English And American

Gastronomy

Gastronomy is the study of the relationship between culture and food. It is often thought
erroneously that the term gastronomy refers exclusively to the art of cooking but this is only a
small part of this discipline; it cannot always be said that a cook is also a gourmet. Gastronomy
studies various cultural components with food as its central axis. Thus it is related to the Fine
Arts and Social Sciences, and even to the Natural Sciences in terms of the digestive system of the
human body.
A gourmet's principal activities involve discovering, tasting, experiencing, researching,
understanding and writing about foods. Gastronomy is therefore an interdisciplinary
activity. Good observation will reveal that around the food, there exist dance, dramatic arts,
painting, sculpture, literature, architecture, and music; in other words, the Fine Arts. But it
also involves physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, geology, agronomy, and also
anthropology, history, philosophy, psychology, and sociology. The application of scientific
knowledge to cooking and gastronomy has become known as molecular gastronomy.

The first formal study of gastronomy is probably The Physiology of Taste by Jean Anthelm
Brillat-Savarin (early 19th century). As opposed to the traditional cooking recipe books, it
studies the relationship between the senses and food, treating enjoyment at the table as a
science. Most recently, in 2004, the founders of the Slow Food movement founded the
University of Gastronomic Sciences in Bra, Italy, devoted to the principles of gastronomy.
Other centres for the study of gastronomy include the School of Oriental and African Studies
of the University of London through its Food Studies Centre, the University of Adelaide
through its Master of Arts in Gastronomy program run in cooperation with Le Cordon Bleu,
New York University's Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development
through its Department of Nutrition, Food Studies, and Public Health, the Universities of
Barcelona Bologn, and of François Rabelais in Tours through their Master in the History
and Culture of Food, and Boston University through its Master of Liberal Arts in
Gastronomy program.

Etymologically, the word "gastronomy" is derived from Ancient Greek γαστήρ (gastér)
"stomach", and νόμος (nómos) "knowledge" or "law".

Cooking is the process of preparing food by applying heat, selecting, measuring and
combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible food. The
process encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of ingredients to alter
the flavor, appearance, texture, or digestibility of food. Factors affecting the final outcome
include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual
doing the actual cooking.

The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the aesthetic, agricultural, economic,

cultural, social and religious diversity throughout the nations, races, creeds and tribes
across the globe.

Applying heat to a food usually, though not always, chemically transforms it, thus changing
its flavor, texture, consistency, appearance, and nutritional properties. Methods of cooking
that involve the boiling of liquid in a receptacle have been practised at least since the 10th
millennium BC, with the introduction of pottery.

The application of scientific knowledge to cooking and gastronomy has

become known as molecular gastronomy. This is a subdiscipline of food
science. Important contributions have been made by scientists, chefs and
authors such as Herve This (chemist), Nicholas Kurti (physicist), Peter
Barham (physicist), Harold McGee (author), Shirley Corriher (biochemist,
author), Heston Blumenthal (chef), Ferran Adria (chef), Robert Wolke
(chemist, author) and Pierre Gagnaire (chef).

Chemical processes central to cooking include the Maillard reaction - a

form of non-enzymatic browning involving an amino acid, a reducing
sugar, and heat.

History of cooking

There is, as yet, no clear evidence as to when cooking was invented.

Richard Wrangham argues that cooking was invented as far back as 1.8
million to 2.3 million years ago. Other researchers believe that cooking
was invented as late as 40,000 or 10,000 years ago. Evidence of fire is
inconclusive as wildfires started by lightning-strikes are still common in
East Africa and other wild areas, and it is difficult to determine as to when
fire was used for cooking, as opposed to just being used for warmth or for
keeping predators away. Most anthropologists contend that cooking fires
began in earnest barely 250,000 years ago, when ancient hearths, earth
ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint appear across Europe and the middle
East. Back 2 million years ago, the only sign of fire is burnt earth with
human remains, which most anthropologists consider coincidence rather
than evidence of intentional fire.[14]

Effects on nutritional content of food

Cooking prevents many foodborne illnesses that would otherwise occur if

the raw food was eaten. Cooking also increases the digestibility of some
foods such as grains. Many foods are inedible raw. For example kidney
beans are toxic when raw, due to the chemical phytohaemagglutinin.[4].

Proponents of Raw foodism argue that cooking food increases the risk of
some of detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that the
cooking of vegetables and fruit containing vitamin c both elutes the
vitamin into the cooking water and degrades the vitamin through
oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C
content , especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the
skin.[citation needed] However, research has also suggested that a greater
proportion of nutrients present in food is absorbed from cooked foods
than from uncooked foods.[5]
Baking, grilling or broiling food , especially starchy foods, until a toasted
crust is formed generates significant concentrations of acrylamide, a
known carcinogen.[citation needed]

Cooking dairy products may reduce a protective effect against colon

cancer. Researchers at the University of Toronto suggest that ingesting
uncooked or unpasteurized dairy products (see also Raw milk) may
reduce the risk of colon cancer.[citation needed] Mice and rats fed uncooked
sucrose, casein, and beef tallow had one-third to one-fifth the incidence of
microadenomas as the mice and rats fed the same ingredients cooked.[6]
[7]
This claim, however, is contentious. According to the Food and Drug
Administration of the United States, health benefits claimed by raw milk
advocates do not exist.[8] "The small quantities of antibodies in milk are
not absorbed in the human intestinal tract," says Barbara Ingham, Ph.D.,
associate professor and extension food scientist at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison. "There is no scientific evidence that raw milk contains
an anti-arthritis factor or that it enhances resistance to other diseases."

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat
creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer
risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that
human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third
the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-
done.[9] While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs
fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212 °F
(100 °C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat
before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.[10] Nitrosamines, present in
processed and cooked foods, have also been noted as being carcinogenic,
being linked to colon cancer.

Research has shown that grilling or barbecuing meat and fish increases
levels of carcinogenic Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). However,
meat and fish only contribute a small proportion of dietary PAH intake -
most intake comes from cereals, oils and fats.[11] German research in
2003 showed significant benefits in reducing breast cancer risk when
large amounts of raw vegetable matter are included in the diet. The
authors attribute some of this effect to heat-labile phytonutrients.[12]
Heating sugars with proteins or fats can produce Advanced glycation end
products ("glycotoxins"). These have been linked to ageing and health
conditions such as diabetes.

The importance of nutrition

Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision, to cells and organisms, of
the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common health problems
can be prevented or alleviated with a healthy diet.

