter to display output in the form of graphics. Video display adapter is also
known as video graphics card that determines the resolution, number of colors, and speed with which images appear on
the display screen.
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An impact printer prints characters and graphics on the paper with the strikes of hammer or wheel against an inked
ribbon. Dot Matrix, Daisy Wheel, and Line printers are examples of impact printers.
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The printers that produce output on paper without striking the paper are known as non-impact printers. They use
electrostatic, inkjet, and thermal technologies for printing. Laser, InkJet and thermal printers are examples of these type
printers.
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Daisy wheel printer is also an impact character printer. It has a print wheel with series of petals. This wheel is known as
daisy wheel.
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Thermal printer is a non-impact printer. It can only print output on a special heat sensitive waxy paper. The image of the
output is created on the waxy paper by burning dots on it.
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The laser printer has a special drum inside it. The laser printer produces an image of the output on a drum with laser
beam and magnetically charged powered ink, called toner, and then transfers the image from drum on the paper.
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Drum plotter works like a flatbed plotter. It consists of a drum or roller on which a paper is placed. The drawing pens are
also mounted on the drum. The drum rotates back and forth to draw (or print) the graph on the paper. Drum plotter is
used to produce continuous output such as to track earthquake readings.
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A system is a set of related components that interact with each other to perform some specific tasks.
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A set of activities or steps that are required to develop a system (such as software) is called the system development life
cycle (SDLC). It is an organized way to develop a successful system.
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Coding is the main phase of system development process. In this phase, the actual codes of software are written. It
means that actual system is produced.
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In 1951 Von Neumann and his team proposed a design of a stored program computer. According to his design a sequence
of instructions (called a program) and the data are stored in the memory of the computer (or machine).
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CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. It is the most important component of the computer and it is also known as
Processor. CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. The CPU used in personal computer or small workstation
consists of a single chip called the microprocessor.
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Control Unit is the most important part of the CPU. It controls all parts of the computer and coordinates all activities in
the computer. The control unit also controls the execution of instructions given to the computer. It fetches the
instructions and data from the memory unit. It decodes and executes the instructions one by one.
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ALU stands for Arithmetic Logic Unit. It is another important component of CPU. It performs the arithmetic and logical
operations on the data.
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The main memory is the most important component of the computer. It is used to store data and instructions that are
currently in use. Sometimes, main memory is also referred to as "working area" of the computer.
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Each byte in the memory is assigned a unique number. This number is called the address of that byte.
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RAM stand for Random Access Memory. Actually, the main memory is referred to as RAM. It is important to note that the
main memory of the computer is volatile and the contents of the memory are lost as soon as the electricity supply is cut-
off. The CPU can write and read data to and from the RAM. So RAM is read/write memory.

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DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. This type of memory is used in most of the computers. In order to
maintain data in DRAM chip, it must be refreshed with electric charge frequently (or periodically) otherwise data stored
in DRAM may be lost
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SRAM stands for Static RAM. In SRAM, individual cells are made by using digital gates and each cell can hold its value
without any need to refresh it frequently. It is faster than DRAM because it does not have to be refreshed with electric
charge frequently and the CPU has not to wait to read & write data.
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Cache memory is similar to RAM but it is extremely fast than RAM. It is normally used between RAM and CPU. Cache
speeds up processing speed of computer because CPU stores frequently used instructions and data in it.
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ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is type of internal memory. The contents (i.e., instructions and data) stored in this
type of memory can be read but new data cannot be written into it. This is the reason why it is called read only memory.
The manufacture of the ROM writes the data and programs permanently into it and contents of this memory cannot be
changed afterwards. ROM is a non-volatile memory.
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PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is initially blanks and the user or manufacture can
write his own program and data in it by using special devices. However, once the program or data is written in PROM
chip, it cannot be changed or altered and it works like a normal ROM chip.
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EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is another important form of read only memory. Like
PROM, it is initially blank and the user or manufacture can writes his own program or data by using special devices. Unlike
PROM, the data written in EPROM chip can be erased by using special purpose devices and ultraviolet rays.

