Article

An Introduction to the Technology

Mobile Mapping Systems

Over the last 20 years, mobile mapping systems have slowly developed, at first mainly in academic research
establishments. More recently, a number of commercially operated systems have appeared. These have mostly been
one-off systems that have been developed in-house by the companies that are operating them. Most of them have been
utilized for the collection of data on road infrastructure or building facades. However, over the last two or three years,
some very big companies such as Google, Tele Atlas and NAVTEQ have adopted the technology on a large scale,
introducing substantial fleets of mobile mapping vehicles for their imaging and mapping operations. This has resulted
in the further rapid development of the technology which can now be regarded as being well established and proven.
This article offers an introduction to and survey of the present state-of-the-art of the technology.
By Gordon Petrie

his survey of the technology will be conducted in three main parts.

(i) The first deals with the main components of mobile mapping systems. These include the digital imaging devices; the laser ranging and
scanning devices; and the positioning (or geo-referencing) devices which
are the principal building blocks that are being used in the construction of such systems. (ii) The second part will cover the system suppliers who integrate these different components and offer the resulting
systems for sale to users. (iii) The third part covers a representative
selection of service providers, but paying particular attention to the
systems used by the large imaging and mapping organisations that
have been mentioned above in the introduction to this article.

I - Main Components
Imaging Devices
Arising from the speed of movement of the mapping vehicles and the
close proximity of the target objects (of a few tens of metres), the digital frame cameras and pushbroom line scanners that are familiar to the
mapping community from their airborne imaging operations are simply
not suitable for use with mobile mapping vehicles. Although imaging
(pushbroom) line scanners have been used experimentally in certain
mobile mapping vehicles that are being operated by academic research
groups, so far they have had little use in commercial mapping operations. Instead digital frame cameras are used almost universally.
However the format sizes are very small (1 to 2 Megapixels is typical);
framing rates are high (typically 7 to 15 frames per second); exposure
times are very short (to eliminate image blur); and the use of multiple
camera arrays to provide 360 degree panoramic images in the horizontal plane is very common. Taking as an example a mobile mapping
vehicle that is being driven in an urban area at 30 kph, it travels a distance of 1 km in 120 seconds or 8.3 m in one second. If it travels at
60 kph, it travels a distance of 16.7 m in one second. If the imaging
system has to acquire successive sets of frame images at intervals of 2
to 8 m from four to eight cameras simultaneously to ensure the continuous coverage of a street or road, then it is obvious that very high
rates of data transmission and storage of the images will need to be
implemented. This involves the use of interfaces and cabling technologies such as FireWire or iLINK (that adhere to the IEEE1394 standard)
[Fig. 1]. These devices can transmit uncompressed image data from multiple cameras either at 400 Megabits per second (50 Megapixels per

Fig. 1 A diagram showing a network of video cameras, a GPS receiver and an

odometer (with its optical encoder) being controlled using high-speed IEEE1394
interfaces and cabling. (Source: Point Grey Research)

second) which is the IEEE1394-A standard - or at 800 Megabits per

second (100 Megapixels per second), which is the IEEE1394-B standard.
The individual cameras that are being utilized to implement and satisfy these requirements are digital video frame cameras using very smallformat CCD or CMOS area arrays as their imaging sensors. These cameras are manufactured in large numbers for industrial use by numerous
suppliers such as Sony, Hitachi and Toshiba (Japan); IMI (Korea);
IMPERX, Pelco and Arecont Vision (U.S.A.); PixeLINK (Canada); and AVT,
PCO and Basler (Germany). A typical type of digital video camera that
was used in early mobile mapping operations was the Sony DFW-500
model that could acquire 640 x 480 pixel (0.3 Megapixels) colour frame
images at rates up to 25 frames per second. More modern types of
Sony CCD cameras can output images having the much larger frame
size of 1,024 x 768 pixels (0.8 Megapixels) at the rate of 15 frames per

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second or frame images that are 1,280 x 960

pixels (1.2 Megapixels) in size at a rate of 7.5
frames per second. These individual cameras
will often be deployed in multiple in different
configurations depending on the specific types
of features that need to be mapped [Fig. 2].
Usually each of the individual cameras that are
mounted on a mobile mapping vehicle will be
enclosed in a special housing that will protect
it from rain and dust. Often the housing will
be equipped with a Sun shroud and also with
a heater/defroster unit, the latter helping to
keep the camera operational in cold weather
conditions.

Fig. 4 The Dodeca 2360

integrated multiple camera
system produced by
Immersive Media comprises
eleven individual video
camera firing simultaneously.
(Source: Immersive Media)

from the geodesic geometry of the dodecahedron, which is a 12-faced solid figure (with
each face having a pentagonal shape) that
approximates to that of a sphere. The overall
Dodeca 2360 unit utilizes eleven of the 12
faces, in each of which a small-format camera
is mounted, while the twelfth face forms the
base on which the camera is mounted. Usually
the camera will be attached to a mast that
can be mounted on the roof of the mapping
vehicle. The Dodeca camera was devised by
another Canadian company, Immersive Media
Corporation Inc. (IMC), based in Calgary,
Alberta. Originally the camera was manufactured by Freestone Systems in Dallas, Texas.
In 2007, IMC acquired the Freestone company, which was then renamed IMC Sensors Inc.
Each of the Dodeca cameras generates a
frame image that is 640 x 480 pixels in size,
the overall size of the resulting merged and
stitched spherical image formed from the
multiple individual images is 2,400 x 1.200
pixels.

