21.04.2016.

WavepowerWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Wavepower
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Wavepoweristhetransportofenergybywindwaves,andthecaptureofthatenergytodouseful
workforexample,electricitygeneration,waterdesalination,orthepumpingofwater(into
reservoirs).Amachineabletoexploitwavepowerisgenerallyknownasawaveenergy
converter(WEC).
Wavepowerisdistinctfromthediurnalfluxoftidalpowerandthesteadygyreofoceancurrents.
Wavepowergenerationisnotcurrentlyawidelyemployedcommercialtechnology,although
therehavebeenattemptstouseitsinceatleast1890.[1]In2008,thefirstexperimentalwavefarm
wasopenedinPortugal,attheAguadouraWavePark.[2]

Contents
1 Physicalconcepts
1.1 Wavepowerformula
1.2 Waveenergyandwaveenergyflux
1.3 Deepwatercharacteristicsandopportunities
2 History
3 Moderntechnology
3.1 Pointabsorberbuoy
3.2 Surfaceattenuator
3.3 Oscillatingwavesurgeconverter
3.4 Oscillatingwatercolumn
3.5 Overtoppingdevice
4 Listofdevices
4.1 EnvironmentalEffects
5 Potential
6 Challenges
7 Wavefarms
7.1 Portugal
7.2 UnitedKingdom
7.3 Australia
7.4 UnitedStates
8 Patents
9 Seealso
10 Notes
11 References
12 Furtherreading
13 Externallinks

PelamisWaveEnergyConverteronsiteatthe
EuropeanMarineEnergyCentre(EMEC),in2008

AzuraattheUSNavysWaveEnergyTestSite
(WETS)onOahu

SINNPowerWaveEnergyConverter
(http://www.sinnpower.com)

Physicalconcepts
Seeenergy,power,andworkformoreinformationontheseimportantphysicalconcepts.
Seewindwaveformoreinformationonoceanwaves.
Wavesaregeneratedbywindpassingoverthesurfaceofthesea.Aslongasthewavespropagate
slowerthanthewindspeedjustabovethewaves,thereisanenergytransferfromthewindtothe
waves.Bothairpressuredifferencesbetweentheupwindandtheleesideofawavecrest,aswell
asfrictiononthewatersurfacebythewind,makingthewatertogointotheshearstresscauses
thegrowthofthewaves.[4]
Waveheightisdeterminedbywindspeed,thedurationoftimethewindhasbeenblowing,fetch
(thedistanceoverwhichthewindexcitesthewaves)andbythedepthandtopographyofthe
seafloor(whichcanfocusordispersetheenergyofthewaves).Agivenwindspeedhasa
matchingpracticallimitoverwhichtimeordistancewillnotproducelargerwaves.Whenthis
limithasbeenreachedtheseaissaidtobe"fullydeveloped".

Whenanobjectbobsupanddownonarippleina
pond,itfollowsapproximatelyanelliptical
trajectory.

Ingeneral,largerwavesaremorepowerfulbutwavepowerisalsodeterminedbywavespeed,wavelength,andwaterdensity.
Oscillatorymotionishighestatthesurfaceanddiminishesexponentiallywithdepth.However,forstandingwaves(clapotis)nearareflectingcoast,
waveenergyisalsopresentaspressureoscillationsatgreatdepth,producingmicroseisms.[4]Thesepressurefluctuationsatgreaterdeptharetoo
smalltobeinterestingfromthepointofviewofwavepower.
Thewavespropagateontheoceansurface,andthewaveenergyisalsotransportedhorizontallywiththegroupvelocity.Themeantransportrateof
thewaveenergythroughaverticalplaneofunitwidth,paralleltoawavecrest,iscalledthewaveenergyflux(orwavepower,whichmustnotbe
confusedwiththeactualpowergeneratedbyawavepowerdevice).