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EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This kind of ROM can be re-written by using
electrical devices. So data stored on this form of ROM chip can be easily modified.
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The binary number 1 or 0 is called a bit (for binary digit), which is the basic unit for storing data in the computer memory.
Actually, the main memory consists of large number of electronic switches. Each switch can have either of the two states,
i.e. ON or OFF. The ON state represents 1 and OFF state represents 0.
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A byte is a combination of 8-bits. One character takes one byte of memory, (a character may be a letter, numeral or
special character). The capacity of the memory or the storage is expressed in terms of number of bytes it can hold or
store. It means amount of data and program size are also measured in bytes.
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The System Buses are the part of motherboard and are used to connect the main component of the computer such as
CPU, and main memory. The modern general purpose computers have 70 -100 lines System Bus.
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The computer Bus, which is used to transfer data from one component to the other, is called Data Bus. It consists of 32 or
64 parallel lines. A Data Bus of 64-line can transfer 64-bits (or 8 bytes) of data at a time.
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The amount of data that a Bus can carry at one tome from one component of computer to another is known as Width of
Data Bus.
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The computer Bus, which is used to identity different components of a computer as well as to specify the address of
different memory locations is called Address Bus.
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The computer Bus (or parallel lines), which is used by CPU to send different commands (or control signals) from one
component to the other, is called Control Bus.
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I/O unit provides the way to communicate between processor and I/O devices such as keyboard, monitor, printer, disk
drives etc. The I/O unit is responsible for controlling different I/O devices connected to it.
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DMA stands for Direct Memory Access. DMA is a special hardware component, called the DMA controller. It allows I/O
unit to write and read data directly to and from the main memory without the involvement of CPU. Without DMA, this
work is done through CPU.

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Registers are the special purpose storage areas inside the CPU. The registers are used to store data and instruction
temporarily as long as they are decoded and executed. The registers are the part of CPU and not the part of main
memory. The registers increase the performance of CPU.
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Program Counter (PC) register holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched for execution. After instruction is
fetched, the value of PC is incremented by 1. Thus this register always points or holds the address of next memory
location from which an instruction to be fetched.
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Once an instruction is fetched, it is stored in the IR where this instruction is decoded.
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MAR stands for Memory Address Register. It holds the address elective memory location that is being currently accessed
by the CPU. When the CPU wants to store some data in the memory or reads the data from the memory it places the
address of the required memory location in the MAR.
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MBR stands for Memory Buffer Register. It holds the contents of data or instruction read from, or written in memory. The
CPU uses this register to store data coming from the memory or going to the memory
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A stack represents a set of memory blocks; the data is stored in and retrieved from these blocks in an order, i.e. First In
and Last Out (FILO). The Stack pointer register is used to manage the stacks in memory. This register holds the value of
the top of the stack.
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A CPU also has general-purpose registers that are used along with other registers to perform arithmetic & logical
operations and these registers are also used for data movement purposes inside the computer. These registers are called
EAX, EBXr ECX and EDX.
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The segment or address register holds addresses of the memory locations that are being currently used by the CPU. It is
used as base location for program instructions, data and the stack. There are four segment registers named as CS, DS, ES
and SS. Each has size of 2-bytes.
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A set of instructions that a CPU can execute to perform different operations on data are known as the instruction set of
that CPU. Different types of processors have different instruction set.

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The instructions that are used to transfer data from one unit of computer to another during program execution are called
Data Transfer Instructions.
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The instructions that are used to write and read data to and from the I/O devices are called I/O Instructions. Every CPU
provides facility to users to perform operations of reading data from a peripheral device and writing data to a peripheral
device. For this purpose, the programmer uses the input and output instructions.
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The instructions that are used to transfer the execution control from one part of the program to another during program
execution are called Control Transfer Instructions. These instructions may be used to execute a set of instructions
repeated for a number of times.
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In zero-address instruction format, no address is specified. A stack-organized computer does not use an address field for
the instructions like ADD and MUL.
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The instruction of one-address format uses only one address field. This format of instruction uses accumulator register
for all data manipulations. However, for multiplication and division, there is need for second register.
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The instruction of two-address format uses two address fields. Each address field can specify either a register or a
memory address. Two-address instructions are the most common in commercial computers.
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The instruction of three-address format uses three address fields. Each address field can specify either a register or a
memory address. This type of instruction requires too many bits to specify three addresses.

