Data Representation and

Digital Electronics

Data Representation
 makes it possible to convert letters,
sounds, and images into electrical signals

Digital Electronics
 makes it possible for a computer to
manipulate simple “on” and “off” signals
to perform complex tasks
Digital Data
Representation
Why are computers digital ?

Digital Device
 works with discrete -distinct or separate -
data or digits, such as 1 and 0

Analog Device
 works with continuous data

Computers are digital because computer

designers have found it to be a relatively
simple, dependable, and adaptable
technology.

A digital computer is a simpler technology
than an analog computer.

Most computers use the simplest type of digital
technology, their circuits have only two
possible states.
Digital Data
Representation

How can a computer represent numbers using

bits ?

Computers represent numeric data using the

binary number system, also called “base 2”

Numeric Data
 the numbers that might be used in
arithmetic operations

Binary Number System
 has only two (2) digits : 0 and 1

 allows computers to represent virtually any

number simply by using 0s and 1s
 conveniently translates into electrical “on”
and “off” signals
Digital Data
Representation
How can a computer represent words and
letters using bits ?

Character Data
 consists of letters, symbols and numerals
that will not be used in arithmetic
calculations

A digital computer uses a series of bits to
represent letters, characters, and numerals.

ASCII
 pronounced as “ ASK ee”

 stands for American Standard Code for

Information Interchange
 requires only seven bits for each character

Extended ASCII
 a superset of ASCII

 uses eight bits to represent each

character
 provides codes for 128 additional
characters
Digital Data
Representation
How can a computer represent words and
letters using bits ?

EBCDIC
 pronounced as “EB seh dick”

 stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal

Interchange Code
 an alternative 8-bit code usually used by
IBM mainframe computers

UNICODE
 pronounced as “YOU ni code”

 provides codes for 65,000 characters and

makes use of 16 bits
Digital Data
Representation
How does a computer convert sounds and
pictures into codes ?

 A computer must somehow digitize colors,

notes, and instrument sounds into 1s and
0s, in order to work with sounds and
pictures.
 Computers convert colors and sounds into
numbers, which can be represented by
bits.
 A red dot on your computer screen might
be represented by 1100, a green dot by
0010.
Digital Data
Representation
When a computer works with a series of 1s and
0s, how does it know which code to use?

All of the things that computer works with is

stored in files as a long series of 1s and 0s.

The computer needs to know whether to
interpret those 1s and 0s as ASCII code, binary
numbers, or the code for a picture or sound.

Most computer files contain a file header with
information on the code that was used to
represent the file data, to avoid confusion.

A computer can now tell how a file’s contents
were coded by reading the header information.
Digital Electronics

How can I tell the difference between bits and

bytes?

bit
 binary digit
 can be further abbreviated as a lowercase
“b”

byte
 composed of eight (8) bits

 usually abbreviated as an uppercase “B”

nibble
 composed of four (4) bits

 a halfway between a little bit and a big

byte

Storage space is usually expressed in bytes
while transmission speeds are expressed in
bits.
Digital Electronics

How does a computer store and transport all of

those bits ?

Bits take the form of electrical pulses that can

travel over circuits.

The circuits, chips, and mechanical
components forming a computer are designed
to work with bits.

These components are housed within the
computer’s system unit.
Digital Electronics

How do chips fit together to make a computer?

Motherboard
 also known as main board

 the computer’s main circuit board

 houses all essential chips and provides

connecting circuitry between them

Some chips are permanently soldered in place,
while other chips are plugged into special
sockets and connectors.

The chips might be gathered together on a
separate small circuit board, which can then
be plugged into a special slot-like connector.
Microprocessor Basics

Microprocessor
 sometimes known as processor

 an integrated circuit designed to process

instructions
 the most significant component of
computer and usually the most expensive
single component
 executes instructions that are provided by
a computer program

Instruction Set
 list of instructions that a microprocessor
can perform
 hardwired into the processor’s circuitry
comprising of basic arithmetic and logical
operations, fetching data, and clearing
registers

Memory
 is the electronic that holds place for
instructions and data which the
microprocessors can reach quickly
Today’s Microprocessors

Which companies produce most of today’s

popular microprocessors ?