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Indeepwaterwherethewaterdepthislargerthanhalfthewavelength,thewaveenergyfluxis[a]

withPthewaveenergyfluxperunitofwavecrestlength,Hm0thesignificantwaveheight,Tethe
waveenergyperiod,thewaterdensityandgtheaccelerationbygravity.Theaboveformula
statesthatwavepowerisproportionaltothewaveenergyperiodandtothesquareofthewave
height.Whenthesignificantwaveheightisgiveninmetres,andthewaveperiodinseconds,the
resultisthewavepowerinkilowatts(kW)permetreofwavefrontlength.[5][6][7][8]
Example:Considermoderateoceanswells,indeepwater,afewkmoffacoastline,withawave
heightof3mandawaveenergyperiodof8seconds.Usingtheformulatosolveforpower,we
get

meaningthereare36kilowattsofpowerpotentialpermeterofwavecrest.
Inmajorstorms,thelargestwavesoffshoreareabout15metershighandhaveaperiodofabout
15seconds.Accordingtotheaboveformula,suchwavescarryabout1.7MWofpoweracross
eachmetreofwavefront.
Aneffectivewavepowerdevicecapturesasmuchaspossibleofthewaveenergyflux.Asa
result,thewaveswillbeoflowerheightintheregionbehindthewavepowerdevice.

Motionofaparticleinanoceanwave.
A=Atdeepwater.Theellipticalmotionoffluid
particlesdecreasesrapidlywithincreasingdepth
belowthesurface.
B=Atshallowwater(oceanfloorisnowatB).
Theellipticalmovementofafluidparticleflattens
withdecreasingdepth.
1=Propagationdirection.
2=Wavecrest.
3=Wavetrough.

Waveenergyandwaveenergyflux
Inaseastate,theaverage(mean)energydensityperunitareaofgravitywavesonthewater
surfaceisproportionaltothewaveheightsquared,accordingtolinearwavetheory:[4][9]
[b][10]
whereEisthemeanwaveenergydensityperunithorizontalarea(J/m2),thesumofkineticand
potentialenergydensityperunithorizontalarea.Thepotentialenergydensityisequaltothe
kineticenergy,[4]bothcontributinghalftothewaveenergydensityE,ascanbeexpectedfromthe
equipartitiontheorem.Inoceanwaves,surfacetensioneffectsarenegligibleforwavelengths
aboveafewdecimetres.
Asthewavespropagate,theirenergyistransported.Theenergytransportvelocityisthegroup
velocity.Asaresult,thewaveenergyflux,throughaverticalplaneofunitwidthperpendicularto
thewavepropagationdirection,isequalto:[11][4]

withcgthegroupvelocity(m/s).Duetothedispersionrelationforwaterwavesundertheaction
ofgravity,thegroupvelocitydependsonthewavelength,orequivalently,onthewaveperiodT.
Further,thedispersionrelationisafunctionofthewaterdepthh.Asaresult,thegroupvelocity
behavesdifferentlyinthelimitsofdeepandshallowwater,andatintermediatedepths:[4][9]

Photographoftheellipticaltrajectoriesofwater
particlesunderaprogressiveandperiodic
surfacegravitywaveinawaveflume.Thewave
conditionsare:meanwaterdepthd=2.50ft
(0.76m),waveheightH=0.339ft(0.103m),
wavelength=6.42ft(1.96m),period
T=1.12s. [3]

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Propertiesofgravitywavesonthesurfaceofdeepwater,shallowwaterandatintermediatedepth,accordingto
linearwavetheory
quantity

symbol

shallow
deepwater
water
units
(h>) (h<0.05
)

phasevelocity

m/s

group
velocity[c]

m/s

ratio

wavelength

intermediatedepth
(allandh)

forgivenperiodT,thesolutionof:

general
waveenergy
density

J/m2

waveenergy
flux

W/
m

angular
frequency

rad/
s

wavenumber

rad/
m

Deepwatercharacteristicsandopportunities
Deepwatercorrespondswithawaterdepthlargerthanhalfthewavelength,whichisthecommonsituationintheseaandocean.Indeepwater,
longerperiodwavespropagatefasterandtransporttheirenergyfaster.Thedeepwatergroupvelocityishalfthephasevelocity.Inshallowwater,for
wavelengthslargerthanabouttwentytimesthewaterdepth,asfoundquiteoftennearthecoast,thegroupvelocityisequaltothephasevelocity.[12]