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For every instruction of the program, the control unit (CPU) carries out three basic operations, known as the Machine
Cycle or Fetch - Decode - Execute Cycle.
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A set of programs running in the background on a computer system and providing an environment in which other
programs can be executed and the computer system can be used efficiently.
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The main functions performed by the operating system are: ' -
1. Manage Hardware Resources
2. Memory Management
3. Load and Execute Programs
4. Data Security
5. Providing Interface to the Users

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Command prompt is also referred to as command line user interface. In this type of user-interface, the operating system
provides prompt line on the computer screen. The user communicates with the computer (or operating system) by typing
commands using a keyboard. The user-interface provided by Ms-DOS operating system is an example of command
prompt.
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The programming languages that are very close to machine code (Os and Is) are called low-level programming languages.
The examples of low-level programming languages are machine language and assembly language.
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The programming languages that are close to human languages (e.g. like English language) are called high-level
languages.
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The program written in high-level language is called the source code.
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The source code written in high-level language must be translated into machine code so that the CPU can understand it.
Therefore, the source code translated into machine code is called object code.
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The language processor that translates the complete source code (written in high-level language) as a whole into
machine code before execution is called compiler.
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A translator program that translates each instruction of source program into machine code and execute it immediately
before to translate the next instruction is called interpreter.
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A translator program that translates the program written in assembly language into machine code is called assembler.
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Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via transmission media such as a wire cable. In other
words, we can say that transfer of information or data from one location to another is called Data communication.
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The message is the information or data that is to be communicated. It may consist of text, numbers, pictures, sounds,
videos or any combination of these.
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A device that is used for sending messages or data is called sender. It is also called transmitter or source. A sender may be
computer, workstation, telephone, video camera, and so on. Usually, a computer is used as sender in data
communication system.
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A device that is used for receiving messages or data is called receiver. It may be computer, workstation, telephone,
television, printer, fax machine, and so on.
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The means through which data is transmitted (or sent) from one location to another is called transmission medium.
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The encoder converts digital signals to a form, which can be transmitted through transmission medium.
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The decoder converts signals from encoded form into digital forms that are understandable for receiver.
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The data is transmitted from are place to another in the form of electromagnetic or light waves through communication
medium. The electromagnetic or light waves representing data are called signals.
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The analog signals are continuous electrical signals in the form of wave. This wave is called a carrier wave. The light
waves, sound waves or radio waves are examples of analog signals. The data through telephone line is communicated in
the form of analog signals.
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The number of times a wave repeats during a specific time of interval is called frequency.
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The height of a wave with a given period of time is called amplitude.
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A digital signal is a sequence of voltage represented in binary form. Actually, digital signals are on-off electrical pulses in
discontinuous or discrete form. Most of the computers are digital and data is represented inside these computers in the
form of binary numbers (or in the form of discrete set of values). It means that computers accept and process data in the
form of digital signals.
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The computer accepts and processes data in binary form. Therefore, all data (numeric or non-numeric) must be
converted into binary digits before to enter inside the computer. The process to convert data into binary form is called
encoding of data.
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EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It is 8-bit code. In this binary coding system 256 (2 )
different characters can be represented inside the computer. It is used by IBM (International Business Machine)
computers.

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ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It was developed by American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) and is a standard code to represent alphanumeric data.
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The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data communication mode (or data transmission
mode). It indicates the direction of flow of information. Sometimes, communication modes are also referred to as
Directional Modes.
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In simplex communication mode, the data communication can take place in only one direction. In this mode, a terminal
can only send data and cannot receive it or it can only receive data but cannot send data.
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In half-duplex communication mode, the data communication can take place in both directions, but only in one direction
at a time. In this mode, data is sent and received alternatively. It is like a one-lane bridge where two-way traffic must give
way in order to cross the other.
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In full-duplex communication mode, the data communication can take place in both directions simultaneously (i.e., at
same time) on the same channel. It is the fastest directional mode of communication. Example of this mode is
conversation of the persons through telephone.
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In parallel transmission, bits of data flow concurrently through separate communication lines. Parallel transmission is
shown in figure below. The automobile traffic on a multi-lane highway is an example of parallel transmission. Inside the
computer binary data flows from one unit to another using parallel mode.
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Li serial data transmission, bits of data flow in sequential order through single communication line. Serial data
transmission is shown in figure below. The flow of traffic on one-lane residential street is an example of serial data
transmission mode.
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In synchronous transmission, large volumes of information can be transmitted at a time. In this type of transmission, data
is transmitted block-by-block or word-by-word simultaneously. Each block may contain several bytes of data. In this
mode, data is saved before sending. In synchronous transmission, a special communication device known as synchronized
clock' is required to schedule the transmission of information.