However the use of fully integrated multiple

camera units is now very common in mobile
mapping vehicles. As will be seen later, the
Ladybug series of multiple cameras built by
Point Grey Research, based in Richmond, B.C.,
Canada, have been adopted widely for use in
mobile mapping systems [Fig. 3]. The companys Ladybug2 multiple camera unit has six
Sony CCD digital video cameras. Five of these
cameras are arranged concentrically in a horiFig. 2 These diagrams show the different
zontal ring pointing outwards to produce a
configurations of digital video cameras that have been
360 degree panoramic image within the hori- utilized on the mobile mapping vehicles that are being
operated by Tele Atlas. Diagrams (a), (b) and (c) show
zontal plane, with the sixth camera pointing
alternative
arrangements using four cameras, while
vertically upwards. These cameras have a
(d) shows a six-camera arrangement.
FireWire-B (IEEE1394-B) 800 Megabit interface
(Source: Tele Atlas; Re-drawn by Mike Shand)
and cabling to provide camera control and
power and to implement video data transmission at the rate of 15 uncompressed frame images per second, each
The Google company made use of this type of Dodeca frame imagery
image being 1,024 x 768 pixels (= 0.8 Megapixels) in size. The Ladybug3
unit also has a set of six Sony CCD cameras arranged in a similar circuwhen it introduced its Street View service in 2007. However Google
lar five-camera configuration (plus a single vertical camera) but with
then switched to using its own multiple camera units thereafter. The
still larger formats (1,600 x 1,200 pixels). Thus it can generate six 2Google integrated multiple camera system comprises nine individual
Megapixel images that can be streamed as uncompressed images at
CCD cameras, eight of which are arranged, spaced equally, in a concenthe rate of 7 frames per second or as compressed JPEG images at a 15
tric ring pointing outwards, with the ninth camera pointing vertically
frames per second rate. Each Ladybug multiple camera unit can be supupwards [Fig. 5]. The individual cameras are reported to have been supplied attached to a mast that can be mounted on a roof rack that has
plied by an American company, Elphel Inc., which is based in Salt Lake
City, Utah. The Elphel 313 and 333 models are digital network cameras
been placed on top of the mapping vehicle to provide a clear view of
using CMOS area arrays that are delivered with software source code
the surrounding objects.
supplied under Open Source terms (like those applying to the Linux
operating system or the Firefox browser). The Elphel 313 camera generAnother integrated multiple camera unit that has received a great deal
ates images with a frame size of 1,280 x 1,024 pixels at the rate of 15
of publicity and attention from the media because of its distinctive
frames per second or larger images, e.g. with 1,600 x 1,200 pixels, at a
shape and appearance is the Dodeca 2360 [Fig. 4] The name is derived
lower rate. The later Elphel 333 camera can generate compressed JPEG
images that are 2,048 x 1,536 pixels (3.2 Megapixels) in size at the
rate of 12 frames per second.

Fig. 5 The integrated

nine-camera system that is mounted
and operated on the Google companys cars that acquire imagery for its
Street View service. (Source: Google)

Fig. 3 The cylindrical-shaped Ladybug2 (left) and the pentagonal-shaped

Ladybug3 (right) integrated multiple camera systems, which are operated with
FireWire-B (IEEE1394-B) interfaces and cabling. (Source: Point Grey Research)
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January/February 2010

SURVEY AT
SPEED

grafit-werbeagentur.de

Capture geo-referenced
360 degree images
and point clouds with any
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Article

cles are being driven. Indeed, in many respects, the 2D laser scanners
that are mounted on mobile mapping vehicles are, in principle, quite
similar to the laser scanners that are being used in airborne laser scanning except that they are usually being operated over distances of a
few tens of metres, instead of the several hundreds or thousands of
metres that are encountered in airborne laser scanning. As with airborne laser scanning, the third dimension to the captured profile data
is being created by the forward movement of the vehicular platform on
which the 2D laser scanner is mounted. The location of each new range
profile is being measured continuously (and very accurately) using an
integrated suite of positioning devices comprising a GPS or GNSS
receiver, an IMU; and an odometer or DMI device as the vehicle travels forward.
The 2D laser scanners that are probably the most commonly used in
mobile mapping are those manufactured by the SICK company, which is
based in Waldkirch, Germany. The SICK company makes an almost bewildering range of laser scanners - including bar code scanners; scanners
for displacement and volumetric measurements; and scanners that are
designed for proximity determination and safety purposes - together
with numerous other types of encoders, switches, controllers and sensors that are designed for a wide range of industrial, logistic and commercial applications. Certain models in the SICK LMS (Laser Measurement
Systems) series of laser scanner are designed specifically for outdoor
use, the LMS 291 model being that mainly used in mobile mapping [Fig.
6]. This scanner combines (i) a rapid firing laser rangefinder using the
time-of-flight (TOF) distance measuring principle; with (ii) a rotating mirror whose angular directions are also being measured continuously using
an angular encoder. Using this technology, the LMS 291 generates a fanshaped scanning angle of 180 degrees within its 2D scanning plane and
can measure ranges of up to 80 m to objects having a reflectivity of
70%.; 60 m to objects (such as a wooden house) with a reflectivity of
40%; and 30 m to objects with 10% reflectivity. The measuring resolution in range of the LMS 291 model is stated to be 1 cm, while the accuracy is +/- 6 cm. An additional LMI controller can be supplied to control
the operation of multiple LMS scanners. Still longer-range 2D laser scanners are available from LASE GmbH, which is another company in the
SICK Group based in Wesel, Germany. The LASE LD-LRS laser scanner
can measure ranges up to 250 m with suitable highly reflective objects;
110 m to objects with 20% reflectivity; and 80 m to objects with 10%
reflectivity, and has a 300 degree scanning angle. Still another company
in the SICK Group, Ibeo, based in Hamburg, Germany also offer laser
scanners that are suitable for mapping purposes see the following
Web page - www.ibeo-as.com/english/3d.asp

Fig. 6 A SICK LMS 291 2D laser scanner set on its side to produce a vertical
profile comprising a series of measured range and angular values to one side
of a mobile mapping vehicle. (Source: SICK)

Laser Ranging & Scanning Devices

The numerous, varied and well-established types of tripod-mounted 3D
laser scanners that are in widespread use by land surveyors undertaking terrestrial or ground-based laser scanning including both
panoramic and camera-type laser scanners; the use of the phase measuring technique for short distances; and the need for both horizontal
and vertical angles to be measured have had little part to play in
mobile mapping systems. Indeed the 3D laser scanners that are available at present for surveying work can only be used for static measurements in their native 3D operational mode, even when mounted on a
vehicle - since the scanning operation at a single fixed location often
takes several minutes. However a very small number of 3D laser scanners from the German Faro and Z+F companies have been operated on
mobile mapping vehicles, but with their horizontal (azimuth) angular
movements disabled which effectively makes them into 2D laser scanners.
Indeed the main emphasis in mobile mapping is on the use of 2D laser
scanners that can very rapidly acquire range or elevation profiles comprising the distance and angular values measured within a single 2D
plane. These profile measurements are carried out using the laser scanner to measure the required distances and angles simultaneously within a series of successive parallel planes intersecting the road surfaces,
pavements, street furniture, buildings and vegetation that are located
adjacent to the roads or streets along which the mobile mapping vehi[a]

Fig. 7 (a) The Riegl Q120 2D laser scanner which is equipped with a
laser rangefinder and a continuously rotating polygon mirror with its
attached angular encoder to produce successive range or elevation
profiles as the mapping vehicle is driven forward.
(b) The operating principle of the Riegl Q120 2D laser scanner.
(c) A diagram showing the coverage of the profiles generated by two
Q120 laser scanners, pointing in opposite directions at right angles to
the direction of travel of the mobile mapping vehicle. (Source: Riegl)

[c]

[b]

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Article

150 m to targets with an 80% reflectivity; a ranging accuracy of +/- 25

mm; a scanning angle of 80 degrees within the plane in which it is
scanning; and can be operated at scan rates up to 100 Hz. The recently introduced VQ-180 model from Riegl offers still higher PRF values
(up to 200 kHz) and scan rates (up to 120 Hz) and it also has a larger
scan angle (of 100 degrees). Furthermore Riegl has introduced a powerful new VQ-250 model that is designed specifically for use in mobile
mapping. It provides a full circle 360 degree scan within its 2D scanning plane and can measure ranges up to 200 m (with 80% reflectivity) with PRF values up to 300 kHz and scan rates of 100 Hz, while still
maintaining an accuracy of +/- 10 mm [Fig. 8].
By contrast, Optech does not sell its in-house-built laser scanners as
separate products to system integrators and suppliers in the manner
of SICK and Riegl. Instead it incorporates its 2D laser scanners to form
part of its own LYNX mobile mapping system. The laser scanners that
are used in its LYNX V200 system provide a full circle 360 degree
scan; a PRF of up to 200 kHz; a scan rate of up to 200 Hz; and a range
accuracy of circa +/- 10 mm [Fig. 9].