Intel
 world’s largest chipmaker and supplies a
sizeable percentage of the
microprocessors that power personal
computers
 introduced the world’s first
microprocessor , the 4004, during 1971

AMD (Advanced Micro Devices)
 Intel’s chief rival in the PC chip market

 produces microprocessors that work just

like Intel's chips, but a lower price
Today’s Microprocessors

Which of the microprocessors is the best ?

Intel
 Original Pentium : 1993

 Pentium II : 1997

 Pentium III : 1999

 Pentium IV: 2000

 Itanium : 2001

 Celeron processors : Intel’s budget model

AMD
 Athlon processors : Direct competitors to
Intel’s Pentium line
 Duron processor : AMD’s budget model

The microprocessor that’s “best” for you

depends on your budget and the type of work
and play that you plan to do.
Components of Data
Processing

Data processing is a technique of collecting,
manipulating and distributing data to achieve
certain functions

Objective: to convert raw data into
information that can be used in decision
making
 Computer Systems

• A system is a collection of objects,

procedures, or techniques that
interact in regulated manner to form
an organized whole
Components of Data
Processing

Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 integrates and coordinates overall
operations
 composed of three (3) units:

The CPU sub-units: ALU, Control Unit and

Primary Storage
Components of Data
Processing
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Control Unit

 maintains order and controls activity in the

CPU
 does not process or store data but it
directs the sequence of operations
 interprets the instructions of a program in
storage and produces signals that act as
command circuits to execute the
instructions

Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

 performs arithmetic computations and

logical operations

Primary Storage Unit
 holds instructions, data, and intermediate
and final results
 a reusable, fast storage medium, directly
accessible by the control unit
Components of Data
Processing

Input/Output Subsystem
 provides the mechanism for
communications between the CPU and the
outside world
 input subsystem - reads data and
converts them into electronic pulses
 output subsystem - reports the results of
the processing by the CPU

Memory Subsystem
 also known as the “secondary storage”,
allows for extra data storage, exceeding
the CPU’s primary storage
 an efficient and compact means of sorting
large amount of data, ready for retrieval or
further processing
 retrieval time is slower than the primary
storage
I/O Components

Common I/O Peripherals

Keyboard

Mouse

Monitor

Hard disk

Printer
I/O Components

Other I/O Devices

CD-ROM drive

Modem

Sound Card

Scanner
Storage Components

Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of
computer memory chip that allows instructions
and data to be stored, changed and retrieved
by the user

Read Only Memory (ROM) is a memory chip
that allows only readout capability

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
enables the user to add special information to
the ROM supplied by the manufacturer as part
of the system

Virtual Memory is an imaginary memory area
supported by the software in conjunction with
the hardware
Storage Components

Mass Storage Device

Floppy Disks

Compact Disk (CD)

Zip Disk
Classification of
Computers

Minicomputers, Microcomputers and
Mainframes
 Microcomputers are small desktop systems
with limited I/O devices --- usually only a
keyboard for input, a floppy disk for
storage, and a monitor for output
 Minicomputer is a general-purpose
computing device, either rack-mounted or
small enough to fit in a desktop
 Mainframe is a very large and expensive
computer capable of supporting hundreds,
or even thousands of users simultaneously

Desktop PCs
 medium sized computers

 relatively inexpensive and designed for

individual users
Classification of PCs

Supercomputers
 fastest type of computers

 very expensive and are employed for

specialized applications that require heavy
mathematical calculations that smaller
computers may not be able to do
• weather forecasting
• animated graphics
• fluid dynamic calculations
• nuclear energy research

RISC vs. CISC
 Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

Software, Programs and
Support Modules

Software
 comprises of computer programs , support
modules, and data modules that work
together in order to provide a computer
with the instructions and data necessary
for carrying out a specific type of task

Program
 a set of instructions that tells a computer
how to solve a problem or carry out a task

Support Module
 provides an auxiliary set of instructions
that can be used in conjunction with the
main software program

 not designed to be run by the computer

user
Software, Programs and
Support Modules
Why does a software requires so many files?

Most software packages include at least one

executable program file, several support
modules, and one or more data modules.

It is for the programmers’ great deal of
flexibility and efficiency.

Most of the support modules contain “generic”
program instructions that can be used to work
with various programs.

These techniques affect the process of

installing and uninstalling software.
How Software Works
How does a high-level language relate to the
microprocessor’s instruction set?

Machine language is the only language that can

be understood by a computer’s
microprocessor.

Instructions written in a high level language

must be translated into machine language
before a computer can use them.