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In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted one byte at a 'time'. This type of transmission is most commonly used
by microcomputers. The data is transmitted character-by-character as the user types it on a keyboard. In this mode, data
is not saved before sending.
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The amount of information that can be transmitted through the transmission media within the given period of time is
called bandwidth. For analog signals bandwidth is represented in Hertz and for digital signals, it is represented in bit per
second (bps).
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Baseband is a communication technique in which digital signals are directly transmitted over transmission line without
changing into analog signals (i.e. without using modulation technique).In this communication technique, there is no need
to use any complex modem.
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Broadband is another communication technique in which large amount of data such as voice and video, is transmitted
over long distances simultaneously by modulating each signal onto a different frequency. In broadband transmission,
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) technique is used, in which multiple signals (or several streams of data) can be
transmitted simultaneously.
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A path through which data is communicated from one place to another is referred to as communication media or
channel. The twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, microwave, satellite etc. are examples of communication
channels.
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In guided communication media, communication devices are directly linked with each other via cables or physical media
such as twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, or fiber optic cable for transmission of data. The data signals are bounded to a
cabling media. Therefore, guided media is also called bounded media.
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In unguided communication media, data is communicated between communication devices in the form of wave.
Unguided media provides means to transmit data signals but does not guide them along a specific path. The data signals
are not bounded to a cabling media. Therefore, unguided media is also called unbounded media.
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Twisted pair cable is one of the most commonly used communication media. It is used in local area network (LAN) for
data communication between different computers. It is also used in telephone lines to carry voice and data signals. A
twisted pair cable consists of a pair of thin diameter copper wires that are covered by insulating material such as plastic
and are twisted together to form a cable.
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Coaxial cable is also referred to as Coax. It carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable. Coaxial cable
consists of a single solid copper wire, which is called the inner conductor. The bandwidth of coaxial cable is 80 times
greater than twisted pair media. Coaxial cable is also widely used in local area network (LAN).
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In twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable, data is transmitted in the form of electric frequencies. The fiber optic cable uses
light to transmit data. The data transmission speed is very high because fiber-optic cable uses light to transmit data. The
data transmission speed is up to billions bits per second. Today, most of the telephone companies and cable TV operators
are using fiber optic cables in their networks.
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In microwave transmission, data is transmitted through air or space, instead of through cables or wires. Microwaves are
high frequency radio waves that can only be traveled in straight lines. Microwave transmission is limited to a particular
city or geographical area.
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A communication satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals (or messages) from earth stations. Satellite
transmission stations that can send and receive messages are known as earth stations. The signals are transmitted from
one earth station to the satellite. The satellite receives and amplifies the signals and sends them to another earth
stations. In this way, data or messages are transferred from one location to another. Satellites rotate approximately
23,300 miles above the earth in precise locations.
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Mobile communication is a radio-based network that transmits data to and from the mobile computers. The data is
communicated through radio signals from one location to another. The computers can be connected to the network
through wireless connections or through wires.
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Modem stands for modulate and demodulate. It is an electronic device that converts digital signals into analog signals
and vice versa. Modems are used on both ends of the computers for data communication between computers through
telephone line.
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This process to convert the digital signals into analog signal is called Modulation. Similarly, to receive the data from
another computer through telephone line, in the form of analog signals, it must be converted to digital form to store it
into the computer. This process of converting the analog signals into digital form is called demodulation.
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External modem is an external unit of computer and is separated from system unit. It is connected to the serial port
COM1 or COM2 of the computer by means of a cable. It is also linked to the telephone line through telephone wall Jack
by another cable. An external power is also supplied to it. External modem is very easy to set up.
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An internal modem is a circuit board (or modem card) that is installed into one of the expansion slots inside the system
unit of the computer. This modem cannot be moved easily from one PC to another. It is also difficult to set up than other
types of modem such as external modem.
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Wireless modems transmit the data signals through the air instead of by using a cable. They sometimes are called radio-
frequency modems. This type of modem is designed to work with cellular technology, and wireless local area networks.
Wireless modems are not yet perfected, but the technology is rapidly improving.
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Information networks are the computer networks that communicate with public telecommunication networks. In
information networks, two important technologies: computing and telecommunications work together.
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A network (or computer network) is a way to connect computers together so that they can communicate with each other
and share information.
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A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of computer network in which computers are interconnected in a limited
geographical area, such as network of computers in college computer laboratory or network of computers in office
building etc.
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A network interface card (NIC) is used to connect a computer to other computers in the local area network. It is a circuit
board that is installed inside the computer's internal expansion slots. The NIC has a socket where the network cable is
connected. The most popular network interface card is Ethernet card used to connect computers in local area network
(LAN).
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A bridge is an electronic device that connects two similar networks and controls the data flow between them. A bridge
looks at the information in each packet header and forwards data that is traveling from one network to another to its
destination.
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A gateway is also an electronic device or system (collection of hardware and software resources) that connects two
different types of networks and translates information from one to the other. It enables a computer or node to
communicate with a computer on another different types of network.
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Router is a communication device that connects two or more networks (different or similar) and transmits data to its
correct destination using the available path on the network, is called router. It stores the routing information of each
node or computer on the network. It uses this information to transfer data between nodes.
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The rules to send and receive data through computer network are called network protocols. These rules are defined in
the network software.
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Ethernet is the most commonly used protocol in LAN. It uses a high-speed network cable and Bus topology, so it is
relatively simple and cheaper.
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Before transmitting the data, a node must find out if the cable is in use. If so, the node must wait. When the cable is free,
the node must begin transmitting immediately. This process is also known as CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection).
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A token is a special electronic signal. It consists of a series of bits, which functions like a ticket. The computer with the
token can transmit data over the network. Only one token exists per network.
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A computer network in which each node is connected to two adjacent nodes or neighbors form a closed ring or loop is
called ring network topology. The token ring protocol is used in this type of network. The token ring is closely associated
with IBM, which works on the concept of a ring network and a token.
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The method of controlling access to the shared network cable is called token passing.