Fig. 8 - The VMX250 laser scanning system that has recently been introduced to
the market by Riegl. The system comprises two VQ-250 2D laser scanners, each
generating its own 360 degree full circle profile scan. The systems IMU is
located inside the mount that houses and supports the two laser scanners.
(Source: Riegl)

[a]

Besides the SICK scanners, there are several other TOF 2D laser scanners that are used quite widely in mobile mapping operations. These
are made by specialist suppliers such as Riegl (based in Horn, Austria)
and Optech (based in the Toronto area in Ontario, Canada). Both companies are well-known suppliers of airborne and terrestrial laser scanners to the surveying and mapping industry. In general terms, the 2D
scanner units from these companies provide greater ranges; faster
speeds and higher measuring accuracies than those provided by the
SICK laser scanners. However they are also considerably more expensive. The Riegl Q120 laser scanner with its continuously rotating polygon mirror has been used in a number of mobile mapping systems [Fig.
7]. It has a pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of 30 kHz; a range of

[b]

Fig. 10 (a) The Velodyne HDL-64E High Definition Lidar. (Source: Velodyne)
(b) This diagram shows the main features of the HDL-64E rotating laser scanner
with its multiple laser rangefinders. (Drawn by Mike Shand)

Mention should also be made in this account of the Velodyne HDL-64E

High Definition Lidar [Fig. 10] that was developed for use by competitors in the DARPA Urban Challenge for unmanned vehicles of 2007.
Indeed it was used by five of the top six finishing teams in that event.
This unique 3D laser scanning device is based on a battery of 64 individual laser ranging units that are placed at specific fixed angles to
provide a 26.8 angular spread within the vertical plane, thus eliminating the need for the vertical mechanical (angular) motion of the single
laser rangefinder that is normally used in a terrestrial 3D laser scanner.
The HDL-64E system also features high horizontal rotation rates (in
azimuth) of the vertical bank of laser rangefinders as a whole around
the vertical axis of the unit, at up to 15 Hz, with an angular resolution
of 0.09. The Class 1 lasers that are used in the HDL-64E instrument
operate at the wavelength of 905 nm with a 10 ns pulse width. The
ranging accuracy is claimed to be +/- 2.5 cm for distances of 50 m and
120 m with reflectivities of 10% and 80%, respectively. The data collection rate of 1.8 million measured points per second of the latest S2
version of the HDL-64E scanner instrument is really quite phenomenal.
The positioning systems that were used on the vehicles that took part
in the DARPA Urban Challenge were completed with the addition of an
integrated DGPS/IMU unit. A few examples of the results that can be
achieved using this system for mapping purposes have been published.
A recent announcement from Velodyne mentioned that the HDL-64E
lidar is currently in use capturing 3-D highway data for multiple states
in the U.S.. Furthermore various mobile mapping cars that have been
equipped with the Velodyne HDL-64E unit on their roofs have been
sighted and photographed, with the photos being published on the

Fig. 9 The Optech LYNX laser scanner that generates a 360 degree full circle
2D profile scanning pattern. (Source: Optech)

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Laser Scanners for airborne, terrestrial,

mobile & industrial applications

RIEGL

Flickr Web site. However no mapping company or organisation has as

yet admitted to its use of these systems, despite their obvious potential for 3D mapping and terrain modelling applications. Currently an
HDL-64E Lidar is being used in conjunction with a multiple video camera system by the Real Time Race company from the U.K. to acquire
the elevation and image data that is needed to form detailed 3D digital terrain models of Formula One race courses. These models will be
used both for video games and during the live TV coverage of actual
races.

Innovation in 3D

Positioning (Geo-referencing) Devices

A dual-frequency survey- or geodetic-grade GPS or GNSS receiver
remains the primary device that is used in mobile mapping systems
for the determination of the absolute position of the moving vehicle
and its imaging (camera) and ranging (laser scanner) devices. There
are a large number of suitable GPS/GNSS receivers available from
Trimble, Topcon, Leica, NovAtel, Javad, etc. that can generate the survey-quality positional data that is required. Invariably the GPS or GNSS
receiver will be operated in differential mode relative to a suitable local
base station or using a global DGPS service such as OmniSTAR. Indeed
solutions based on such global services or on national monitoring networks (such as CORS) are largely replacing the use of local base stations. A number of mobile mapping systems feature a second GPS
receiver with its antenna placed at a known distance (or base line)
from that of the primary GPS receiver. The difference in position that
this secondary receiver gives with respect to the primary receiver using
the carrier phase observations from both receivers gives a very accurate measurement of the vehicles heading, even when the vehicles
dynamics are low. However, since so much mobile mapping takes place
within urban areas with tall (high-rise) buildings or in areas with dense
tree canopies where observation of the GPS or GNSS satellites may
be restricted (giving rise to a weak geometry) or completely lost the
use of an inertial measurement unit (IMU) and an odometer (or distance measuring instrument) to provide additional positional information in these situations is almost standard.

RIEGL VMX-250
Features
two RIEGL VQ-250
scanners with echo
digitization integrated
measurement rates up to
2 x 300 000 meas./sec
scanning rates up to
2 x 100 rotations/sec
eyesafe operation @
laser class 1
compact and lightweight platform design
user-friendly mounting
and installation