The diet of an organism refers to what it eats. Dietitians are health professionals who
specialize in human nutrition, meal planning, economics, preparation, and so on. They are
trained to provide safe, evidence-based dietary advice and management to individuals (in
health and disease), as well as to institutions.

Poor diet can have an injurious impact on health, causing deficiency diseases such as
scurvy, beriberi, and kwashiorkor; health-threatening conditions like obesity and metabolic
syndrome, and such common chronic systemic diseases as cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
and osteoporosis.There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fiber,
minerals, protein, vitamins, and water.These nutrient classes can be categorized as either
macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller
quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins, and water. The
micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water)
provide energy, which is measured in Joulesor kilocalories (often called "Calories" and
written with a capital C to distinguish them from gram calories). Carbohydrates and
proteins provide 17 kJ (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per
gram. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are necessary for
other reasons.

Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to
complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of various fatty acid
monomers bound to glycerol. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they
cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to
the elements of carbohydrates and fats. The nitrogen-containing monomers of protein are
amino acids, and they include some essential amino acids. They fulfill many roles other than
energy metabolism; and when they are used as fuel, getting rid of the nitrogen places a
burden on the kidneys.

Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals.

Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes. Some nutrients are required
regularly, while others are needed only occasionally. Poor health can be caused by an
imbalance of nutrients, whether an excess or a deficiency.

Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or

polysaccharides by the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain.
They constitute a large proportion of foods such as rice, noodles, bread
and other grain-based products. Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit,
disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Polysaccharides
are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are long
chains of sugar units, whereas monosaccharides and disaccharides are
simpler. The difference is important: complex carbohydrates take longer
to digest and absorb since their sugar units are processed one-by-one off
the ends of the chains. The spike in blood-sugar levels after ingestion of
simple sugars is thought to be involved in causing heart and vascular
disease. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets, leading to
more cardiovascular disease in populations. Simple carbohydrates are
absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-sugar levels more rapidly.

A molecule of fat consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and
hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty
acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or
 unsaturated. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to
hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded,
so their molecules have relatively few hydrogen atoms. Unsaturated fats may be further
classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds).
Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer fatty acid, typically created in an
industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation.

Many studies have shown that unsaturated fats, particularly monounsaturated fats, are best
in the human diet. Saturated fats, typically from animal sources, are next, while trans fats
are to be avoided. Saturated and trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as
butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil).
Trans fats are very rare in nature, but have properties useful in the food processing industry

Fiber is a carbohydrate (or a polysaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in

some other animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four
Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. But in most circumstances it accounts for less
than that because of its limited absorption. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large
carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible because humans do not have the required
enzymes. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits
(especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are rich in dietary fiber. Fiber is
important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of colon cancer. It can help in
alleviating both constipation and diarrhea. Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and
insoluble fiber stimulates peristalsis: the rhythmic muscular contractions passing along the
digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity: a gel, which slows
the movement of food through the intestines. Fiber, especially from whole grains, may help
lessen insulin spikes and reduce the risk of diabetes

Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). Each
molecule is composed of amino acids, sometimes many thousands, which are characterized
by inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulphur. The body requires amino acids to produce
new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). Excess
amino acids are discarded, typically in the urine. For all animals, some amino acids are
essential (an animal cannot produce them internally) and some are non-essential (the
animal can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds). About twenty amino
acid are found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential, and therefore must
be included in the diet. A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially
those that are essential) is particularly important when there is greater need: in early
development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury. A complete protein source
contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more
essential amino acid. It is possible to combine two incomplete protein sources (e.g. rice and
beans) to make a complete protein source. Sources of dietary protein include meats, tofu
and other soy-products, eggs, grains, legumes, and dairy products such as milk and cheese.
A few amino acids from protein can be converted into glucose and used for fuel through a
process called gluconeogenesis. The amino acids remaining after such conversion are
discarded.
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the
four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in common organic
molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less
common elements in the diet: heavier than the four just mentioned; including several
metals; and often occurring as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be
supplied from foods in which they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or
sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground
oyster shells). On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as
supplements, the most famous being iodine in iodized salt.

As with the minerals discussed above, twelve vitamins are recognized as essential nutrients,
necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can alternatively be
synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds
that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are indispensable for survival and
health; but these are not strictly "essential" because the human body has some capacity to
produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals
have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have
desirable properties including antioxidant activity. Other essential nutrients not classed as
vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), choline, essential fatty acids (see
above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.

Vitamin deficiencies may result in disease conditions: goitre, scurvy, osteoporosis, impaired
immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of
premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many
others.] Excess of some vitamins is also dangerous to health (notably vitamin A); and
deficiency or excess of minerals can also have serious health consequences.

Sport Nutrion

Protein is an important component of every cell in the body. Hair and nails are mostly made
of protein. The body uses protein to build and repair tissues. Also protein is used to make
enzymes, hormones, and other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of
bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood.

The protein requirement for each individual differs, as do opinions about whether and to
what extent physically active people require more protein. The 2005 Recommended Dietary
Allowances (RDA), aimed at the general healthy adult population, provide for an intake of
0.8 - 1 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight (according to the BMI formula), with the
review panel stating that "no additional dietary protein is suggested for healthy adults
undertaking resistance or endurance exercise". Conversely, Di Pasquale (2008), citing
recent studies, recommends a minimum protein intake of 2.2 g/kg "for anyone involved in
competitive or intense recreational sports who wants to maximize lean body mass but does
not wish to gain weight".

Water is one of the most important nutrients in the sports diet. It helps eliminate food waste
products in the body, regulates body temperature during activity and helps with digestion.
Maintaining hydration during periods of physical exertion is key to peak performance. While
drinking too much water during activities can lead to physical discomfort, dehydration in
excess of 2% of body mass (by weight) markedly hinders athletic performance. Additional
carbohydrates and protein before, during, and after exercise increase time to exhaustion as
well as speed recovery. Dosage is based on work performed, lean body mass, and
environmental factors, especially ambient temperature and humidity.

Research indicates that improving the awareness of nutritious meal choices and establishing
long-term habits of healthy eating has a positive effect on a cognitive and spatial memory
capacity, potentially increasing a student's potential to process and retain academic
information.

Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policymakers, and managed
foodservice contractors to mandate improved nutritional content and increased nutritional
resources in school cafeterias from primary to university level institutions. Health and
nutrition have been proven to have close links with overall educational success. Currently
less than 10% of American college students report that they eat the recommended five
servings of fruit and vegetables daily.] Better nutrition has been shown to have an impact on
both cognitive and spatial memory performance; a study showed those with higher blood
sugar levels performed better on certain memory tests.] In another study, those who
consumed yogurt performed better on thinking tasks when compared to those who
consumed caffeine free diet soda or confections.] Nutritional deficiencies have been shown
to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice as far back as 1951.

"Better learning performance is associated with diet induced effects on learning and
memory ability".

The "nutrition-learning nexus" demonstrates the correlation between diet and learning and
has application in a higher education setting.

"We find that better nourished children perform significantly better in school, partly because
they enter school earlier and thus have more time to learn but mostly because of greater
learning productivity per year of schooling.

91% of college students feel that they are in good health while only 7% eat their
recommended daily allowance of fruits and vegetables.

Nutritional education is an effective and workable model in a higher education setting.

More "engaged" learning models that encompass nutrition is an idea that is picking up
steam at all levels of the learning cycle.

There is limited research available that directly links a student's Grade Point Average
(G.P.A.) to their overall nutritional health. Additional substantive data is needed to prove
that overall intellectual health is closely linked to a person's diet, rather than just another
correlation fallacy.

The American Gastronomy

The cuisine of the United States is a style of food preparation derived from the United
States. The cuisine has a history dating back before the colonial period when the Native
Americans had a rich and diverse cooking style for an equally diverse amount of ingredients.
With European colonization, the style of cookery changed vastly, with numerous ingredients
introduced from Europe, as well as cooking styles and modern cookbooks. The style of
cookery continued to expand into the 19th and 20th centuries with the influx of immigrants
from various nations across the world. This influx has created a rich diversity and a unique
regional character throughout the country.

Before the European colonists came to America, the Native Americans had an established
cookery style that varied greatly from group to group. The vast variety of ingredients and
cookery styles were never found in the same locality; any one group had a much more
limited diet. Nutrition was an issue for most hunting and gathering societies that wandered
widely in search of game and who might encounter serious shortages in wintertime.

Cooking methods

Native Americans utilized a number of cooking methods. Grilling meats was common. Spit
roasting over a pit fire was common as well. Vegetables, especially root vegetables were
often cooked directly in the ashes of the fire. As early Native Americans lacked the proper
pottery that could be used directly over a fire, they developed a technique which has caused
many anthropologists to call them "Stone Boilers." The Native Americans would heat rocks
directly in a fire and then add the bricks to a pot filled with water until it came to a boil so
that it would cook the meat or vegetables in the boiling water. Another method was to use
an empty bison stomach filled with desired ingredients and suspended over a low fire. The
fire would have been insufficient to completely cook the food contained in the stomach
however, as the flesh would burn so heated rocks would be added to the food as well. Some
Native Americans would also use the leather of a bison hide in the same manner.

The Native Americans are credited as the first in America to create fire-proof pottery to
place in direct flame. In what is now the Southwestern United States, Native Americans also
created ovens made of adobe called hornos in which to bake items such as breads made
from cornmeal. Native Americans in other parts of America made ovens out of dug pits.
These pits were also used to steam foods by adding heated rocks or embers and then
seaweed or corn husks (or other coverings) placed on top to steam fish and shellfish as well
as vegetables; potatoes would be added while still in-skin and corn while in-husk, this would
later be referred to as a clambake by the colonists. The hole was also a location for
producing what has become Boston baked beans made from beans, maple sugar and a
piece of bear fat.

When the colonists came to America, their initial attempts at survival included planting
crops familiar to them from back home in England. In the same way, they farmed animals
for clothing and meat in a similar fashion. Through hardships and eventual establishment of
trade with Britain, the West Indies and other regions, the colonists were able to establish
themselves in the American colonies with a cuisine similar to their previous British cuisine.
There were some exceptions to the diet, such as local vegetation and animals, but the
colonists attempted to use these items in the same fashion as they had their equivalents or
ignore them if they could. The manner of cooking for the American colonists followed along
the line of British cookery up until the Revolution. The British sentiment followed in the
cookbooks brought to the New World as well.

There was a general disdain for French cookery, even with the French Huguenots in South
Carolina and French-Canadians. One of the cookbooks that proliferated in the colonies was
The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy written by Hannah Glasse, wrote of disdain for the
French style of cookery, stating “the blind folly of this age that would rather be imposed on
by a French booby, than give encouragement to a good English cook!” Of the French
recipes, she does add to the text she speaks out flagrantly against the dishes as she “…
think it an odd jumble of trash. Reinforcing the anti-French sentiment was the French and
Indian War from 1754-1764. This created a large anxiety against the French, which
influenced the English to either deport many of the French, or as in the case of the
Acadians, they migrated to Louisiana. The Acadian French did create a large French
influence in the diet of those settled in Louisiana, but had little or no influence outside of
Louisiana.
The American colonial diet varied depending on where the settled region. Local cuisine
patterns had established by the mid 18th century. The New England colonies were
extremely similar in their dietary habits to those that many of them had brought from
England. A striking difference for the colonists in New England compared to other regions
was seasonality While in the southern colonies, they could farm almost year round, in the
northern colonies, the growing seasons were very restricted. In addition, colonists’ close
proximity to the ocean gave them a bounty of fresh fish to add to their diet, especially in the
northern colonies. Wheat, however, the grain used to bake bread back in England was
almost impossible to grow, and imports of wheat were far from cost productive. Substitutes
in cases such as this included cornmeal. The Johnnycake was a poor substitute to some for
wheaten bread, but acceptance by both the northern and southern colonies seems evident.

As many of the New Englanders were originally from England, game hunting was often a
pastime from back home that paid off when they immigrated to the New World. Much of the
northern colonists depended upon the ability either of themselves to hunt, or for others from
which they could purchase game. This was the preferred method for protein consumption
over animal husbandry, as it required much less work to defend the kept animals against
Native Americans or the French.