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ARCnet stands for Attached Resource Computer network. It is LAN protocol. It uses either twisted pair wire or coaxial
cable, and the star topology with hub attached to the network.
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A Wide Area Network is a network system that covers a large (or wide) geographical area such as different cities of
country or different countries of the world.
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A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a communication network system that covers a geographical area of a single city.
Usually, MAN connects more than one LANs in a city or town and covers a smaller geographical area than a WAN. Mobile
phones (cellular) systems are often MANs.
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The standards are the precise documents containing technical and physical specifications about the network being
designed. Normally those standards are taken into consideration and are worldwide acceptable.
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De facto means "by tradition" or "by facts". These standards were developed without any formal I plan and came to
existence because of historical developments. These standards are most commonly used by the organizations worldwide.
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De Jure means "according to law or regulation". These standards have been properly approved by the networks
governing body.
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Ô? The names of most popular networks governing bodies are:
Ô? American National Standard Institute (ANSI).
Ô? The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Ô? The International Standard Organization (ISO).
Ô? The International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication. Standards Sector (ITU-T, formally CCITT).
Ô? The Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
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In client/server network (or arrangement), the clients are all computers or nodes on the network I and server is a central
computer that controls the network. In addition to control the network, the I server also provides a centralized storage
area for programs and data. It has hard disks that hold I the shared data file or database.
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In peer-to-peer arrangement, all nodes (or computers) on the network have equal status. No one has control over others.
It means that there is no central computer to control other computers. Each computer stores files on its own storage
devices and has its own peripheral devices. The users can share each other's data and devices (or resources) as and when
needed.
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The hybrid network has combined features of both client/server and peer-to-peer networks (or. arrangements). It has a
server and the users can share the data and software. Similarly, each node can store its own files, programs, and has its
own peripheral devices.
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In networking, the term topology is the way of connecting nodes (or devices) on a network. In other words, a topology
represents the shape of network.
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In Bus network, all nodes (or devices) are connected to a common communication medium or central single cable. This
single cable is called Bus. The devices or nodes are attached with the central cable (or Bus) through interface connector.