There are a large number of IMU devices that can generate a continuous stream of position and orientation data when the GPS or GNSS
satellite signals are unavailable. However confining the present discussion to those that are most used in mobile mapping systems, three
main types can be identified. (i) Those that use ring laser gyros (RLG)
are the most accurate type. However they are expensive to manufacture, so their use is confined to those applications that demand the
very highest accuracy. (ii) Fibre Optic Gyros (FOG) employing long
coiled optical fibres as an alternative to the optical blocks or rings of
the RLG give a very acceptable accuracy and, since they are less expensive, they are widely used in the current types of IMU utilized in mobile
mapping. (iii) Those gyros that are based on Micro ElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) technology utilize tiny quartz tuning
forks as sensors that are integrated on to silicon chips. They are the
least expensive type. While they are also the least accurate, they are
still sufficiently accurate for many purposes. So they are coming into
more widespread use in mobile mapping applications. Two of the best
known system integrators of the IMUs that are used in mobile mapping systems are (i) Applanix, which is a Trimble company based in
the Toronto area in Ontario, Canada and produces its widely used POS
LV sub-system [Fig. 11]; and (ii) IGI from Kreustal in Germany which produces its TERRAcontrol sub-system. The Applanix POS LV systems use
either MEMS gyros (in Models 220 and 420) or RLG gyros (in the Model
610), while the IGI TERRAcontrol uses FOG gyros. Other suppliers include
Crossbow, located in San Jose, California, which supplies GPS-aided
inertial systems mainly based on MEMS technology; iMAR, based in
Latest News? Visit www.geoinformatics.com

www.riegl.com

RIEGL

LASER MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

RIEGL LMS GmbH, A-3580 Horn, Austria, office@riegl.co.at
RIEGL USA Inc., Orlando, Florida, info@rieglusa.com
RIEGL Japan Ltd., Tokyo, Japan, info@riegl-japan.co.jp

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This small specialist company, which is based in the small town of

Bingham, near the city of Nottingham in the U.K., has acted as a system integrator in developing its portable StreetMapper system specifically for mobile mapping use when mounted on a suitable vehicle [Fig.
12]. The company has developed this system in close collaboration with
the German systems supplier, IGI. For use in the StreetMapper, IGI supplies its TERRAcontrol DGPS/IMU system - which is derived from the
AEROcontrol unit that it builds for use with its LiteMapper airborne laser
scanning system and with a wide range of airborne digital imagers. The
dual-frequency GPS receiver can come from any one of several suppliers. 3D Laser Mapping supplies the hardware and software solutions
that are used for the mission planning, the control of the laser scanners and the data storage within a StreetMapper system. The control
unit and its computer are housed in a cabinet that is mounted inside
the mapping vehicle.

Fig. 11 The main components of an Applanix POS LV 420 DGPS/IMU system comprising (from left to right) the primary Trimble GPS receiver; the secondary
Trimble GPS antenna; the black electronics cabinet in the centre of the picture
that contains the POS LV system controller and computer; and the IMU at far
right. In the background is the odometer with its wheel encoder and its
attached rod that carries the cables to the controller.

St.Ingbert, Germany, with its iNAV-FMS-LSURV range using FOG technology; and Oxford Technical Solutions (OxTS) from Oxford in the U.K.,
whose Inertial+ and RT3000 products are based on MEMS technology.

Until now, the multiple laser scanners that have been used on
StreetMapper systems have been supplied by Riegl. On most existing
StreetMapper systems, between two and four of the older LMS-Q120
scanner units (with their 150 m range) have been fitted on a roof rack,
together with the IMU and the GPS antenna. However the latest StreetMapper 360 systems utilize the newer Riegl VQ-180 or VQ-250 units,
the former having a 100 degree FOV and a range of up to 150 m; the
latter giving a full circle (360 degree) scan and ranges up to 300 m. A
choice of video or digital still frame cameras from different manufacturers can be supplied in order to generate the higher quality images that
will be needed to supplement the laser scanned data. Touch screen
LCD displays installed on the dashboard of the vehicle are used for the
display of the captured data. On the software side, IGI also contributes
its TERRAoffice software (which is derived from its AEROoffice package)
for the processing of the IMU data, while the differential GPS data is
processed using the Graf-Nav package that is supplied by the Waypoint
division of NovAtel, which is based in Canada. The TerraScan/
TerraModeler/ TerraMatch suite of programs from Terrasolid in Finland
is then utilized for the processing of the laser scan data and its transformation into the final 3D elevation model data.

Finally, as mentioned above, most DGPS/IMU systems that are used in

mobile mapping are also supplemented by a distance measuring
instrument (DMI) or odometer. This comprises an optical angular
encoder with an attached data transmission cable mounted inside a
hollow rod that is fitted to the rear wheel of the mapping vehicle. DMI
units suitable for mobile mapping are available from the U.S.A. e.g.
from Jamar Technologies based in Hatfield, Pennsylvania and from
Quixote Transportation Technologies of Durham, North Carolina with its
Nu-Metrics NiteStar DMI products.

II System Suppliers
As mentioned above in the introduction, initially many of the mobile
mapping vehicles that have been used operationally were built in-house
as individual one-off systems by the companies or agencies that were
going to use them. However the mobile mapping field has now become
sufficiently well established for fully integrated systems to be offered
as Commercial Off-the-shelf (COTS) products by a number of system
suppliers. Potentially, the purchase or lease of these COTS products
offers substantial savings in terms of development, testing, maintenance and overall cost as compared with those systems that have been
developed in-house. The system suppliers concerned include several
large companies such as Topcon, Trimble and Optech, which are already
well-established as suppliers of surveying instrumentation and airborne
imaging and laser scanning systems to the surveying and mapping
industry.

The StreetMapper system has been supplied to a number of international customers, including, most recently, Geomaat (Netherlands),
Transport & Road Research Institute (Lithuania), Geokosmos (Russia);
Tecdawn (China) and Terrametrix and GeoDigital (U.S.A.). A StreetMapper
system has also been used extensively by Halcrow, a large engineering
consultancy company, to carry out corridor surveys along roads for highway asset management and to capture street level data in city centres
in the United Kingdom.

3D Laser Mapping

Topcon
Topcon Positioning Systems has introduced its mobile mapping system
which is called the IP-S2 Integrated Positioning System [Fig. 13] to
the market in the spring of 2009. However, when the company
announced during this introduction that more
than 400 units are currently in use world-wide,
it was only too obvious that it had indeed been
supplying these systems for some time mainly, it seems, to Google Inc. The IP-S2 system
includes a Topcon dual-frequency 40-channel
GNSS receiver operating at 20 Hz, which is coupled to a Honeywell HG1700 tactical-grade IMU
based on a ring laser gyro (RLG) that is operating at 100 Hz. The resulting DGPS/IMU positional data is supplemented by that generated by a
wheel-mounted odometer with an angular

Fig. 12 (a) A StreetMapper mobile mapping vehicle.

(b) The various imaging, laser scanning and positioning elements of a
StreetMapper system that are mounted on a
roof rack situated at the rear of the vehicle.
(Source: 3D Laser Mapping)
[b]

[a]

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[a]

Fig. 14 This van is equipped with a

Mitsubishi MMS mobile mapping system, showing its cameras, laser scanners and three GPS antennas mounted together on its roof platform.
(Source: Mitsubishi Electric)

[b]

MMS-A version. In the literature

that accompanied this introduction, the supplier of the dual-frequency GNSS receivers was stated to be Trimble; the IMU was
from Crossbow, using a FOG gyro
supplied by Japan Aviation
Electronics; the frame cameras
were supplied by IMPERX from the United States; while the laser scanners
were the ubiquitous LMS 291 model from SICK.