History
Thefirstknownpatenttouseenergyfromoceanwavesdatesbackto1799,andwasfiledinParisbyGirardandhisson.[13]Anearlyapplicationof
wavepowerwasadeviceconstructedaround1910byBochauxPraceiquetolightandpowerhishouseatRoyan,nearBordeauxinFrance.[14]It
appearsthatthiswasthefirstoscillatingwatercolumntypeofwaveenergydevice.[15]From1855to1973therewerealready340patentsfiledinthe
UKalone.[13]
ModernscientificpursuitofwaveenergywaspioneeredbyYoshioMasuda'sexperimentsinthe1940s.[16]Hehastestedvariousconceptsofwave
energydevicesatsea,withseveralhundredunitsusedtopowernavigationlights.Amongthesewastheconceptofextractingpowerfromtheangular
motionatthejointsofanarticulatedraft,whichwasproposedinthe1950sbyMasuda.[17]
Arenewedinterestinwaveenergywasmotivatedbytheoilcrisisin1973.Anumberofuniversityresearchersreexaminedthepotentialtogenerate
energyfromoceanwaves,amongwhomnotablywereStephenSalterfromtheUniversityofEdinburgh,KjellBudalandJohannesFalnesfrom
NorwegianInstituteofTechnology(nowmergedintoNorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology),MichaelE.McCormickfromU.S.Naval
Academy,DavidEvansfromBristolUniversity,MichaelFrenchfromUniversityofLancaster,NickNewmanandC.C.MeifromMIT.
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StephenSalter's1974inventionbecameknownasSalter'sduckornoddingduck,althoughitwasofficiallyreferredtoastheEdinburghDuck.In
smallscalecontrolledtests,theDuck'scurvedcamlikebodycanstop90%ofwavemotionandcanconvert90%ofthattoelectricitygiving81%
efficiency.[18]
Inthe1980s,astheoilpricewentdown,waveenergyfundingwasdrasticallyreduced.Nevertheless,afewfirstgenerationprototypesweretestedat
sea.Morerecently,followingtheissueofclimatechange,thereisagainagrowinginterestworldwideforrenewableenergy,includingwave
energy.[19]
Theworld'sfirstmarineenergytestfacilitywasestablishedin2003tokickstartthedevelopmentofawaveandtidalenergyindustryintheUK.
BasedinOrkney,Scotland,theEuropeanMarineEnergyCentre(EMEC)(http://www.emec.org.uk/)hassupportedthedeploymentofmorewaveand
tidalenergydevicesthanatanyothersinglesiteintheworld.EMECprovidesavarietyoftestsitesinrealseaconditions.It'sgridconnectedwave
testsiteissituatedatBilliaCroo,onthewesternedgeoftheOrkneymainland,andissubjecttothefullforceoftheAtlanticOceanwithseasashigh
as19metresrecordedatthesite.WaveenergydeveloperscurrentlytestingatthecentreincludeAquamarinePower
(http://www.aquamarinepower.com/),PelamisWavePower(http://www.pelamiswave.com/),ScottishPowerRenewables
(http://www.emec.org.uk/aboutus/waveclients/scottishpowerrenewables/)andWello(http://www.wello.eu/).[20]

Moderntechnology
Wavepowerdevicesaregenerallycategorizedbythemethodusedtocapturetheenergyofthewaves,bylocationandbythepowertakeoff
system.Locationsareshoreline,nearshoreandoffshore.Typesofpowertakeoffinclude:hydraulicram,elastomerichosepump,pumptoshore,
hydroelectricturbine,airturbine,[21]andlinearelectricalgenerator.Whenevaluatingwaveenergyasatechnologytype,itisimportanttodistinguish
betweenthefourmostcommonapproaches:pointabsorberbuoys,surfaceattenuators,oscillatingwatercolumns,andovertoppingdevices.