A special type of programs called translators,

convert instructions from a high-level language
into machine language.
How Software Works

Assuming that a VideoFactory, a video editing
program, was installed on your computer,
which is running Windows.

You click the Start button, then select

VideoFactory from the Programs menu.

The instructions for Vidfact.exe are loaded

into RAM and then sent to the microprocessor.

The VideoFactory window opens and the

graphical controls for video editing tasks
appear. The programs wait for you to select a
control by clicking it with the mouse.

The program follows its instructions and

performs a pre-specified action.

The program continues to respond to the

controls that you select until you click the
Close button, which halts execution of the
program instructions and closes the program
window.
Operating System

What does an operating system do

A computer’s software acts similarly with the

chain of command in an army.

Using application software, you issue a
command.

Application software tells the operating
system what to do.

The operating system instructs the device
drivers, device drivers instruct the hardware
and the hardware actually does the work.
Operating System

What does an operating system do

The operating system interacts with

application software, device drivers, and
hardware to manage a computer’s resources.

While interacting with application software,
operating system is busy behind the scenes
with other tasks.
Operating System

How does an operating system affect the “look

and feel” of application software?

An operating system typically provides user

interface tools, such as menus and toolbar
buttons, that define the “look and feel” for all
of its compatible software.

Apple computer released its popular Macintosh
computer in 1984, which featured a GUI
operating system and applications.

During 1992, when Windows 3.1 became
standard issue on most PCs, GUIs did catch on
in the PC market, replacing a command-line
interface that had given many people a string
aversion to computers in general.
Operating System
Where is the operating system

The entire operating system is small enough to

be stored in ROM for typically handheld
computers and video game consoles.

For nearly all personal computers, servers,
workstations, mainframes, and
supercomputers, the operating system program
is quite large, so most of it is stored on a hard
disk.

The bootstrap program provides the
instructions needed to load the core parts
(kernel) into memory when the system boots.

Customization utilities and other parts of the
operating system are loaded into memory as
they are needed.
Operating System

Do I ever interact directly with the OS

• Launch programs
• Customize the user interface
• Manage Files
• Configure Equipment
• Get Help
Operating System

Are different operating systems needed for

different computing tasks ?

Single-user operating system

 deals with one set of input devices, those
that can be manipulated by one user at a
time

Multi-user operating system
 deals with input, output, and processing
requests from many users , all at the same
time
Operating System

Are different operating systems needed for

different computing tasks?

Network operating system

 provides communications and routing
services that allow computers to share
data, programs and peripheral devices

Multitasking operating system
 provides process and memory management
services that permit two or more programs
to run simultaneously
Operating System

Are different operating systems needed for

different computing tasks

Desktop operating system

 designed for a personal computer, either a
desktop or notebook computer
 designed to accommodate a single user,
but may also provide networking and
multitasking capabilities
Windows, MAC OS,
Linux, UNIX and DOS
What’s the best-selling operating system?
Windows, MAC OS,
Linux, UNIX and DOS
Is Mac OS similar to Windows?

Both operating systems base their user
interfaces on the graphical model that was
originated at Xerox PARC, although Mac OS was
developed several years before Windows

Mac and Windows interfaces use a mouse to
point and click various icons and menus

Are UNIX and Linux the same?

UNIX, developed in 1969 at AT & T’s Bell Labs,
gained a good reputation for its dependability
in multi-user environments

Linux was developed in 1991, based on a
version of the UNIX kernel called Minix

Linux is considered to be a popular operating
system for e-mail, web-servers and local area
networks
Windows, MAC OS,
Linux, UNIX and DOS
Why do I keep hearing about DOS?

stands for Disk Operating System

it provides part of the operating system kernel
for Windows versions 3.1, 95, 98 and ME

users rarely interact with DOS, because it is
well hidden by the Windows graphical user
interface
Software

Software: can be divided into:

 systems software or system programs

 applications software or application

programs

Types of Computer Software
Functions of an
Operating System

Operating Systems
 collection of system programs and routines
that reside in the computer’s memory
 functions:

• Schedule input and output operations

• Schedule work of jobs according to
priority
• Communicate with the human operator
• Handle interruptions and monitor
system status
• Log the jobs that are finished and
currently being executed
• Control system access and data
security functions
• Facilitate in locating and debugging
errors
• Handle multiprogramming, so that
several programs can run at the same
time
Functions of an
Operating System