Fig. 13 (a) This IP-S2 Integrated Positioning System from Topcon Positioning
Systems has been mounted on a raised platform and located at the rear of an
open-backed truck.
(b) A close-up photo of the IP-S2 imaging, laser scanning and positioning sub-systems. At the foot of the photo is the yellow Topcon controller unit; adjacent to
this unit to the left and right are two white SICK LMS 291 laser scanners; sitting
on top of the control box is the system IMU; sitting on a bracket above the IMU
is the red Ladybug3 multiple camera unit; while at the top of the stack on a
small mast is the antenna of the Topcon GNSS receiver. (Source: Topcon)

Trimble

encoder operating at 30 Hz to complete the overall positioning capability for the IP-S2 system. Besides these positioning devices, the imaging and laser scanning capabilities of the IP-S2 are based on well-known
units that are available off-the-shelf. They include the Ladybug multicamera unit from Point Grey Research that carries out the 360 degree
panoramic imaging with framing rates of up to 15 frames per second.
The laser scanning that is carried out using the standard configuration
of the IP-S2 is provided by three Sick LMS 291 scanners operating at
75 Hz. One of these laser scanners is pointing directly forwards (or
backwards) towards the road in front of (or behind) the vehicle, while
the other two scanners point to each side to provide a continuous
series of range or elevation profiles within the vertical plane. All of
these imaging and scanning devices send their data to a central control box which then passes it via a high-speed FireWire-B (IEEE1394-B)
link to the PC that is mounted in the vehicle for the recording and processing of the data. An LCD display screen allows the vehicles crew to
monitor the connectivity and operation of all the various positioning,
laser scanning and frame imaging devices.

The mobile mapping systems that are being supplied by Trimbles

GeoSpatial Division were developed originally by the Geo-3D company,
which is based at Brossard, near Montreal in Canada and was acquired by
Trimble in January 2008. Its main product has been its Trident-3D mobile
mapping system. This has been fitted on a variety of different vehicles and
in a number of different configurations as specified by the customers. Digital
video and still frame cameras from various suppliers have been fitted
including, in one case, the use of a Redlake multi-spectral camera while
the laser scanners that have been used have been supplied by SICK and
Riegl. The DGPS/ IMU systems that are used for geo-positioning have been
the POS LV units supplied by Applanix (another Trimble company), including Trimble GPS receivers. The system controller and rack-mounted computers that form parts of the overall system were built-up by Geo-3D, which
has also supplied the distance measuring instrument (DMI). Various display options were also offered by Geo-3D. The latest version of this vehicle-based mapping system is now called the Trimble Cougar system [Fig.
15]. Besides the hardware aspects of the overall system, Geo-3D had also
developed a series of software packages for use with the Trident-3D system. These have included the Kronos package for survey data acquisition;
Trident-3D Analyst for data extraction and processing, including the semiautomatic detection, recognition and extraction of objects such as road
signs; and Trident-3D Vision for image viewing and analysis.

In the version of the system that is used in the Google Street View
vehicles, the Ladybug multiple camera has been replaced by Googles
own multiple camera system [Fig. 5], which is based on the use of
Elphel digital frame cameras. Although the IP-S2 system has only been
offered for sale by Topcon quite recently, already an example is in operation by the Geodis surveying and mapping company based in Brno in
the Czech Republic.

The majority of customers for the Trident-3D mobile mapping system are
agencies that are involved in road surveys, including federal, state, provincial and municipal departments of transport and a number of engineering
companies that provide services to these agencies. In total, over 50 Trident3D systems have been sold, the majority in North America. However around
a dozen are in operation in Europe, principally in France and Belgium.

Mitsubishi
Another Japanese system supplier is the Mitsubishi Electric Corporation,
whose IT Space Solutions Department showed its MMS (Mobile Mapping
System) [Fig. 14] at the Intergeo trade fair held in Karlsruhe, Germany in
September 2009. This product has been developed jointly by staff members of Waseda University in Tokyo in collaboration with Mitsubishi since
2006. Several examples are already in use in Japan. The system is being
offered in three different versions. (i) The most basic version is the MMSA, which has three roof-mounted GNSS receivers arranged in a triangular
pattern; an IMU; an odometer; and a sensor control box. This version is
being offered mainly as a vehicle positioning device, with the choice of
cameras and laser scanners and their integration being left to the customer. (ii) The second version is the MMS-S which is offered with two
video cameras and two laser scanners in addition to the positioning
devices included in the basic MMS-A version. (iii) Finally the MMS-X version is offered with multiple (up to 6) cameras and (up to 4) laser scanners, again in addition to the positioning instrumentation included in the
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Optech
Optech, which is based near Toronto in Canada, entered the field of mobile
mapping towards the end of 2007, when it released a completely new
product, called the LYNX Mobile Mapper [Fig. 16]. This includes a purposebuilt spinning laser profiling system that is designed specifically for attachment to standard vehicle roof racks with mounts for two of these laser
scanners and two (optional) calibrated digital frame cameras in its standard configuration. The LYNX system also includes an Applanix POS LV
sub-system, complete with its IMU; a dual-frequency GPS receiver and
antenna; and a Distance Measuring Instrument (DMI), for coordinate positioning purposes. The laser scanners that are used in the LYNX system
are built in-house by Optech and utilize a Class I laser as the basis for
their laser rangefinders. They have a maximum range of 100 m; a full cir-

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Fig. 16 This Optech LYNX system has

been mounted on a mobile mapping van
operated by the TopScan mapping company from Germany. It is equipped with two
full circle laser scanners that are separated by the IMU and GPS antenna of the
Applanix POS LV unit. At the right end of
the roof platform is a digital video camera.
(Source: TopScan)

Fig. 15 A Trimble Cougar Mobile Mapping System.

(Source: Trimble GeoSpatial Division)

Tele Atlas

cle 360 angular coverage; a pulse measuring rate of 100 kHz; and a scan
rate of 9,000 rpm (150 Hz). The system control unit with its embedded
positioning and navigation solution that is based on the Applanix POS LV
420 DGPS/IMU sub-system can control up to four laser scanners simultaneously using the laptop computer that is attached to the unit. The
Applanix POSPAC MMS (Mobile Mapping Suite) software is used to process the POS LV DGPS/IMU data, while Optech supplies its own LYNXSurvey and DASHMap software for the final post-processing of the measured data. Currently two models of the LYNX Mobile Mapper are on offer
the V100 and V200. The latter gives an increased range (200 v. 100 m);
a higher Pulse Repetition Frequency (200 kHz v. 100 kHz); and a higher
scan rate (200 Hz v. 150 Hz) than the former (which is essentially the LYNX
in its original form).

