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does not end his speech with an appeal to the gods (*), but with
self-assertive and presumptuous words. In H 75 he speaks about
himself as " , although in the Iliad and the Odyssey it
is not usual for persons to call themselves . He also says twice
* { 538 ff., 825 ff.),
a sentence which is never used by a Greek hero (2). These features
have been used on purpose in order to characterize Hector as
overbold. We also point to the fact that in X Hector has been
expressly represented as fleeing before he accepts battle. These
facts allow us to state that Homer was animated by nationalistic
feelings (3).
This nationalistic attitude Homer's can also be traced in the
composition of the Iliad as a whole and of some of its books (4).
It can be seen especially in books M-P, of which we shall discuss
a few instances (5). In these books Homer is loath to admit the
gradual defeat of the Greeks and is markedly influenced by this
disinclination in the composition of these books. We point to
the second part of M, 11. 290-439, of which passage analytical
critics are suspicious (6). For the Greek wall is attacked by Sarpedon and not, as we should have expected, by Hector himself.
Hector does not attack the wall until the end of M. We have to
take into consideration that Hector's victorious assault on the
wall is purposely delayed, because the poet is influenced by
tendencies. By way of comparison we point to book A,
where Hector is purposely removed from the battle-field in order
that Greek victories may take place and the Greek defeat may
be delayed. This is the reason why in M Sarpedon, who is not
so important as Hector is introduced. For in this way the poet
is enabled to describe the Trojan hero as being held in check by
the principal Greek hero, Ajax (1). We may argue as follows.
Of course the Greek wall had to be forced and we expect it to
be forced by Hector himself (cp. M 445). Even if Hector should
be opposed by Ajax at that moment, the economy of the plot
made it imperative that Ajax should be driven back. By
Sarpedon Homer could save the honour of the Greeks.
For now he could first show that the Greek commander, Ajax
and his troops were equal to the assaulting Trojans. Only then
does he narrate Hector's forcing of the wall (2). We also point
to M 108-194. We are expecting that the Trojans after having
divided themselves into five divisions will make a general attack
on the wall. Instead of it our attention is focussed on the left
side of the battle-field, the less important one (3), where a less
important hero, Asius, is repelled by the Greeks. At this moment
Homer cannot represent the Greeks as victorious on the main
part of the battle-field. Therefore, he introduces a less important
Trojan and a less important part of the battle-field in order once
again to mention Greek successes.
This method can be observed especially in book JV, here it is
even a clue to the explanation of the book. We know that the
retreat of the Greeks forms the subject matter of , , , 0.
Homer has, however, managed to construct these books in such
a way that the actual setback of the Greeks is only narrated in
M and O (4), whereas JV and mention Greek victories. The
principal Greek victory takes place in , where Hector is wounded
and eliminated from the battle by Ajax. In Homer has to be
more cautious in relating Greek victories. This appears from the
(1) Cp. M 413 ff. and M 436 : .
(2) Also in 497 ff. where the Greek defeat begins, no combat between
Hector and Ajax takes place. The poet evaded it, because the economy of
the plot would have required Ajax to be inferior.
(3) Cp. for this below, p. 9.
(4) For this reason M is one of the shortest books of the Iliad (M has only
471 lines, has 837 lines). Also , which narrates serious defeats of the.
Creeks is a short book (565 lines),
>.
fact that only minor Greek heroes such as Idomeneus are prominent
there, whereas Ajax remains in the background. Analytical critics
thought that repeats an older lay, the aristeia of Idomeneus (),
because they did not pay attention to the curious composition
of this book. For the successes of the Greeks could not be
for the reasons pointed out just now. Just as in M
118 ff., the main part of the battle in takes place '
( 312 ff.). This place is the less important
as we may learn from 375 ff. (2). Here, the main action,
the combat for Patroclus' corpse takes place in the middle of
the battle-field, whereas Antilochus is summoned from the left
side of the battle-field (P 682). In the situation is quite the
reverse. The principal heroes, Hector and Ajax are in the central
part, which is, according to Homer himself (N 312 ff., 679 ff.),
at that moment of minor importance. The poet's reasons are plain.