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In a ring network, each node is connected to two adjacent nodes or neighbors for communication purpose and forms a
closed ring or loop. In this way the last node connects to the first node to complete the ring. In this network, all messages
travel through a ring in one direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise) from node to node.
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In a star network, each node or device is directly connected to a central connection point known as 'Hub'. The central
connection may be an actual Hub or a switch. Typically, the nodes or devices are connected to the Hub with unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) Ethernet.
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In tree network, the nodes are connected to each other in such a way that forms a tree like structure. Typically to form a
tree network, multiple star topologies are combined together onto a Bus. In this simplest form, only Hub devices connect
directly to the tree Bus. Each Hub functions as the root of a tree of devices.
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In mesh network, each node is directly connected to all node on the network. This type of network involves the concept
of routes. In this type of network, each node may send message to destination through multiple paths.
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In a computer network, people can work together as a group even when they are thousands of miles away from each
other. This concept of working together is called workgroups.
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The phenomenon of sharing information among various members of workgroup through computer network is called
Workgroup Computing. The workgroup computing is also known as collaborative computing.
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A software is used for workgroup computing. This software is known as 

It allows many users or researchers
to work on their projects by sharing the same domain of information online. A groupware also permits the individuals to
collaborate (work together) with their colleagues inside the organization by means of linked computer (computer
network).
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OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. OSI model is also known as OSI Reference Model. It is used for networking.
It was created by the International Standard Organization (ISO) to provide a logical framework for how data
communication processes should take place across networks.
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The Application layer is the topmost layer of OSI model. It provides services directly to the application programs, to
access the network. It provides user interface to send and receive information by the user.
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This layer of OSI model performs data transformations to provide a common interface for user applications. It means that
data is translated between the formats the network requires and the format the computers of the end-users expect.
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This layer of OSI model establishes, maintains and manages connections between communicating systems or
devices, so that they can talk to each other. These connections are called sessions.
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This layer of OSI model provides a mechanism for the exchange of data between source and destination. It breaks large
message from the Session layer into segments to be sent to the destination computer. At th6 destination computer, it
reassembles the data segments and presents the data to the Session layer. Transport layer also sends an
acknowledgement of receiving of data of to the sender.
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This layer of OSI model ensures the delivery of data packet from source to destination. It means that this layer is
responsible for carrying data packets from one computer to another or from node-to-node.
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This layer of OSI model is responsible for carrying a packet of data from one computer (or router) to the next. It is also
responsible for the reliability of the physical link established at Physical layer. This layer provides for the error free
transfer of data from one computer to another. It checks whether the data has arrived properly and safely at the
destination.
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The Physical layer of OSI model is the bottom-most layer. This layer is related to the transmission media for data
transmission. This layer controls and co-ordinates the transmission of data in the form bit stream over a physical medium
such as coaxial cable, optic fiber cable etc. It also defines the rules by which the bits are passed from one node
(computer) in the network to the next.
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The main fields where computer is commonly used are given below.
Ô? Business
Ô? Industry
Ô? Medical
Ô? Airline system
Ô? Education
Ô? Weather forecasting
Ô? Home
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Office Automation (OA) refers to the process of automating office tasks. In an office, workers perform different tasks
using computer. Many offices use the computer technology to perform various tasks.
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The term e-commerce or e-business describes the transactions conducted electronically between business partners over
computer network (such as on Internet). The users can buy, sell, and exchange of products or services via computer
network.
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A videoconference is a meeting between two or more people residing at various places. They can watch and talk with
each other. They use a network (i.e. Internet).Video conferencing provides a normal meeting environment. It enables
both parties to see, hear and present material, just as if they are in the same room.
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Many businesses now have websites that allow Internet users to buy goods or services. Shopping can take place using a
computer at home, or at a cyber cafe. The e-shop can be anywhere in the world and it remains open 24 hours a day.
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One of the most popular uses of e-commerce is electronic banking. An electronic banking is also known as cyber-banking.
It includes various banking activities conducted from home, a business, or on the road instead of a physical bank location.
Usually, the people pay their utility bills through their bank accounts using this facility.
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A robot is an automatic programmable machine that moves and performs mechanical tasks. It means that a robot acts
like human beings. Robot can work in environment that is dangerous for human beings such as opening chemical
packages and packages believed to contain bombs. It can perform repetitive tasks continuously without any break, at
very high'accuracy than human.
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Computers are also used for the design of products. The Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software is used to design the
samples, or models of the products.
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Computer-Aided manufacture is a software which uses digital design output generated by CAD system and controls all
the parts of a manufacturing process.
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A computer simulation is a special type of computer model, which provides the behavior of a system that might exist
outside the computer (i.e. in the real life). Simulations are often used to train people or students when:
It is impossible to build system due to economical problems. Direct experimentation is impossible in real life due to
dangerous of the system, System is not yet available.
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Computer Aided Learning (CAL) could be described as the use of information technology to assist in the teaching and
learning processes. The use of computer in education can reduce time that is spent on preparing teaching materials. It
can also reduce the administrative load associated with teaching and research. A teacher prepares slides and delivers
lecture to the student through computer.
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Computer-Based Training (CBT) or presentation is also called Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI). In this method, computer
is used as an aid to teach the students in the classroom. The instructions of particular subject are received from the
computer and are taught to the students.
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CBT has the following additional benefits. Students can easily obtain new skills. Training times can be reduced.