Tele Atlas is a Dutch-owned mapping company that is based in the town

of s-Hertogenbosch in the Netherlands. Originally an independent company, in July 2008, it was bought by and became a subsidiary of the TomTom
company, which is a major Dutch supplier of car navigation systems. In
practice, Tele Atlas still supplies digital map data to a wide spectrum of
users besides TomTom. These have included Google, which, in October
2009, decided to stop using Tele Atlas map data for the U.S.A. which it
will now generate from its own mobile mapping activities. However Google
will still continue to use Tele Atlas map data in other countries. The Tele
Atlas company has a large centre in Ghent, Belgium from which it directs
its European mobile mapping operations and a similar centre in Lebanon,
New Hampshire for its operations in North America. The processing and
analysis of the data that has been acquired by its fleets of mobile mapping vehicles is carried out partly in Poland and partly in Noida, a suburb
of the Indian capital, New Delhi. In fact, the latter data centre is owned
and operated by an Indian company, Infotech Enterprises, which bought
the centre from the Indian subsidiary of Tele Atlas in 2005 and received a
long-term contract from Tele Atlas to process its digital map data as part
of the deal. See the following Web page:- www.teleatlas.com/
WhyTeleAtlas/Pressroom/PressReleases/TA003239

At the time of its introduction, Optech announced that LYNX systems had
already been supplied to two European companies the Infoterra mapping company based in the United Kingdom and the Sineco company in
Italy. Since then, further systems have been sold to TopScan in Germany
and Teccon in Belgium. Still more systems have been supplied to various
North American users, e.g. to Aerial Data Service, Michael Baker, WH Pacific,
Sanborn, Surveying & Mapping (SAM) Inc. and McKim & Creed in the
U.S.A. Highway and railway infrastructure surveys and urban modelling
surveys appear to be the main applications that have been undertaken
by these mapping companies using their LYNX systems.

Tele Atlas had entered the mobile mapping field in the second half of
2004 using the technology that had been developed by a Polish company, PPWK GeoInvent. By mid-2005, Tele Atlas had over 20 vans in operation in Europe, 13 of which were large Volkswagen camper vans to allow
the crews to operate in more remote and less populated areas [Fig. 17]. In
October 2005, Tele Atlas bought the GeoInvent company. Each of these
Tele Atlas vans is equipped with either 4 or 6 digital video cameras in
various configurations depending on the area being surveyed [Fig. 2]. The
frame images that are generated by these cameras have a format size of
1,200 x 960 pixels and are acquired at the rate of three frames per second when travelling at normal speeds on the roads. The forward-pointing
cameras can generate overlapping 3D stereo-images, which allows them

III Service Providers

The author is very well aware that there are numerous small and large companies in the more highly developed countries that operate individual
mobile mapping vehicles, offering their services especially to those agencies that are concerned with highway management and maintenance.
However the principal emphasis in this section will be on the technologies
being used by those companies that are carrying out street-level imaging
and mapping operations on a regional, national and international scale.

[b]

[a]

[c]

Fig. 17 (a) A Belgian registered Volkswagen camper van that is operated by Tele Atlas with two digital video cameras located above the drivers cabin and pointing
forward in the direction of travel. The logo on the Tele Atlas vans is based on a well known Swedish childrens book about a boy, Nils, who gets a unique view of the
world from the back of a flying goose.
(b) A Toyota mini-van that is being operated by Tele Atlas in North America, with its imaging, laser scanning and positioning elements fitted on its roof rack.
(c) A close-up photo of some of the roof-mounted elements of the Toyota mapping vehicle. They include a Ladybug multiple camera unit mounted on its mast at left
rear; two digital video cameras in the middle, the one pointing sideways, the other pointing upwards; and a SICK LMS 291 laser scanner at right. (Source: Tele Atlas)

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ous series of range profiles across the surrounding landscape at right

angles to the vehicles direction of travel. Besides which, numerous photos that have appeared in the media also show that many of the Tele
Atlas vans that are in use in North America have been equipped with additional mast-mounted Ladybug panoramic cameras providing 360 degree
panoramic images of the road and its surroundings from the moving vehicles. Photos from the same media sources also show that at least some
of the survey vans are equipped with full-blown inertial measuring units
(IMUs) rather than the single-axis gyroscopes mentioned above. Besides
the two large fleets of vans that are in operation in Europe and North
America, an additional but much smaller number of vans have been
deployed in south-eastern Asia in Taiwan, Singapore and Thailand.
According to press reports, in total, more than 50 mobile mapping vans
are currently being operated by Tele Atlas.

Fig. 18 (a) This NAVTEQ mobile mapping vehicle is equipped with

roof-mounted cameras and a GPS antenna.
(b) A close-up picture of the array of multiple cameras housed in a transparent
perspex cover on the roof of a NAVTEQ mobile mapping vehicle with the GPS
antenna situated to the left of the perspex cover. (Source: NAVTEQ)

to be used as photogrammetric source material. For precise positioning,

each van is equipped with a GPS unit operating at 5 Hz, which makes
use of Fugros OmniSTAR wide-area differential GPS service employing
satellite broadcast techniques. For use in tunnels and urban canyons,
where the GPS signals are either lost or are much restricted, the vans are
equipped with a single-axis gyroscope recording at 100 Hz that provides
directional (heading) data and an odometer attached to one of the rear
wheels of the vehicle. The image and positional data are continuously
recorded on the PCs that are mounted in the back of the van. This data
is also displayed continuously on monitor display screens for the crew to
check their operation.

NAVTEQ
NAVTEQ is a large American mapping company with its headquarters in
Chicago. In December 2007, the company was purchased by the Finnish
Nokia organisation, which is a major supplier of telecom networks and
cell phones on a world-wide scale. Nokia also provides its Ovi Maps product (previously called Nokia Maps), which can be downloaded free by
those customers who have purchased the companys smart-phones that
are equipped with a suitable processor, display screen and operating system. However, besides supplying digital map data to Nokia for incorporation in these products, NAVTEQ appears to operate in a fairly independent manner. Like Tele Atlas, NAVTEQ still provides digital map databases
for the navigation systems that are being installed in the cars that are
being built by several different manufacturers. Besides which, the company also supplies digital map data for use in portable GPS sets and in the
Internet-based map applications that are provided by Microsoft (Bing Maps)
and Yahoo (Yahoo Live Maps). NAVTEQ has a large map data production
centre located in Fargo, North Dakota, that is supplemented and supported by a network of smaller national and regional offices world-wide.

A similar fleet of smaller Toyota vehicles was then developed and brought
into service in North America. Besides a set of digital video frame cameras, similar to those being used in Europe, most of these vehicles are
equipped with twin 2D laser scanners from SICK that generate a continu[a]

[b]

For a number of years until recently, revision of the NAVTEQ map databases of road networks had been carried in a relatively simple manner using
survey cars with a crew of two. These cars were equipped with a roofmounted GPS receiver and a laptop computer that had been loaded with
the map database (stored as vector files) for the local area that was being
surveyed or revised. While undertaking the survey or revision operation,
the successive positions of the survey car that were being measured by
the DGPS service were being recorded and plotted continuously on the
map that was being displayed on the laptop computers screen. All the
data regarding changes or updates to the map data were being recorded
simultaneously as audio files by the surveyor/co-driver using a headset
and microphone. Any supplementary positional data that was required for
the location of specific objects could also be entered into the computer
by the surveyor using a hand-held controller or a digital data tablet. Thus
initially no digital video or still camera images were being acquired for
map revision purposes. However, by 2006, a digital video camera had
been installed in many of the NAVTEQ survey cars to provide a video
record of each survey trip.