Southern variations

In comparison to the northern colonies, the southern colonies were quite diverse in their
agricultural diet. Unlike the colonies to the north, the southern colonies did not have a
central region of culture. The uplands and the lowlands made up the two main parts of the
southern colonies. The slaves and poor of the south often ate a similar diet, which consisted
of many of the indigenous New World crops. Salted or smoked pork often supplement the
vegetable diet. Rural poor often ate squirrel, possum, rabbit and other woodland animals.
Those on the “rice coast” often ate ample amounts of rice, while the grain for the rest of the
southern poor and slaves was cornmeal used in breads and porridges. Wheat was not an
option for most of those that lived in the southern colonies

The diet of the uplands often included cabbage, string beans, white potatoes, while most
avoided sweet potatoes and peanuts. Non-poor whites in the uplands avoided crops
imported from Africa because of the inferred inferiority of crops of the African slaves. Those
who could grow or afford wheat often had biscuits on their table for breakfast, along with
healthy portions of pork. Salted pork was a staple of any meal, as it used in the preparations
of vegetables for flavor, in addition to its direct consumption as a protein

The lowlands, which included much of the Acadian French regions of Louisiana and the
surrounding area, included a varied diet heavily influenced by Africans and Caribbeans,
rather than just the French. As such, rice played a large part of the diet as it played a large
part of the diets of the Africans and Caribbean. In addition, unlike the uplands, the lowlands
subsistence of protein came mostly from coastal seafood and game meats. Much of the diet
involved the use of peppers, as it still does today. Interestingly, although the English had an
inherent disdain for French foodways, as well as many of the native foodstuff of the
colonies, the French had no such disdain for the indigenous foodstuffs. In fact, they had a
vast appreciation for the native ingredients and dishes.
One characteristic of American cooking is the fusion of multiple ethnic or regional
approaches into completely new cooking styles. The cuisine of the South, for example, has
been heavily influenced by immigrants from Africa, France, and Mexico, among others.
Asian cooking has played a particularly large role in American fusion cuisine

Many companies in the American food industry develop new products requiring minimal
preparation, such as frozen entrees Some corporate kitchens (e.g. General Mills, Campbell's,
Kraft Foods) develop consumer recipes featuring their company's products. Many of these
recipes have become very popular. For example, the General Mills Betty Crocker's
Cookbook, first published in 1950 and currently in its 10th edition,] is commonly found in
American home.

Important American Chefs

American chefs have been influential both in the food industry and in popular culture. An
important 19th Century American chef was Charles Ranhofer of Delmonico's Restaurant in
New York City. American cooking has been exported around the world, both through the
global expansion of restaurant chains such as T.G.I. Friday's and McDonald's and the efforts
of individual restaurateurs such as Bob Payton, credited with bringing American-style pizza
to the UK.[49]

The first generation of television chefs such as Robert Carrier and Julia Child tended to
concentrate on cooking based primarily on European, especially French and Italian, cuisines.
Only during the 1970s and 80s did television chefs such as James Beard and Jeff Smith shift
the focus towards home-grown cooking styles, particularly those of the different ethnic
groups within the nation. Notable American restaurant chefs include Thomas Keller, Charlie
Trotter, Grant Achatz, Alfred Portale, Paul Prudhomme, Paul Bertolli, Mario Batali, Alice
Waters, Emeril Lagasse, Cat Cora, and celebrity chefs like Bobby Flay, Ina Garten, and Todd
English.
Charles Ranhofer

Charles Ranhofer (November 7, 1836, St.-Denis, France — October 9, 1899, New York) was
the chef at the famous Delmonico's Restaurant in New York from 1862 to 1876 and 1879 to
1896. Ranhofer was the author of The Epicurean, (1894), an encyclopedic cookbook of over
1,000 pages, similar in scope to Escoffier's Le Guide Culinaire.

Ranhofer was sent to Paris at the age of 12 to begin his training by studying pastry-making,
and at 16 became the private chef for the prince d'Hénin, comte d'Alsace. In 1856 he moved
to New York to become the chef for the Russian consul, and later worked in Washington,
D.C. and New Orleans. He returned to France in 1860 for a short time, where he arranged
balls for the court of Napoleon III at the Tuileries Palace, but then came back to New York to
work at what was then a fashionable location, Maison Doree. In 1862, Lorenzo Delmonico
hired him for Delmonico's, and it was there that Ranhofer made his real fame, though others
say that he made the fame of the restaurant as well. At that time, Delmonico's was
considered the finest restaurant in the United States. He was the chef at Delmonico's until
his retirement in 1896, except for a short hiatus from 1876 and 1879 when he owned the
"Hotel American" at Enghien-les-Bains.

Ranhofer invented or made famous a number of dishes that Delmonico's was known for,
such as Lobster Newberg, and had a talent for naming dishes after famous or prominent
people--particularly those who dined at Delmonico's--as well as his friends, and events of the
day. Examples include:

"Lobster Duke Alexis," named for then Grand-Duke Alexis in 1871.

"Sarah potatoes," named for Sarah Bernhardt.

"Lobster Paul Bert," named for Paul Bert.

"Chicken filets Sadi Carnot," named for Marie François Sadi Carnot.

"Peach pudding à la Cleveland," named for President Grover Cleveland.

 "Veal pie à la Dickens" and " Beet fritters à la Dickens," named for
Charles Dickens in honor of his 1867 visit to New York.

"Salad à la Dumas," named in honor of Alexandre Dumas, père.

"Lobster Newberg", named in honor of sea captain Ben Wenberg then

renamed when Wenberg had a falling-out with the restaurant.

"Marshal Ney", a dessert named in honor of Marshal Ney.

Many others may be found under "List of foods named after people."

Ranhofer did not invent baked Alaska, but he popularized it in 1876 when
he named it in honor of the newly-acquired Alaskan territory. He also
experimented with new foods, acquainting New Yorkers with the "alligator
pear" (avocado) in 1895, among other things.

Robert Carrier

Robert Carrier OBE (born Robert Carrier McMahon in November 10, 1923 in
Tarrytown, New York – died June 27, 2006 in France) was an American chef, restaurateur
and cookery writer, whose success came in England, where he was based from 1953 to
1984, and then from 1994 until his death.

Born Robert Carrier McMahon in Tarrytown, New York, the third son of an Irish descended
wealthy property lawyer father while his mother was the Franco-German daughter of a
millionaire. After his parents went bankrupt in the 1930s Great Depression, they maintained
their own lifestyle through removing the servants and preparing their own elaborate dinner
parties

Educated in New York City, Robert took part-time art courses, and trained to become an
actor. He eventually took a place in the Broadway revue of New Faces, before touring
Europe with a rep company, singing the juvenile lead in American musicals. After returning
to America, Robert often stayed at weekends with his beloved French grandmother in upstate
New York, and she taught him to cook, making biscuits and butter-frying fish caught in a
nearby stream.