Pointabsorberbuoy
Thisdevicefloatsonthesurfaceofthewater,heldinplacebycablesconnectedtotheseabed.
Buoysusetheriseandfallofswellstodrivehydraulicpumpsandgenerateelectricity.EMF
generatedbyelectricaltransmissioncablesandacousticofthesedevicesmaybeaconcernfor
marineorganisms.Thepresenceofthebuoysmayaffectfish,marinemammals,andbirdsas
potentialminorcollisionriskandroostingsites.Potentialalsoexistsforentanglementinmooring
lines.Energyremovedfromthewavesmayalsoaffecttheshoreline,resultingina
recommendationthatsitesremainaconsiderabledistancefromtheshore.[22]

Genericwaveenergyconcepts:1.Pointabsorber,2.
Attenuator,3.Oscillatingwavesurgeconverter,4.
Oscillatingwatercolumn,5.Overtoppingdevice,6.
Submergedpressuredifferential

Surfaceattenuator
Thesedevicesactsimilarlytopointabsorberbuoys,withmultiplefloatingsegmentsconnectedtooneanotherandareorientedperpendicularto
incomingwaves.Aflexingmotioniscreatedbyswellsthatdrivehydraulicpumpstogenerateelectricity.Environmentaleffectsaresimilartothoseof
pointabsorberbuoys,withanadditionalconcernthatorganismscouldbepinchedinthejoints.[22]

Oscillatingwavesurgeconverter
Thesedevicestypicallyhaveoneendfixedtoastructureortheseabedwhiletheotherendisfreetomove.Energyiscollectedfromtherelative
motionofthebodycomparedtothefixedpoint.Oscillatingwavesurgeconvertersoftencomeintheformoffloats,flaps,ormembranes.
Environmentalconcernsincludeminorriskofcollision,artificialreefingnearthefixedpoint,EMFeffectsfromsubseacables,andenergyremoval
effectingsedimenttransport.[22]Someofthesedesignsincorporateparabolicreflectorsasameansofincreasingthewaveenergyatthepointof
capture.Thesecapturesystemsusetheriseandfallmotionofwavestocaptureenergy.[23]Oncethewaveenergyiscapturedatawavesource,power
mustbecarriedtothepointofuseortoaconnectiontotheelectricalgridbytransmissionpowercables.[24]

Oscillatingwatercolumn
OscillatingWaterColumndevicescanbelocatedonshoreorindeeperwatersoffshore.Withanairchamberintegratedintothedevice,swells
compressairinthechambersforcingairthroughanairturbinetocreateelectricity.[25]Significantnoiseisproducedasairispushedthroughthe
turbines,potentiallyaffectingbirdsandothermarineorganismswithinthevicinityofthedevice.Thereisalsoconcernaboutmarineorganisms
gettingtrappedorentangledwithintheairchambers.[22]

Overtoppingdevice
Overtoppingdevicesarelongstructuresthatusewavevelocitytofillareservoirtoagreaterwaterlevelthanthesurroundingocean.Thepotential
energyinthereservoirheightisthencapturedwithlowheadturbines.Devicescanbeeitheronshoreorfloatingoffshore.Floatingdeviceswillhave
environmentalconcernsaboutthemooringsystemaffectingbenthicorganisms,organismsbecomingentangled,orEMFeffectsproducedfromsubsea
cables.Thereisalsosomeconcernregardinglowlevelsofturbinenoiseandwaveenergyremovalaffectingthenearfieldhabitat.[22]

Listofdevices
Thetablecontainsdescriptionsofproposedwavepowersystems,forthoseimplementedseeListofwavepowerstations

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Device

WavepowerWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Proponent

Country
oforigin

Capture
method

Location

Power
takeoff

Year

Notes
Albaternareworkingwiththeirthirditerationdeviceswitha14week
deploymentonaScottishfishfarmsitein2014,[26]anda6unitarray

AlbaternWaveNET

Albatern

Scotland,
UK

MultiPoint
Absorber
array

AnacondaWaveEnergy
Converter

CheckmateSeaEnergy.[25]

UK

Surface
following
attenuator

AquaBuOY

FinaveraWindEnergy,
laterSSERenewables
Limited

Ireland
Canada
Scotland

Buoy

AWSiii

CCell

CETOWavePower

AWSOceanEnergy

ZybaRenewables

Carnegie

UK
(Scotland)

United
Kingdom

Surface
following
attenuator?