Operating Systems
 stored in a secondary storage device known
as a system residence device
 in the early days when magnetic tape
drives are still used as storage devices,
operating systems that are stored in
magnetic tapes are called Tape Operating
Systems
 if the operating system is stored in a
magnetic disk it is called a Disk Operating
System (DOS)
Structure of an
Operating System
Programs that Make Up
an Operating System

 Control Programs - manage the overall

system operations and perform tasks such
as scheduling, input/output handling,
monitoring of system status and
communication with the programmer
• Supervisor Program
• Input/Output Control System

 Service Programs - are subprograms or

routines that are frequently used by the
programmer
• Language Translator Programs
• Librarian Programs
• Utility Programs
• Diagnostic Programs
Survey of an Operating
System

 MS-DOS
 The Windows Family of Operating
Systems
• Windows 1.0, 2.0, 3.1 and 3.11
• Windows NT and Windows 2000
• Windows 95, 98, ME and XP
 UNIX and Linux
Survey of an Operating
System
What’s the best-selling operating system?

Microsoft Windows is being used on over 80

percent of the world’s personal computers.

Windows has evolved through several versions,
since its introduction.
Survey of an Operating
System
Survey of an Operating
System
What’s the best-selling operating system?

Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME and

Windows XP provide basic networking
capabilities, making them appropriate for
small networks in homes and businesses.

Windows NT, Windows 2000, and Windows XP
Professional are typically classified as server
operating systems.
Survey of an Operating
System
Is Mac OS similar to Windows?

Both operating systems base their user

interfaces on the graphical model that was
originated at Xerox PARC.

Both Mac and Windows interfaces use a mouse
to point and click various icons and menus.

Both also provide basic networking
capabilities.

Though the selection is not as vast as the
collection of Windows, a collection of software
is available for computers that run Mac OS.
Survey of an Operating
System
Are UNIX and Linux the same?

UNIX gained a good reputation for its

dependability in multi-user environments.

Many versions of UNIX became available for
mainframes and microcomputers.

Linux is distributed under the terms of a
General Public License (GPL), allowing
everyone to make copies for their own use, to
give others, or to sell.
Survey of an Operating
System
Are UNIX and Linux the same?

Linux shares several technical features with

UNIX.

Linux is considered to be a popular operating
system for e-mail , web-servers and local area
networks.

Linux has been gaining popularity as a desktop
operating system.
Survey of an Operating
System
Why do I keep hearing about DOS?

DOS was the first operating system and its

cryptic command-line user interface left an
indelible impression.

The remnants of DOS still linger in the world of
personal computers, because it provides part
of the operating system kernel for Windows
versions 3.1, 95, 98 and ME.

Users rarely interact with DOS, because it is
well hidden by the Windows graphical user
interface.

DOS is nothing more than footnotes in the
history of the computer industry.
Application Software

An Overview of Application Software

Word Processing
 a term used in manipulating text or words
in a file

Basic features:
 insert text
 delete text
 cut and paste
 copy
 page size and margins
 search and replace
 word wrap
 Print

Advanced features:
 file management
 font specifications
 footnotes and cross-references
 graphics
 headers, footers, and page numbering
 layout
 merges
 spell checker
 tables of contents and indexes
 thesaurus
 windows
 WYSIWYG
Application Software

Microsoft Word
Application Software

Spreadsheet
 computer programs especially designed to
display information graphically and allow
files and data to be manipulated easily
 an electronic ledger sheet on which data
are entered

MS Excel Spreadsheet Program

Application Software

Database Management
 application software packages that
computerize the everyday task of
recording, processing, filing, and
manipulation of information in the
database
 Database : a collection of information
organized in such a way that a computer
program can quickly select desired pieces
of information (or data); like an electronic
filing system

Basic features:
 To add or delete information within a file

 To search a file for some information based

on some criteria
 To update information from within a file

 To sort information into some order

 To generate a printout or reports

Application Software

Graphics Software Packages

 designed to allow the user to display
images on a computer monitor or to print
the images on a printer

Examples of graphic applications:
 paint programs

 illustration/design programs

 presentation graphics software

 animation software

 CAD software

 desktop publishing
Installation Basics

Installation Process
 Copy files from distribution disks to
specified folders on the hard disk.
 If the files have been distributed in a
compressed format, uncompress them.
 Analyze the computer’s resources, such as
processor speed, RAM capacity, and hard
disk capacity.
 To select appropriate device drivers,
analyze hardware components and
peripheral devices.
 Look for any system files and players, such
as Windows Media Player or Internet
Explorer, which are required to run the
program, but not supplied on the
distribution disks.
 Update necessary system files, like Window
Registry and the Windows Program menu,
with information about the new software.
Installation Basics

Are all of the files for the software provided on

the distribution disk

Application software programs share some
common files, through the use of Windows and
other operating systems.