In 1957 Carrier wrote his first article on food, which he sold to Harper's Bazaar editor
Eileen Dickson He was soon writing regularly for the magazine before becoming a
contributor to Vogue and then writing a weekly column for the colour supplement of the
Sunday Times. This column brought him celebrity, which he used to promote his first and
lavishly illustrated cookery book Great Dishes of the World in 1963, which although priced
at the present day equivalent of around £100, sold 11 million copies.

Assured of publicity, Carrier opened the eponymous restaurant Carriers' in 1959 in Camden
Passage, Islington; and then developed an international chain of cookshops, with the first in
Harrods in 1967. His development of wipe-clean recipe cards were bought by housewives,
and being more specific and easier to follow than the recipes of Elizabeth David, and made
it easily possible to prepare food that would fully satisfy the eye and palate of any dinner
guests.

In 1971, he saw a full-page advertisement in Country Life for Hintlesham Hall near Ipswich,
Suffolk and bought it, unsurveyed, for £32,000. He planned to renovate it slowly as a country
retreat but, realising its vulnerability and near dereliction with rotten floors and ceilings, he
decided to save it all immediately. He employed 60 people to restore the house and opened it
as a hotel and restaurant in August 1972. He also revived the Hintlesham Festival.

A few years later, Carrier met a woman who lived near his Paris apartment. He thought her
a remarkable cook but a poor business woman; so, when she got into financial difficulties
over non-payment of tax, he offered to set her up as a cookery teacher at Hintlesham if she
would learn to speak English. He invested about £300,000 converting the 16th century
outbuildings into a modern school. The school had a double auditorium and two classrooms
each with 12 cooking stations. The woman never learned English so he ran the school
himself. He presented beginners' and intermediate courses. The mornings were devoted to
generic cooking skills and, in the afternoons, students cooked recipes from the Hintlesham
Hall restaurant menu. The school attracted people from throughout the anglophone world,
but Carrier was disappointed to find that many were attracted more by his celebrity than by
an interest in cookery. He found the repetitive work onerous and dull.

In the late 1970s, Carrier began presenting a television series Carrier's Kitchen based on the
cooking cards from his Sunday Times articles. After the plain British fair of Fanny Cradock
presented in black and white, Carrier in colour television format introduced luxurious
Continental cooking to a nation in which ingredients such as garlic and spaghetti were
treated with deep suspicion. With a highly theatrical and camp style, and a penchant for
superlatives ("Gooorgeous… Adooorable… Faaabulous!"), he attracted viewers as much for
his drawling American vowels and shameless self-promotion, and resultantly became the
first celebrity chef on British television. His later followed this with three other series, titled
Food, Wine and Friends, The Gourmet Vegetarian and Carrier's Caribbean. From this
greater publicity, flowed a substantial magazine partwork published weekly by Marshall
Cavendish between 1981 and 1983.
By the early 1980s, Carrier's television style was considered kitch and too old-fashioned,
and his food too complex. Ejected from his television show and bored of the celebrity
culture, Carrier closed the Michelin two starred Hintlesham Hall in 1982, and sold it the
following year to English hotelier Ruth Watson and her husband. After closing the also
Michelin two starred Camden Passage restaurant, Carrier took a short stay in New York,
and from 1984 went to live in France and at his restored villa in Morocco, regularly
accompanied by his friend Oliver Lawson-Dick.

On January 19, 1983, Carrier was the subject of the United Kingdom television show This Is
Your Life. He became popular in the United States in the 1980s, writing a weekly European
food column for a popular US magazine. In 1984 he became the face of the British
restaurant industry, arguing vigorously and vocally for changes to the licensing laws. His
efforts were rewarded by appointment as honorary

Having lived in Marrakesh for several months of each year since the 1970s, Carrier used his
Moroccan experiences as the basis for another cookbook in 1987, which further funded his
retirement. His 1999 rewrite of Great Dishes of the World didn't sell, because he replaced
rich and calorific Carrier classics with modern pared-down Nouvelle Cuisine.

By 1994 Carrier had returned to London,realising that most of his friends were in Great also
returned to television with GMTV, proclaiming the virtues of economical and vegetarian
eating. Having sold his villa in Morocco, he owned a property in Provence where he spent
his time painting pictures, tended by good friend Liz Glaze after the death of Oliver Lawson-
Dick. Having been admitted to hospital that morning in the South of France, Carrier's death
was announced by Liz Glaze on the afternoon of the June 27, 2006 to the Press Association.

American Global Expansion of restaurant

In the 20th century American
restaurant expands in all over the
world such as: Mc Donalds, Kfc
etc.

McDonald’s
McDonald's Corporation is the world's largest chain of fast food restaurants, serving nearly
47 million customers daily. McDonald's primarily sells hamburgers, cheeseburgers, chicken
products, french fries, breakfast items, soft drinks, milkshakes, and desserts. More recently,
it has begun to offer salads, wraps and fruit. Many McDonald's restaurants have included a
playground for children and advertising geared toward children, and some have been
redesigned in a more 'natural' style, with a particular emphasis on comfort: introducing
lounge areas and fireplaces, and eliminating hard plastic chairs and tables.

In addition to its signature restaurant chain, McDonald’s Corporation held a minority

interest in Pret A Manger (a UK-based sandwich retailer) until 2008, and owned the
Chipotle Mexican Grill until 2006 and the restaurant chain Boston Market until 2007. The
company has also expanded the McDonald's menu in recent decades to include alternative
meal options, such as salads and snack wraps, in order to capitalize on growing consumer
interest in health and wellness.

Each McDonald's restaurant is operated by a franchisee, an affiliate, or the corporation

itself. The corporations' revenues come from the rent, royalties and fees paid by the
franchisees, as well as sales in company-operated restaurants. McDonald's revenues grew
27% over the three years ending in 2007 to $22.8 billion, and 9% growth in operating
income to $3.9 billion.

he business began in 1940, with a restaurant opened by brothers Dick and Mac McDonald in
San Bernardino, California. Their introduction of the "Speedee Service System" in 1948
established the principles of the modern fast-food restaurant. The original mascot of
McDonald's was a man with a chef's hat on top of a hamburger shaped head whose name
was "Speedee." Speedee was eventually replaced with Ronald McDonald in 1963.