[c]

In 2008, a new fleet of mobile mapping vehicles (comprising cars and

SUVs) was introduced by NAVTEQ. Each of the vehicles in this fleet is
equipped with an array of six or eight digital video cameras [Fig. 18]. These
are placed on a specially designed tray that is mounted on the roof of
the vehicle and they are enclosed in a transparent Perspex cover. Each of
the six (or eight) cameras acquires its images every 5 metres; in total,
they provide a 270 (or 360) degree coverage of the road and its surroundings as seen from the mapping vehicle at each successive position
where the images are being acquired. The new vehicles are also equipped

Fig. 19 (a) An early example of a Google Street View mapping car, showing its
Ladybug multiple camera and Topcon GPS antenna.
(b) A later version of a Google mobile mapping car with its own (Google) multiple camera unit; three SICK LMS 291 laser scanners; and a Topcon control box,
all mounted on top of its sturdy mast. The antenna of the Topcon GPS receiver
is located at the rear (at the left end) of the supporting platform.
(c) A pedal-powered tricycle that has been equipped with the same set of imaging, laser scanning and positioning devices as the Google car, as seen at
Warwick Castle in England. (Source: Google)

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Fig. 20 A Volkswagen New
Beetle car that is being operated by Immersive Media, with
a Dodeca 2360 multiple camera unit mounted on a mast
that has been fitted to a crossbar placed on top of the cars
roof. A white Trimble GPS
antenna is located on the rear
left wing of the car, while a
DMI unit (odometer) has been
fitted to the left rear wheel.
(Source: Immersive Media)

era system comprise eight that, in total, provide a 360 degree panorama
in the horizontal plane, while the ninth camera points vertically upwards to
record the undersides of bridges and overpasses and the top surfaces of
tunnels. Each car is equipped with a combined DGPS/IMU system that has
been supplied by Topcon, together with a wheel-mounted odometer that,
in conjunction with the IMU, can help establish position wherever GPS coverage is poor or has been lost in tunnels or within high-rise urban areas.
The Google Street View cars also feature a pair of SICK LMS 291 laser scanners that continuously measure a series of range or elevation profiles on
either side of the mapping vehicle. A third SICK scanner measures the road
surface in front of the vehicle. Besides the car-based mobile mapping systems, Google has also introduced a number of pedal-powered tricycles
(trikes) that are equipped with a similar set of cameras, laser scanners and
positioning equipment [Fig. 19(c)]. These are being used for data collection
in areas such as pedestrian precincts and public parks and along cycle
tracks where cars cannot be operated.

with an Applanix POS LV IMU and a Trimble GPS receiver, which utilizes a
differential GPS service. The resulting measured image and positional data
are recorded on a powerful PC. The data tablet and the headset/microphone equipment that allows the audio recording of the features
being described by the surveyor/co-driver while riding in the vehicle appear
to have also been retained in these recently introduced mobile mapping
vehicles. On 7th December 2009, NAVTEQ announced that it would be
supplying its street-level imagery to Microsoft for incorporation in its new
Bing Maps Streetside product.

Immersive Media
This Canadian company, which is based in Calgary, Alberta, specializes in
spherical immersive video. Its activities include making immersive films
of underwater activities (such as viewing coral reefs and whales) and sporting events (surfing, basketball and football) and for tourism purposes.
The companys collection of street-level imagery began in 2006 with its
own in-house GeoImmersive City Collect project to acquire street-level
imagery of U.S. cities. This was followed by its work on image data acquisition for Googles Street View service during 2007. With regard to these
mapping/imaging activities, they were executed using its own Dodeca 2360
Spherical Video System with its 11 individual cameras capturing image
data simultaneously [Fig. 4]. This multiple camera is mounted on a mast
that is fixed to a roof bar which is mounted on a Volkswagen New Beetle
car [Fig. 20]. As with other mobile mapping systems, each car uses a DGPS,
a gyroscope and an odometer for positioning and geo-referencing purposes. According to press releases issued last year (2008), Immersive Media
is still collecting street-level imagery for certain cities in North America for
local customers using its small fleet of these mapping cars. A similar small
fleet of cars using the same technology is operated in Europe by the TX
Immersive (TXi) company, which is based at the Shepperton film studios
in London.

Google
Googles Street View is a special feature of the well-known Google Maps
and Google Earth services that can be accessed via the Internet. The Street
View software gives access to the panoramic images that have been
acquired at intervals of 10 to 20 m along the streets of many cities within
the more highly developed countries of the world in the U.S.A., Western
Europe, Japan and Australasia. The service was first introduced with coverage of a few cities in the U.S.A. in May 2007. The American coverage has
been continually extended since then. Just over a year later, in July 2008,
Street View was introduced to Europe, in the first instance, for those towns
in France that were involved in hosting the Tour de France. Later that year,
further coverage of a number of French cities was added, together with the
initial coverage of certain cities in Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and the U.K.
Since then, work has continued intensively and on a massive scale to
extend the coverage to ever more cities and to expand the coverage of the
streets within each city that is being covered.

Other Service Providers

The numbers and types of mobile mapping cars that have been used to
acquire Street View imagery in different countries has varied considerably
(a) Imaging & Mapping Applications
from country to country. At the start of the programme, the imaging techThere are quite a number of much smaller commercial companies that
nology that was used also varied considerably. Initially, in 2007, much of
operate in the same general area of imaging and mapping as those
the imagery of the first batch of cities that were covered in the U.S.A. had
discussed immediately above. Needless to say, being very considerably
been collected by the Immersive Media company on contract using its distinctive Dodeca multiple camera systems. However this contract terminated
smaller and not having the same financial resources, they cannot offer
the same international coverage as Google,
at the end of that year (2007). Since then, Google
has been collecting the required image and posiNAVTEQ and Tele Atlas. Thus they attempt to
tional data using its own vehicles, steadily expandserve national and local government and coming its fleets of mobile mapping cars for the purmercial customers and to operate in certain
pose. In the U.S.A., Australasia and Japan, the cars
niche markets. An example is Facet Technology,
which is based in Eden Prairie, Minnesota.
were at first equipped with Ladybug multiple camUsing its vehicles equipped with cameras and
eras [Fig. 19(a)]. However, since then, these have
laser scanners, it has developed its SightMap
been replaced by the now standard nine-camera
products that provide the digital map content
system mounted on a sturdy mast that is itself
for nation-wide road networks within the U.S.A.,
attached to a roof rack that is fitted to the roof of
including road maps, and data for use in locathe car [Fig. 19(b)]. The mast and camera system
Fig. 21 An SUV mobile mapping vehicle that is
tion-based services, vehicle navigation and
can be folded down on to the roof rack when not
being operated by Facet Technology with the
portable positioning devices. Further detailed
in use.
Windows Live Local logo pasted on the back wininformation about its activities can be obtained
dow of the vehicle and with a large array of camthrough an inspection of the companys Web site
As discussed previously, the nine digital cameras
eras mounted on the roof. (Source: Facet
- www.facet-tech.com. It is also worth noting
from Elphel that make up the Google multiple camTechnology)
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reports that Facet