Because these files should already exist on
your computer, the “shared” files are not
typically provided on the distribution disks for
the new software program.

The installation process attempts you to
locate these files, and will notify you if any of
them are missing.
Installing from a
Distribution Disk to CD
Video Capture Software Installation Process

Insert the distribution disk, CD, or DVD.

Read the license agreement, if one is
presented on the screen.

You will be prompted to select between full
and custom installation. Choose the
installation option that best meets your needs.

Follow the instructions provided by the setup
program to specify a folder to hold the new
software program.

If the software includes multiple distribution
disks, insert each one in the specified drive
when the setup program tells you to do so.

When the setup is complete, begin the
program that you just installed to make sure it
works.
Installing Downloaded
Software
Compressed file types for downloaded software

Manual download and install
 Downloaded files with a .zip extension
must be located on the hard disk.
 Must use a program such as WinZip to
unzip it.
 To acknowledge the license agreement,
the setup program must be executed.
 Specify the folder for the software files,
and complete the installation.

Self-installing executable file
 Follow the setup program prompts to
acknowledge the license agreement.
 his self-installing executable file
automatically unzips itself and starts the
setup program.
 Specify the folder for the software files,
and complete the installation.
Installing Downloaded
Software
Compressed file types for downloaded software

Self- executing zip file
 These files automatically unzip the
software’s files but do not automatically
start the setup program.
 To unzip the files for the new software,
the executable file must be started.
 Start the setup program manually and
follow its prompts to complete the
installation
Uninstalling Software

You can remove software, with some

operating systems, such as DOS by simply
deleting its files.

With Windows and Mac OS, uninstall routine is
provided to delete the software’s files from
various directories on the computer’s hard
disk.

You can normally find the uninstall routine
with Windows software, on the same menu as
the program.

In Windows, the Add/Remove Programs icon
can be found in the Control Panel, accessible
from the Start menu.
Software Copyrights

Copyright
 a form of legal protection that grants the
author of an original ”work” an exclusive
right to copy, distribute, sell and edit that
work, except under special circumstances
described by copyright laws

Exceptions
 The purchaser

 can make a backup or extra copy of the

software in case the original copy becomes
erased or damaged
 is allowed to copy and distribute parts of a
software program for use in critical
reviews and teaching
 has the right to copy software from a
distribution disk or Web site to a
computer’s hard disk in order to install it
Software Licenses

License Agreement
 a legal contract that defines the ways in
which a computer program may be used
 can be found on the outside of the
package, on a separate card inside the
package, on the CD packaging, or in one of
the program files

Techniques to validate software license

 shrink-wrap licenses

 installation agreements
Software Licenses

Questions to be Considered When Reading a

Software License Agreement

 When does the license go into effect ?

 Can I sell the software ?
 Can I rent the software ?
 Am I buying the software or licensing it ?
 Can I loan the software to a friend ?
 Does the software publisher provide a
warranty ?
 Under what circumstances can I make
copies ?
Software Licenses

Public Domain Software

 may be freely copied, distributed and even
resold
 not protected by copyright because the
copyright has expired, or the author has
placed the program in the public domain,
making it available without restriction

Commercial Software
 usually sold in computer stores or at Web
sites
 adheres closely to the limitations provided
by copyright law
 it might give you permission to install the
software on a computer at work and at
home, but you have to use only one of
them at a time
Software Licenses

Freeware
 a copyrighted software that is available for
free
 does not allow you to modify it or sell it,
but it allows you to use the software, copy
it and give it away
 utility programs, some games and device
drivers

Shareware
 a copyrighted software marketed under a
“try before you buy” policy, allowing you
to use the software for a trial period
 usually permits you to copy and distribute
it to others
 provide a low-cost marketing and
distribution channel
Software Licenses

Open Source Software

 may be sold or distributed free of charge

 uncompiled program instructions are

available to programmers who want to
alter and improve the software
 Linux, FreeBSD