The present corporation dates its founding to the opening of a franchised restaurant by Ray
Kroc, in Des Plaines, Illinois on April 15, 1955 , the ninth McDonald's restaurant overall.
Kroc later purchased the McDonald brothers' equity in the company and led its worldwide
expansion and the company became listed on the public stock markets in 1965. Kroc was
also noted for aggressive business practices, compelling the McDonald's brothers to leave
the fast food industry. The McDonald's brothers and Kroc feuded over control of the
business, as documented in both Kroc's autobiography and in the McDonald brothers'
autobiography. The site of the McDonald brothers' original restaurant is now a monument

With the expansion of McDonald's into many international markets, the company has
become a symbol of globalization and the spread of the American way of life. Its prominence
has also made it a frequent topic of public debates about obesity, corporate ethics and
consumer responsibility.

McDonald's restaurants are found in 119 countries and territories around

the world and serve nearly 47 million customers each day. McDonald's
operates over 31,000 restaurants worldwide, employing more than 1.5
million people. The company also operates other restaurant brands, such
as Piles Café, and has a minority stake in Pret a Manger. The company
owned a majority stake in Chipotle Mexican Grill until completing its
divestment in October 2006. Until December 2003, it also owned Donatos
Pizza. On August 27, 2007, McDonald's sold Boston Market to Sun Capital
Partners

KFC, founded and also known as Kentucky

Fried Chicken, is a chain of fast food
restaurants based in Louisville, Kentucky. KFC
is a brand and operating segment, called a
"concept", of Yum! Brands since 1997 when
that company was spun off from PepsiCo as
Tricon Global Restaurants Inc.. The restaurants are known as Poulet Frit Kentucky or
PFK in the province of Quebec in Canada. In France, however, the chain is known as KFC.

KFC primarily sells chicken in form of pieces, wraps, salads and sandwiches. While its
primary focus is fried chicken, KFC also offers a line of roasted chicken products, side
dishes and desserts. Outside North America, KFC offers beef based products such as
hamburgers or kebabs, pork based products such as ribs and other regional fare.

The company was founded as Kentucky Fried Chicken by Colonel Harland Sanders in 1952,
though the idea of KFC's fried chicken actually goes back to 1930. The company adopted the
abbreviated form of its name in 1991. Starting in April 2007, the company began using its
original name, Kentucky Fried Chicken, for its signage, packaging and advertisements in the
United States as part of a new corporate re-branding program; newer and remodeled
restaurants will have the new logo and name while older stores will continue to use the
1980s signage. Additionally, Yum! continues to use the abbreviated name freely in its
advertising.

Born and raised in Henryville, Indiana, Sanders passed through several professions in his
lifetime. Sanders first served his fried chicken in 1930 in the midst of the Great Depression
at a gas station he owned in North Corbin, Kentucky. The dining area was named "Sanders
Court & Café" and was so successful that in 1936 Kentucky Governr Ruby Laffoon granted
Sanders the title of honorary Kentucky Colonel in recognition of his contribution to the
state's cuisine. The following year Sanders expanded his restaurant to 142 seats, and added
a motel he bought across the street. When Sanders prepared his chicken in his original
restaurant in North Corbin, he prepared the chicken in an iron skillet, which took about 30
minutes to do, too long for a restaurant operation. In 1939, Sanders altered the cooking
process for his fried chicken to use a pressure fryer, resulting in a greatly reduced cooking
time comparable to that of deep frying. In 1940 Sanders devised what came to be known as
his Original Recipe.

The Sanders Court & Café generally served travelers, often those headed to Florida, so
when the route planned in the 1950s for what would become Interstate 75 bypassed Corbin,
he sold his properties and traveled the U.S. to sell his chicken to restaurant owners. The first
to take him up on the offer was Pete Harman in South Salt Lake, Utah; together, they opened
the first "Kentucky Fried Chicken" outlet in 1952. By the early 1960s Kentucky Fried
Chicken was sold in over 600 franchised outlets in both the United States and Canada. One
of the longest-lived franchisees of the older Col. Sanders' chicken concept, as opposed to the
KFC chain, was the Kenny Kings chain. The company owned many Northern Ohio diner-
style restaurants, the last of which closed in 2004. Sanders sold the entire KFC franchising
operation in 1964 for $2 million USD Since that time, the chain has been sold three more
times, most recently to PepsiCo, which made it part of its Tricon Global Restaurants
division, which in turn was spun off in 1997, and has now been renamed to Yum! Brands.
Additionally, Colonel Sanders' nephew, Lee Cummings, took his own Kentucky Fried
Chicken franchises (and a chicken recipe of his own) and converted them to his own "spin-
off" restaurant chain, Lee's Famous Recipe Chicken.

Today, some of the older KFC restaurants have become famous in their own right. One such
restaurant is located in Marietta, Georgia. This store is notable for a 56-foot (17 m) tall sign
that looks like a chicken. The sign, known locally as the Big Chicken, was built for an earlier
fast-food restaurant on the site called Johnny Reb's Chick, Chuck and Shake. It is often used
as a travel reference point in the Atlanta area by locals and pilots.

The original handwritten recipe is kept locked away at the KFC corporate headquarters in
Louisville, Kentucky as a closely-guarded secret. Only two members within the Yum!
corporation know the recipe in its entirety.

KFC's specialty is fried chicken served in various forms. KFC's primary

product is pressure-fried pieces of chicken made with original recipe. The
other chicken offering ,extra crispy, is made using a garlic marinade and
double dipping the chicken in flour before deep frying in a standard
industrial kitchen type machine.

Kentucky Grilled Chicken - This marinated grilled chicken is targeted

towards health-conscious customers. It features marinated breasts,
thighs, drumsticks, and wings that are coated with the Original Recipe
seasonings before being grilled. It has less fat, calories, and sodium than
the Original Recipe fried chicken.[18] Introduced in April 2009.

KFC has two lines of sandwiches: its "regular" chicken sandwiches and its
Snackers line. The regular sandwiches are served on either a sesame
seed or corn dusted roll and are made from either whole breast fillets
(fried or roasted), chopped chicken in a sauce or fried chicken strips. The
Snackers line are value priced items that consist of chicken strips and
various toppings. In the UK, Australia and New Zealand, sandwiches are
referred to as "burgers"; there is the chicken fillet burger (a chicken
breast fillet coated in an original-recipe coating with salad garnish and
mayonnaise) and a Zinger Burger (as with the former but with a spicier
coating and salsa). Both of these are available as "tower" variants, which
include a slice of cheese and a hash brown.

A variety of smaller finger food products are available at KFC including

chicken strips, wings, nuggets and popcorn chicken. These products can
be ordered plain or with various sauces, including several types of
barbecue sauces and buffalo sauce. They also offer potato wedges.