Technology collected
the
imagery
for
Microsofts street-level
photography [Fig. 21]
that appeared in a
somewhat experimental form in February
2006 for parts of the
cities of San Francisco
and Seattle. See the
following preview or
demonstration Web
Fig. 22 This Earthmine SUV mapping vehicle is
site:equipped with four pairs of stereo cameras mount- http://preview.local.
ed on a mast, each pair acquiring its 3D stereoIndeed
live.com.
imagery in the vertical plane in four different
Microsoft
has
just
directions at right angles to one another. A GPS
announced (on 2nd
antenna is mounted at the top of the mast.
December 2009) that it
(Source: Earthmine)
will be introducing an
enhanced version of
its Streetside photography under the title of Bing Maps Streetside
for 56 metropolitan areas in the U.S.A. As noted above, the new imagery
will be supplied by NAVTEQ.

national and local government highway agencies and departments of transport. In recent years, these surveys have been extended to cover rail networks as well. Quite a number of the companies that are undertaking this
type of work have already been mentioned above in the context of those
customers who have purchased systems from the various systems suppliers. However there are many others that have developed their own systems in-house. A few representative examples within Europe are Omnicom
Engineering www.omnieng.co.uk/index.php? id=47, which is based in York
in the U.K. and is much engaged in rail as well as road surveys; and Eagle
Eye Technologies www.ee-t.de from Hamburg and 3D Mapping Solutions
GmbH www.3d-mapping.de/ dynasite.cfm?dssid=4324 from the Munich
area in Germany. In Belgium, both the geoVISAT company www.geovisat.eu
and the GeoAutomation company www.geoautomation.be/en/technology.
html offer mobile mapping services, as does the GISPRO mapping company www.gispro.pl/EN/aktualnosci. dhtml from Szczecin in Poland. There
are many others! In the U.S.A., there are still more. A few representative
examples are EarthEye www.eartheye.com/Mobile from Orlando, Florida;
Lambda Tech www.lambdatech.com/ gpstech.html from Fort Wayne,
Indiana with its GPSVision vans; Blue Dasher Technologies
www.bluedashertech.com which is based in Miami, Florida; Mandli
Communications Inc. www.mandli.com/systems/systems.php from Madison,
Wisconsin; and the Transmap Corporation http://74.218.19.11, with its OnSight mapping vans, which are based in Columbus, Ohio and Tampa,
Florida.

Another example of an American company that is acquiring street-level

photography is Earthmine Inc., which is based in Berkeley, California.
This company uses SUVs equipped with a stereo-camera system whose
design has been licensed from Caltech-JPL [Fig. 22]. This system uses
four pairs of cameras, with each pair mounted vertically and spaced 90
degrees apart horizontally. The vehicles are also equipped with the
NovAtel SPAN DGPS/IMU system for position location. Each pixel in the
finally processed images has 3D (X, Y, Z) coordinates. At the time of
writing this article, Earthmine is reported to have imaged or mapped
12 metropolitan areas, mainly in the western part of the United States.
On 8th December 2009, Earthmine also announced its partnership with
Aero-Metric, a large American aerial mapping company, in respect of
the value-added resale of its street-level panoramic image data. More
details on these developments can be obtained from the companys
Web site www.earthmine.com.

Summary & Conclusion

As mentioned in the introduction, the development of mobile mapping systems started quite a long time ago. Initially these developments were quite
modest and were not of much interest to the mainstream mapping industry. However, over the last five years, gradually the corridor mapping of
highways and rail networks and the 3D modelling of cities have become
important applications though at first, these activities were carried out
mostly using one-off mobile mapping systems built by the operators.
Now the demand has grown to the point that there are several system suppliers offering COTS products to satisfy this particular market. Then, starting three or four years ago, the increasing demand for digital road navigation data and cartographic (vector) data that could be used in personal
location devices resulted in Tele Atlas and NAVTEQ entering this field with
their fleets of mobile mapping vehicles. Finally, over the last two years, the
Internet giants (Google and Microsoft) have created such a huge demand
for visual street-level image data that a very large number of mobile mapping vehicles have been brought into operation to satisfy it, especially by
Google.

Another relatively small company that is also engaged in this general

area of photo-imaging and mapping of urban areas in the U.S.A. is
EveryScape www.everyscape.com, which is based in Waltham,
Massachusetts. Yet another similar company concerned with street-level
photo-imaging is MapJack http://mapjack.com, which is based in San
Francisco, California and has given assistance to various companies
located in Sweden www.hitta.se/gatubild; Canada www.canpages.ca;
and Thailand to enter this particular field. Within Europe, similar companies that undertake the photo-imaging and mapping of urban areas
are Seety Ltd. www.seety.co.uk which is based in London; NORC
www.norc.at which acquires street-level imagery of towns in Austria
and Eastern Europe; and Cyclomedia www.cyclomedia.nl in the
Netherlands whose activities in the mobile mapping field have already
been covered in an article written by the editor-in-chief (Eric van Rees)
of GEOInformatics magazine which was published in the March 2009
issue (Vol. 12, No. 2) of the magazine.

From this survey of current mobile mapping systems, it is also apparent

that, not only is the technology now well established, but currently there
are two main categories into which the resulting systems fall, largely
depending on their intended applications and the quite different accuracy
specifications that they have to meet. (i) On the one hand, there are those
systems that are being used for the acquisition of digital images for streetlevel image display purposes and for cartographic mapping applications.
(ii) On the other hand, there are those systems that are being used to collect data about the road and rail infrastructure that is needed for engineering, maintenance and management purposes. Clearly the accuracy requirements for the map or survey data that has to be measured can be
substantially different in each case, with the second category usually being
much more demanding in this particular respect.

(b) Road & Rail Maintenance & Management

Gordon Petrie is Emeritus Professor of Topographic Science in the Dept. of

Geographical & Earth Sciences of the University of Glasgow, Scotland, U.K. Email - Gordon.Petrie@ges.gla.ac.uk

The other main group of commercial companies that are engaged in mobile
mapping operations are those that are undertaking surveys of the road
infrastructure for maintenance and management purposes on behalf of
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