Buoy

Denmark

Surface
following
attenuator

Crestwing

CrestwingApS

CycloidalWaveEnergy
Converter

AtargisEnergy
Corporation

USA

FlanSea(FlandersElectricity
fromtheSea)

FlanSea

IslayLIMPET

Offshore

Offshore

Hydroelectric
turbine

2008

Intheearlystagesofdevelopment,thedeviceisa200metres(660ft)long
rubbertubewhichistetheredunderwater.Passingwaveswillinstigatea
waveinsidethetube,whichwillthenpropagatesdownitswalls,drivinga
turbineatthefarend.[29][30]

Offshore

Hydroelectric
turbine

2003

In2009FinaveraRenewablessurrendereditswaveenergypermitsfrom
FERC.[27]InJuly2010Finaveraannouncedthatithadenteredintoa
definitiveagreementtosellallassetsandintellectualpropertyrelatedtothe
AquaBuOYwaveenergytechnology.[31][32][33][34]

2010

TheAWSIIIisafloatingtoroidalvessel.Ithasrubbermembranesonthe
outerfaceswhichdeformaswavespass,movingairinsidechambers
whichinturndriveairturbinestogenerateelectricity.AWSOceantesteda
1/9scalemodelinLochNessin2010,andarenowworkingonafullsized
versionwhichwillbe60macrossandshouldgenerate2.5MW.Itis
envisagethesewillbeinstalledinoffshorefarmsmooredinaround100m
depthofwater.[35][36][37][38]

2015

CCellisadirectionalWECconsistingofacurvedflapoperatingmainlyin
thesurgedirectionofwavepropagation.Beingcurvedgivesthedevice
twoadvantagesoverflatpaddleoscillatingwavesurgeconverters:the
energyisdissipatedoveralongarcreducingthewaveheight,andthe
shapecutsthroughthewaveswhichreducesturbulenceontheboundaries.
Inaddition,unlikeotheroscillatingwavesurgeconverters,thelatest
versionofCCellisdesignedtofloatjustunderthewatersurface,
maximisingtheavailablewaveenergy.Thedevelopersclaimthismakes
CCelltheworld'smostefficientwaveenergydevice.[39]

1999

Asof2008,thedeviceisbeingtestedoffFremantle,WesternAustralia,
[35]thedeviceconsistsofasinglepistonpumpattachedtotheseafloor
withafloat(buoy)tetheredtothepiston.Wavescausethefloattoriseand
fall,generatingpressurizedwater,whichispipedtoanonshorefacilityto
drivehydraulicgeneratorsorrunreverseosmosiswater
desalination.[40][41]

2011

Thedeviceconsistsoftwofloatsconnectedbyahinge.Itusesatmospheric
pressureactingonitslargeareatosticktotheoceansurface.Thisallowsit
tofollowthewaves.Motionofthetwofloatsrelativetoeachotheris
transferredtoelectricitybyamechanicalpowertakeoffsystem.Asof
2014,thereisa1:5scaleprototypethathasbeentestedintheseanear
Frederikshavn.[42]

Offshore

Oscillating
Nearshore&
wavesurge
offshore
converter

Australia

deploymentforfullcharacterisationatKishornPortin2015.[27]Initially
workingwithsmallerdevicesandarrays,thecompanyistargetingoffgrid
marketswheredieselgenerationispresentlyusedinoffshorefishfarms,
coastalcommunitiesandlongendurancescientificplatforms.
Demonstrationprojectsareunderdevelopmentforfishfarmsitesandan
islandcommunity.[28]