Several pies have been made available from KFC. The Pot Pie is a savory
pie made with chicken, gravy and vegetables. In the second quarter of
2006, KFC introduced its variation on Shepherd's pie called the Famous
Bowl. Served in a plastic bowl, it is layered with mashed potatoes or rice,
gravy, corn, popcorn chicken, and cheese, and is served with a biscuit.
The bowl had been available at KFC's special test market store in
Louisville since the third quarter of 2005.

The KFC Twister is a wrap that consists of either chicken strips or roasted
chicken, tomato, lettuce and (pepper) mayonnaise wrapped in a tortilla.
In Europe, the Twister is sold in two varieties: 1) the Grilled Twister
(chicked strips), and 2) the Grilled Mexican twister/Spicy Toasted Twister
(UK) (chicken breast supplemented by tortilla chips and salsa, UK: adds
only salsa to pepper mayonnaise),.KFC Fillers are a 9" (22cm) sub,
available in four varieties over the summer period in Australia.Shish
kebab in several markets KFC sells kebabs.

English Gastronomy
English cuisine is shaped by the country's temperate climate, its island geography, and its
history. The latter includes interactions with other European countries, and the importing of
ingredients and ideas from places such as North America, China, and India during the time
of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration.

Since the Early Modern Period the food of England has historically been characterised by its
simplicity of approach, honesty of flavour, and a reliance on the high quality of natural
produce. This has resulted in a traditional cuisine which tended to veer from strong flavours,
such as garlic, and an avoidance of complex sauces which were commonly associated with
Catholic Continental political affiliations[1].

Traditional meals have ancient origins, such as bread and cheese, roasted and stewed
meats, meat and game pies, and freshwater and saltwater fish. The 14th century English
cookbook, the Forme of Cury, contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of
Richard II.

Other customary dishes, such as fish and chips, which were once urban street food eaten from
newspaper with salt and malt vinegar, and pies and sausages with mashed potatoes, onions, and
gravy, are now matched in popularity by curries from India and Bangladesh, and stir-fries based
on Chinese and Thai cooking. French cuisine and Italian cuisine, once considered suspect and
effeminate, are also now widely admired and adapted. Britain was also quick to adopt the
innovation of fast food from the United States, and continues to absorb culinary ideas from all
over the world while at the same time rediscovering its roots in sustainable rural agriculture.

The Sunday roast

The Sunday roast is perhaps the most common feature of English cooking. The Sunday dinner
traditionally includes roast potatoes accompanying a roasted joint of meat such as roast beef,
lamb, or a roast chicken and assorted vegetables, themselves generally roasted or boiled and
served with a gravy. Yorkshire pudding and gravy is now often served as an accompaniment to
the main course, although it was originally served first as a "filler". The practice of serving a
roast dinner on a Sunday is related to the elaborate preparation required, and to the housewife's
practice of performing the weekly wash on a Monday, when the cold remains of the roast made
an easily-assembled meal. An elaborate version of roast dinner is eaten at Christmas, with
almost every detail rigidly specified by tradition. Since its widespread availability after World
War II the most popular Christmas roast is turkey, superseding the goose of Dickens's time[2].
Game meats such as venison which were traditionally the domain of higher classes are
occasionally also eaten by those wishing to experiment with a wider choice of foods, due to their
promotion by celebrity chefs, although it is not usually eaten regularly in the average household.
 The full English breakfast (also known as "cooked breakfast" or "fried breakfast") also
remains a culinary classic. Its contents vary but it normally consists of a combination of
bacon, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, fried mushrooms,
sausages, eggs (fried, scrambled, poached or boiled) and other variations on these
ingredients and others. Hash browns are sometimes added, though this is not considered
traditional. In general, the domestic breakfast is less elaborate, and most "full English"
breakfasts are bought in cafés, having been replaced by cereals at home. A young
child's breakfast might include "soldiers", finger-shaped pieces of bread to be dipped in
the yolk of a lightly boiled egg.

English cuisine may suffer from a relatively poor international reputation when compared to
that of French cuisine and Italian cuisine. However, at least for the British, this perception of
English food may seem outdated: the poor reputation of industrially produced urban food in the
twentieth century did not ever really represent the quality or taste of food cooked in the home.
Traditional English food, with its emphasis on 'meat-and-two-veg' falls squarely into the north
European tradition extending from Northern Germany to the Low Countries and Scandinavia,
albeit with a marked French influence.

During the Middle Ages and Enlightenment, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation; its
decline can be traced back to the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the
populace during the Industrial Revolution. During this process Britain became a net importer of
food. British food also suffered heavily from effects of rationing during two World Wars (food
rationing finally ended in 1954), followed by the increasing trend toward industrialised mass
production of food. However, in Britain today there is a renewed fascination with the politics
and culture of food popularly led by celebrity chefs who seek to raising the standard of food
understanding in the UK.

In 2005 British cuisine reached new heights when 600 food critics writing for (British)
Restaurant magazine named 14 British restaurants among the 50 best restaurants in the world
with the number one spot going to The Fat Duck in Bray, Berkshire and its chef Heston
Blumenthal. In particular, the global reach of London has elevated it to the status of leading
centre of international cuisine. Meanwhile the heavy promotion of gastronomy as a post
industrial economic solution has lead to a proliferation of very fine quality producers across the
country.

Jamie Oliver
James Trevor 'Jamie' Oliver, MBE (born 27 May 1975), is an English chef and media
personality, well known for his role in campaigning against the use of processed foods in
national schools.

Oliver was brought up in Clavering, Essex, England, where his parents ran a pub, "The
Cricketers", and used to practice in the kitchen. He was educated at Newport Free Grammar
School. A dyslexic, he left school at 16 without any qualifications to attend Westminster Catering
College. His first job was as a pastry chef at Antonio Carluccio's Neal Yard restaurant, where
he first gained experience of Italian cuisine. Oliver then moved to The River Café, Fulham, as a
sous chef, where he was noticed by the BBC.

Personal life

On 24 June 2000, Oliver married former model Juliette Norton, also known as "Jools". The
couple met in 1993 and have three daughters: Poppy Honey (born in March 2002), Daisy
Boo (born 11 April 2003), and Petal Blossom Rainbow (born 3 April 2009).[3] Oliver
announced Petal's birth via Twitter. They live in Clavering, Essex[4].

