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BROWNIAN MOTION
Brownian motion is the random movement of small particles suspended in a fluid (e.g
smoke particles in air, pollen grains in water). It provides experimental evidence of the
continuous random motion of molecules in liquids and gases.
To demonstrate Brownian motion in air, smoke particles are placed in
a glass cell which is illuminated with a beam of light from the side.
The smoke particles scatter the light shining on them. When they are
observed under a microscope they appear as bright specks (tiny
microscop
points) of light moving in a continuous and random way called
e
Brownian motion. These erratic movements of smoke particles
suggest that they are being bombarded continuously and randomly
(unevenly) from all sides by invisible air molecules in the glass cell.
Brownian motion is observable with only small particles such as
smoke particles because the molecules around them do not hit them
glass
equally from all directions, so resultant force makes them move. If a
cell
large particle is used, Brownian motion is less haphazard as the ligh
randomness of collisions between the large particle and the air t
particles tends to average out to zero and the large mass of the particle
air particles
changes its velocity less.
Note: (i) Smoke (graphite) particles are much larger than the water
(or air) molecules. The particles can be seen by the light they scatter
smoke
particle
but the molecules themselves are too small to be seen.
(ii) The size of the suspended particles and Brownian motion are
path
inversely proportional to each other due to greater inertia and less
uneven bombardment.
(iii) Brownian motion increases with increasing temperature of fluid
due to increase in k.e of fluid particles.
(iv) Brownian motion and diffusion in fluids both provide evidence of particles in continous
random motion.
IDEAL GASES
Gas Laws: Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas
For a fixed mass of gas,
Boyle's Law:
Charles Law:
Pressure Law (Gay-Lussac's Law):
for constant T
for constant p
for constant V
2
An ideal gas is a gas (theoretical model) which obeys the equation
at all
values of , and (a macroscopic description of ideal gas). No such gas exists but lowdensity gases obey closely the ideal gas equation. In general, as p
0 or T
or V
,
real gases behave ideally. For approximate calculations, the ideal gas equation can be used
with real gases.
, where m is the mass of one molecule, N is the number
of molecules and NA is the Avogadros number 6.02
1023 mol-1.
Deriving
: At s.t.p where T=273K and p=1.01
occupies 22.4 L or 22.4 10-3 m3 (molar volume Vm).
molar gas
NOTE: (1) In an ideal gas, potential energy of gas particles is zero as there are no
intermolecular forces. The internal energy U of an ideal gas is due only to the kinetic energy
of the random motion of its particles. It is dependent only on temperature of the gas and
number of molecules in the gas.
(2) If the pressure
and in two gas containers of volumes and respectively are
known, and the temperatures are
and
in the containers, the final pressure when the
containers are connected is given by
, where is the final temperature
of each container, since total number of moles of the two gases remains constant, that is
.
SUMMARY NOTES
An ideal gas is a gas that obeys the equation
, for an ideal gas of n moles
, for an ideal gas of N molecules
, for an ideal gas of mass m
Molar gas constant R= 8.31 JK-1 mol-1
Boltzmann constant
, where
and
3
Connected gas containers:
When the valve is opened,
the final pressure in the two containers = p
the total number of moles in the two gases
p1, V1,
n1, T1
valve
p2, V2,
n2, T2
remains constant at n
the final temperature in the two containers = T
4
where
5. Average velocity of molecules in a gas is zero as random positive and negative velocities
cancel out. So the root mean square speed (
) of the molecules is used as a
measure of average speed. Since cr.m.s is a kind of average speed, some molecules move
much faster than cr.m.s and some much slower
6. Random distribution of speeds in an ideal gas:
500C
No. of
molecules
1000C
2000C
cmp crms
1800
2400
-1
3000 speed c/ms
As the temperature of the gas increases, the distribution of molecular speeds within it
changes. At higher temperatures the average speed of the molecules increases (as internal
energy of gas is greater), although the number of molecules with the most probable speed
(cmp) decreases. As temperature increases, the curve flattens & the maximum shifts to
higher speeds.
KINETIC THEORY OF TEMPERATURE
The kinetic theory of an ideal gas is given by:
The ideal gas equation is given by:
, where
, where
gas constant per molecule called the Boltzmanns constant. So, Kinetic theory enables us to
calculate the microscopic quantities such as
of a gas from the macroscopic
measurements such as T of the gas.
The equation
gives the average translational k.e of only a monatomic
molecule in an ideal gas. It can also be written as:
or
The equation
implies that temperature is a direct measure of average kinetic
energy of the random translational motion of its particles. So, absolute zero (T = 0 K) can be
defined as the temperature at which particles have zero k.e. It also suggests that an increase in
temperature of a gas is due to an increase of molecular speed of the gas molecules.
The total translational KE of the molecules in one mole of a gas is given by
,where M is the molar mass.
The r.m.s speed of the molecules of one mole of an ideal gas is given by:
This expression shows that, at a given temperature, lighter molecules move faster on average
than heavier molecules.
For a given mass of gas,
For different gases at the same temperature T,
mass have smaller r.m.s speeds.
For one mole of an ideal gas at temperature T, the total average translational k.e of the
molecules:
For n moles of an ideal gas at temperature T, the total average translational k.e of the
molecules:
is given by:
and
is not
Simplifying assumptions:
3. Elastic collisions
4. Gas pressure is due to collisions between 4. Time of collision negligible compared with
gas molecules and walls of container
6
EQUATIONS:
or
or
or
and
gives
or
DERIVATION of
Consider a gas molecule of mass in a cubic box of side L travelling at
speed cx along the x-direction.
Change in momentum when a molecule collides with the right-hand wall
cx
Time between a collision of a molecule with the right-hand wall and its
next collision with the same wall
-cx
, where
and
L3 = V, volume of cubic box.
,
c
Because the motion is random and is large, the
molecules are equally likely to be moving in any of
the 3 directions. So
and
. Hence
cz
cy
cx
NOTE:
force
on wall
average
force
wall
In oblique collisions with the wall, only
the component of momentum at 90 to the
wall changes.
time