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Planning and time table problems can be reduced or eliminated. It is not costly method. It is very attractive method to
deliver lectures to students. Lectures can be repeated again and again.

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Computer has the following main characteristics. .
Ô? Speed
Ô? Accuracy
Ô? Consistency
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Security is a system of safeguards designed to protect a computer system and data from damage or access by
unauthorized persons.
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A small program that gets into your computer and disturbs the normal functions of the computer and destroys the
important data stored in the computer is called computer virus. The computer virus cannot damage hardware, only data
or software is corrupted.
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The software, which is installed into your computer without license is referred to as pirated software.
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The boot sector virus modifies the program in the boot sector and is loaded into memory whenever computer is turned
on.
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The famous chernobal virus deletes all the Microsoft Office files and also the partition information from the disk. Once
the partition of the disk is deleted, the important data on the disk cannot be accessed.
9
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Logic bomb is a virus, which is activated on the basis of a logical condition. Examples of conditions that can be used as
triggers for a logic bomb are the presence or absence of certain files, a particular day of the date etc. Once this virus is
triggered, the important data stored into a computer may be deleted or corrupted.
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It is virus, which is the part of some computer game programs. When game program is installed, jin the computer and
run, this virus is activated. An example of Trojan horse is Format C
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Privacy is the act of limiting the access of information (or computer resources) from unauthorized users. It is the right of a
person to keep his personal information away from other people. An individual has a right to see the data about him.
9
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The principal law governing software piracy is the "Copyright Act 1976". Some amendments, were made in this law in
1983 and now "software piracy" is believed to be a punishable crime. It may involve huge amounts of penalties.
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A secret word or code assigned to documents and programs, or computer system to prevent unauthorized access is
called password. You have to type the correct password to open the system.
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The special programs that are used to detect and remove the viruses from the computer are called anti-virus programs. A
large number of anti-virus programs are available. The McAfee and Norton are examples of most popular anti-virus
programs.
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Software is like any other property. Software copyright is the right to use software on the computer. The software
company who develops the software keeps copy right with it and distributes by cost. When you purchase commercial
software, you are paying for a license to use the software.

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The most important shortcut keys that are used in á


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Change the font CTRL + SHIFT + F

Change the font size CTRL + SHIFT+ P
Increase the font size CTRL + SHIFT+ >
Decrease the font size CTRL + SHIFT+ <
Increase the font size by I point CTRL + ]
Decrease the font size by I point CTRL + [
Change the case of letters SHIFT+ F3,
Format letters as all capitals CTRL + SHIFT + A
Apply or Remove Bold Formatting CTRL + B
Apply or Remove an underline CTRL + U
Underline single word CTRL + SHIFT + W
Double underline text CTRL + SHIFT+ D
Apply or Remove hidden text CTRL + SHIFT+ H
Apply italic formatting CTRL +1
Format letters as small capitals CTRL + SHIFT+ K
Apply subscript (Automatic Spacing) CTRL + =
Apply Superscripts (Automatic Spacing) CTRL + SHIFT + =
Remove formatting (Plain Text) CTRL + SHIFT+ Z
Change the selection to symbol font CTRL + SHIFT + Q
Display nonprinting characters CTRL + SHIFT +

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Single - space lines CTRL + I
Double - space lines CTRL+ 2
Set 1.5 line spacing CTRL+ 5
Add one line of space preceding text CTRL + 0
Remove the space preceding text by pressing same shortcut again, CTRL + 0