Hydraulic/
electric/DC

Offshore

Airturbine

Hydraulic

Pumpto
shore

2010

Offshore

Mechanical

Fully
Submerged
Wave
Termination
Device

Offshore

DirectDrive
Generator

2006

Belgium

Buoy

Offshore

Hydroelectric
turbine

2010

IslayLIMPET

Scotland

oscillating
water
column

Onshore

Airturbine

1991

LysekilProject

UppsalaUniversity

Sweden

Buoy

Offshore

Linear
generator

2002

OceanGrazer

UniversityofGroningen

The
Netherlands

Buoy

Offshore

hydraulic
multipiston
pump

2011

Inthetanktestingstageofdevelopment,thedeviceisa20metres(66ft)
diameterfullysubmergedrotorwithtwohydrofoils.Numericalstudies
haveshowngreaterthan99%wavepowerterminationcapabilities.[43]
Thesewereconfirmedbyexperimentsinasmall2Dwaveflume[44]as
wellasalargeoffshorewavebasin.
ApointabsorberbuoydevelopedforuseinthesouthernNorthSea
conditions.[31][32][33]Itworksbymeansofacablethatduetothe
bobbingeffectofthebuoy,generateselectricity.[45][46][47]
500kWshorelinedeviceusesanoscillatingwatercolumntodriveairin
andoutofapressurechamberthroughaWellsturbine.[48][49][50]
Directdrivenlineargeneratorplacedontheseabed,connectedtoabuoyat
thesurfaceviaaline.Themovementsofthebuoywilldrivethetranslator
inthegenerator.[51][52]
Waveenergyiscapturedwithmultiplehydraulicpistonsplacedona
floater.Mainadvantagesithasoverothersystemsisthatitadaptsitselfto
anywave,andthushasveryhighefficiency(70%).[53]
WaveenergyiscapturedwithanOscillatingWaterColumnandelectricity
isgeneratedbyairflowingthroughaturbine.Thethirdmediumscale
demonstrationunitnearPortKembla,NSW,Australia,amediumscale
systemthatwasgridconnectedinearly2010.[54]

Oceanlinx

Oceanlinx

Australia

OWC

Nearshore&
Offshore

airturbine

1997

InMay2010,thewaveenergygeneratorsnappedfromitsmooringlinesin
extremeseasandsankonPortKembla'seasternbreakwater.[55]
Afullscalecommercialnearshoreunit,greenWAVE,withacapacityof
1MWwillbeinstalledoffPortMacDonnellinSouthAustraliabeforethe
endof2013.[56]

Oceanus2

SeatricityLtd
(http://www.Seatricity.com)

UK

Buoy

Nearshore
andOffshore

Pumpto
shore

2007

TheOceanus2deviceisthefirstandonlydeviceyettohavebeen
deployedandtestedattheUK'sWaveHubtestsiteasafullscaleprototype
(20142016).The3rdgenerationdeviceconsistsofasinglepiston
patentedpumpmountedonagimbalandsupportedbyanaluminium12m
diameterbuoy/float.Thepumpisthentetheredtotheseabed.Verticalwave
motionisusedtopumpseawatertohydraulicpressureswhichisthen
pipedtoanonshorefacilitytodrivehydraulicgeneratorsorrunreverse
osmosiswaterdesalination.Multipledevicesdeployedinarraysprovide
modularity,resilienceandredundancy.
InSeptember2009completeda2yearseatrialinonequarterscaleform.

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OEbuoy

OWEL

Oysterwaveenergy
converter

WavepowerWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
OceanEnergy

OceanWaveEnergyLtd

AquamarinePower

Ireland

Buoy

UK

WaveSurge
Converter

UK(Scots
Irish)

Oscillating
wavesurge
converter

Offshore

Airturbine

Offshore

Airturbine

Nearshore

Pumpto
shore
(hydro
electric
turbine)

2006

TheOEbuoyhasonlyonemovingpart.[57]

2013

Thesurgingmotionoflongperiodwavescompressesairinataperedduct
whichisthenusedtodriveanairturbinemountedontopofthefloating
vessel.[58]Thedesignofafullscaledemonstrationprojectwascompleted
inSpring2013,readyforfabrication.[59]