He cannot in this book give the Greeks a decisive victory ;
he makes them victorious on the less important left side.
If he presented an independent lay, it cannot be explained why
the combats should take place precisely there. If we accept the
unity of the Iliad, an explanation can be given, as we saw just
now. We point to the following examples illustrating Homer's
cautious behaviour in N. In 190 ff. Ajax pushes Hector back
but does not inflict any wound on him (3). Also in 155 ff.
Meriones hits Deiphobus, but does not yet wound him. Only
further on in and in Meriones and Ajax are to wound their
opponents. Likewise in 169 ff. when a Greek and a Trojan
are killed, the success of the Greeks is only revealed here in the
Greeks taking possession of the corpses. In the same way in the
beginning of JV (11. 125-135) the Greeks are still on the defensive,
whereas in the beginning of (11. 364 ff.) they are on the offensive.
A similar typical example of Homer's nationalism was already
referred to above viz. the death of Cebriones in IT 712-781. Since
Hector himself cannot be killed by Patroclus, his charioteer is
killed instead and in this way a kind of victory over Hector is
(1) Gp.
(2) For
La droite
(3) Cp.
10
11
12
13
14
15
in 593 ff. In 593 ff. Zeus lifts the aegis and makes the Trojans
victorious, in 545 ff. Athene descends from heaven, sent by
Zeus in order to aid the Greeks. The passages seemed to contrast
with each other and therefore 545 (the sending of Athene by
Zeus) was already excised by Zenodotus (). The Alexandrian
critic did not take into account that Homer was led by two con
trasting motives. He had to make the Trojans victorious in
order to make it possible for Achilles to be summoned (P 593
ff.). On the other hand, Homer wishes to show that Zeus is
no longer unfavourable to the Greeks, after Achilles' wrath has
been satisfied. Therefore, Athene is sent by Zeus, 545 ff. (2).
Because the Greeks had to retreat soon (P 593 ff.), no decisive
turn could be given to the battle by Athene's appearance.
she only aids a warrior of minor importance, Menelaus,
553 ff. As to Homer's partiality for the Greeks in we
point to 862-7, where Hector pursues Achilles' chariot and
leaves Patroclus corpse. In this way Patroclus' slayer, Euphorbus, can be killed by Menelaus (3). Also Menelaus is brought
purposely to the fore in P. Since he is a warrior of minor
he can retreat without dishonour before Hector after he
has slain Euphorbus (P 106 ff.), a fact which would have been
dishonourable in the case of Ajax. Menelaus has to retreat in
order that Hector can take possession of Achilles' armour. On
purpose Hector does not immediately put on Achilles' armour,
but first retreats before Ajax, 128 ff. In this way Homer can
show his inferiority with respect to the Greek hero (4). Also the
scene of Automedon, 426-542, has the purpose to show that
the dishonour put upon Achilles' chariot by Patroclus' death has
been effaced. This partiality for the Greeks in shows that
545 is genuine, since it emphasizes that the supreme god
is again favourable to the Greeks (5).
(1) Cp. Schol. AT P 545.
(2) In 545 ff. Athene is compared to a rainbow. We may compare
75 ff., where Athene is also sent by Zeus, and is compared to a star, etc.
(3) Euphorbus is in all probability an invention of Homer's. The name
suits a rich Trojan. Cp. the name Phorbas. His mother's name Phrontis
suits the mother of the sagacious Polydamas.
(4) If Hector had put on the armour immediately, it would have been
improper to represent him as fleeing before Ajax.
(5) 356-67, where Zeus teases Hera for having succeeded in recalling
"
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(1) For Z, cp. WilaMowitz, Was und Homer, pp. 302 if. ; SchadewaldT,
I Hasst., p. 150 f. Recently has been discussed by G. Jachmann, Symbola
Coloniensia J. Kroll oblata, pp. 1-70.
id
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