Charity and campaigning

Wanting to create something positive using his wealth and fame, Oliver conceived and
established the Fifteen charity restaurant where he trained 15 disadvantaged young people to
work in the hospitality industry. Following the success of the original restaurant in London,
more Fifteens have opened around the globe: Fifteen Amsterdam opened in December, 2004,
Fifteen Cornwall in Newquay opened in May, 2006, and Fifteen Melbourne opened in
September, 2006, with Australian friend and fellow chef, Tobie Puttock. The process of creating
and opening the original Fifteen was documented in the series "Jamie's Kitchen".

Next, Oliver began a formal campaign to ban unhealthy food in British schools and get
children eating fresh, tasty, nutritious food instead. Oliver's efforts to bring radical change to
the school meals system, chronicled in the series "Jamie's School Dinners", challenged the
junk food culture by showing schools they could serve healthy, cost-efficient meals that kids
enjoyed eating.[5] Jamie's efforts brought the subject of school dinners to the political
forefront and changed the types of food served in schools.

In June, 2003, Oliver was appointed an MBE in the Queen's Birthday Honours List. He has
also written columns for The Times. A great proponent of fresh organic foods, Oliver was
named the most influential person in the UK hospitality industry when he topped the
inaugural CatererSearch 100 in May 2005. The list placed Oliver higher than Sir Francis
Mackay, the then-chairman of the contract catering giant, Compass Group, which Oliver had
soundly criticised in "Jamie's School Dinners". In 2006, Oliver dropped to 2nd on the list
behind fellow celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay.

Advertising

From 1998, Oliver was the public face of the Sainsbury's supermarket chain in the UK,
appearing on television and radio advertisements and in-store promotional material. The deal
earned him an estimated £1.2 million every year.[6] By 2004, the company had made 65
advertisements with Oliver, but this arrangement has not been without controversy. Oliver was
reported to have admitted that he doesn't use supermarkets, saying “For any chef, supermarkets
are like a factory. I buy from specialist growers, organic suppliers and farmers".[7] He was also
said to have been criticised by the Sainsbury's Chief, Justin King, when he slammed the "junk"
sold by supermarkets which ends up in the lunchboxes of millions of children. King reportedly
hit back, saying: "Dictating to people — on unleashing an expletive-filled tirade — is not the
way to get engagement."[8]
Oliver has also promoted a line of non-stick pans and cookware for Tefal, and has appeared
in Australian television commercials for Yalumba wines, using his catchphrase of "Lovely
Jubbly".

Well,todays receipe is LAMBA BALTI

This curry works just as well if you use skinless chicken thighs or casserole steak
instead of lamb. It's hot and sweet, so do yourself a favour and get stuck in.

To make the balti, marinate the lamb in the lime zest and juice and yogurt for 30 minutes.
Meanwhile, heat the sesame oil in a wok or frying pan and fry the sweet potato cubes until
just golden. Throw in the green beans and dates, and pour in the jar of balti sauce and the
stock. Toss in the marinated lamb pieces and cook for 15 to 20 minutes over a moderate
heat until cooked through.

To make the raita, mix the chilli, cucumber and lemon zest and juice with the crème fraîche,
and season to taste. Serve the balti garnished with a sprig or two of fresh coriander, and a
bowl of raita on the side. It's also delicious served on some basmati rice, cooked according
to packet instructions, along with some naan bread.

Current Day English Cuisine

Before moving to today’s cuisine, it should be noted that food rationing was introduced in
January 1940. It lasted through the Second World War and was extended to 1954. Foods
rationed included meat, fats, cheese, butter, milk and eggs. Bread, potatoes and vegetables
were never rationed. Although this led to an improvement in people's health, it’s also likely
to have contributed to English cooking’s bad reputation in the not too distant past, of being
uninspiring and tasteless. Maybe it just took a while to re-adjust.

Today however, English cooking is a gem of a cuisine. It has retained the core of its early
culinary history but constantly added to it. Roasts, savoury and sweet pies, stews and a
diverse selection of truly delectable (best in the world) puddings/desserts are still popular,
but so is Chinese and Indian food. All major cities and most towns have at least 1 Indian
restaurant or take-away (many have several) and the eating of curry has become an
institution. Italian Pasta or pizza is probably cooked and eaten by the majority of people
frequently, albeit often with eccentric English twists, and oriental flavourings and methods
of cooking have been incorporated into everyday cooking by many.

Culinary Education

United States training

Culinary education is available from a wide number of institutions offering diploma, associate,
and bachelor degree programs in culinary arts. Depending on the level of education, this can
take 1 to 4 years. An internship is often part of the curriculum. Regardless of the education
received, most professional kitchens follow the apprenticeship system, and most new cooks will
start at a lower level chef de partie position and work their way up.

European training

The training period for a chef is generally four years. consisting of 1st year commis, 2nd year
commis, and so on. The rate of pay is usually in accordance with the training status. Commis
chefs are usually placed in sections of the kitchen (eg. the starter/entrée section) under the
guidance of a chef de partie and are given relatively basic tasks. Ideally, over time, a commis
will spend a certain period in each section of the kitchen to learn the basics. Unaided, a commis
may work on the vegetable station of a kitchen.

The usual formal training period for a chef is two years

in catering college. They often spend the summer in
work placements. In some cases this is modified to 'day-
release' courses; a chef will work full-time in a kitchen
as an apprentice and then would attend catering
college on days off. These courses can last between one
to three years. Once the chef has completed the fourth
year in training, they usually graduate to demi-chef de
partie or chef de partie.

The standard uniform for a chef is as follows: hat, necktie, double-breasted jacket, apron,
houndstooth (checkered) trousers and steel-toe (or plastic) capped shoes or clogs. A chef's hat
(toque) is tall to allow for the circulation of air above the head and also provides an outlet for
heat. The hat will assist in the prevention of sweat dripping down the face. Skullcaps are an
alternative hat worn by chefs.

Neckties were originally worn to allow for the mopping of sweat from the face, but as this is now
against health and safety regulations (due to hygiene),
they are largely decorative.] The jacket is usually white
to repel heat and double-breasted to prevent serious
injuries from burns and scalds. The double breast serves
to conceal stains on the jacket as one side can be
rebuttoned over the other. An apron is worn to just
below knee-length also to assist in the prevention of burns due to spillage. If hot liquid is spilled
onto the apron, it can be quickly removed to minimize burns and scalds. Shoes and clogs are
hard wearing and with a steel-top cap to prevent injury from falling objects or knives. According
to some hygiene regulations, jewelery is not allowed apart from wedding bands.

Gastronomy is a culinary art for those to enjoy the

art of cooking.