 ( !+! +!r!, (1 (!('(' (
Center a paragraph CTRL + E
Justify a paragraph CTRL + J
Left aligns a paragraph CTRL + L
Right aligns a paragraph CTRL + R

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Indent a paragraph from the left CTRL + M
Remove a paragraph indent from the left CTRL + SHIFT + M
Create a hanging indent CTRL + T Reduce a hanging indent CTRL + SHIFT + T
Remove paragraph formatting CTRL + Q

!,3( 3, 
Apply a style CTRL + SHIFT * S
Carry out the style command CTRL + SHIFT+ S
Start Auto format CTRL + K
Apply the normal style CTRL + SHIFT + N
Apply the Heading 1 style ALT + CTRL + 1
Apply the Heading 2 style ALT + CTRL+ 2
Apply the Heading 3 style ALT + CTRL + 3
Apply the list style CTRL + SHIFT + L

03!('10V 0)7  9
 
 

Copy object into clipboard CTRL-t C
Move object into clipboard CTRL + X
Copy formats CTRL + SHIFT+ C
Move text of graphics F2
Paste object from clipboard CTRL + V
Paste formats CTRL + SHIFT + V

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Delete one character BACKSPACE
Delete one word to the left CTRL + BACKSPACE
Delete one character to the right DELETE
Delete one word to the right CTRL + DELETE
Undo the last action CTRL + Z

( + !,r!+! +
Filed CTRL + F9
Auto text entry ALT + CTRL + V
Line Break SHIFT + ENTER
Page Break CTRL + ENTER
Column break CTRL + SHIFT + ENTER
Optional hyphen CTRL + HYPHEN
Non breaking hyphen CTRL + SHIFT + HYPHEN
Non breaking place CTRL + SHIFT + SPACEBAR
Copyright symbol ALT + CTRL+ C
Registered trademark symbol ALT + CTRL + R
Trademark symbol ALT + CTRL+ T
Single opening quotation mark CTRL + '
Single closing quotation mark CTRL + '
Double opening quotation mark CTRL + "
Double closing quotation mark CTRL +
Mark a table of content entry ALT + SHIFT+ Q
View spike contents CTRL + SHIFT + F3

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One character to the right SHIFT + RIGHT ARROW
One character to the left SHIFT + LEFT ARROW
To the end of a word CTRL + SHIFT + RIGHT ARROW
To the beginning of a word CTRL §SHIFT + LEFT ARROW
To the end of a line SHIFT + END
To the beginning of a line SHIFT + HOME
One line down SHIFT + DOWN ARROW
One line up SHIFT + UP ARROW
To the end of paragraph CTRL + SHIFT + DOWN ARROW
To the beginning of a paragraph CTRL + SHIFT + UP ARROW
One screen down SHIFT + PAGE DOWN
One screen up SHIFT + PAGE UP
To the end of document CTRL + SHIFT + END
To the beginning of the document- CTRL + SHIFT + HOME
To include the entire document CTRL + A
To a vertical block of text CTRL + SHIFT + F8
and then use the Arrow key: press ESC to cancel selection Mode. To a specific location in a document F8 + ARROW KEYS
press ESC to cancel selection mode.

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Select a column ALT and hold it down while you click the column
Extend a selection (For Block) CTRL + SHIFT + F8 and then use the arrow keys
Reduce the selection size SHIFT+ F8
Select an entire table ALT + 5 on the numeric keypad

10V( (0r '0*1 (
One character to the left LEFT ARROW
Once character to the right RIGHT ARROW
One word to the left CTRL + LEFT ARROW
One word to the right CTRL + RIGHT ARROW
One paragraph up CTRL + UP ARROW
One paragraph down CTRL + DOWN ARROW
To the previous frame or object ALT + UP ARROW
To the next frame or object ALT + DOWN ARROW
One column to the left (in a table) SHIFT + TAB
One column to the right (in a table) TAB

10V( (0!!),
Next cell in a row TAB
Previous cell in a row SHIFT + TAB
First cell in a row ALT + HOME
First cell in a Column ALT + PAGE UP
Last cell in a row ALT + END
Last cell in a column ALT + PAGE DOWN
Previous row UP ARROW
Next row DOWN ARROW

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+(( 
print command (File Menu) CTRL + P

******** Wish You Best of Luck *******

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