2005

Ahingedmechanicalflapattachedtotheseabedcapturestheenergyof
nearshorewaves.Itdriveshydraulicpistonstodeliverhighpressurewater
toanonshoreturbinewhichgenerateselectricity.InNovember2009,the
firstfullscaledemonstratorOysterbeganproducingpoweratthe
EuropeanMarineEnergyCentre'swavetestsiteatBilliaCrooinOrkney.
In2015,Aquamarineenteredadminisration.[60]
Aswavespassalongaseriesofsemisubmergedcylindricalsections
linkedbyhingedjoints,thesectionsmoverelativetooneanother.This
motionactivateshydrauliccylinderswhichpumphighpressureoilthrough
hydraulicmotorswhichdriveelectricalgenerators.[61]Thefirstworking
Pelamismachinewasinstalledin2004attheEuropeanMarineEnergy
Center(EMEC)inOrkney.Here,itbecametheworld'sfirstoffshorewave
energydevicetogenerateelectricityintoanationalgridanywhereinthe
world.[62]ThelaterP2,ownedbyE.ON,startedgridconnectedtestsoff
Orkneyin2010.[63]

PelamisWaveEnergy
Converter

PelamisWavePower

UK
(Scottish)

Surface
following
attenuator

Offshore

Hydraulic

1998

AgucadouraWaveFarminPortugal,first
commercialapplicationofthePelamisdesign
(2008)

ThePacificNorthwestGeneratingCooperativeisfundingconstructionofa
commercialwavepowerparkatReedsport,Oregonusingbuoys.[64]The
riseandfallofthewavesmovesarackandpinionwithinthebuoyand
spinsagenerator.[65]Theelectricityistransmittedbyasubmerged
transmissionline.Thebuoysaredesignedtobeinstalledonetofivemiles
(8km)offshoreinwater100to200feet(60m)deep.[66]

PowerBuoy

OceanPowerTechnologies

US

Buoy

Offshore

Hydroelectric
turbine

1997

PB150PowerBuoywithpeakratedpoweroutput
of150kW

Thesemachinesworkbyextractingenergyfromtherelativemotion
betweenoneUpperMemberandoneLowerMember,followingan
innovativemethodwhichearnedthecompanyoneUKTIResearch&
DevelopmentAwardin2011.[67]Afirstgenerationfullscaleprototypefor
thissolutionwastestedoffshorein2010,[68][69]andasecondgeneration
R38/50kW,R115/150kW

40SouthEnergy

UK

Underwater
attenuator

Offshore

Electrical
conversion

2010

fullscaleprototypewastestedoffshoreduring2011.[70]In2012thefirst
unitsweresoldtoclientsinvariouscountries,fordeliverywithinthe
year.[71][72]Thefirstreducedscaleprototypesweretestedoffshoreduring
2007,butthecompanydecidedtoremainina"stealthmode"untilMay
2010[73]andisnowrecognizedasoneofthetechnologicalinnovatorsin
thesector.[74]ThecompanyinitiallyconsideredinstallingatWaveHubin
2012,[75]butthatprojectisonholdfornow.TheR38/50kWisratedat
50kWwhiletheR115/150kWisratedat150kW.

SeaPower(company)

SeapowerLtd.

Ireland

Surface
following
attenuator

SDESeaWavesPowerPlant

SDEEnergyLtd.

Israel

Buoy

Offshoreor ROPlantor
Nearshore DirectDrive

Nearshore

Hydraulic
ram

2008

SeaPowercarryoutongoingtanktestinganddevelopment.Currently
reducingLCOEtargetsfurther.[76][77]|

2010

Abreakwaterbasedwavemachine,thisdeviceisclosetotheshoreand
utilizestheverticalpumpingmotionofthebuoysforoperatinghydraulic
rams,therebypoweringgenerators.Oneversionranfrom2008to2010,at
peakproducing40KWh.[78]
SeabasedIndustryABincooperationwithFortumandtheSwedish

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Seabased
(http://www.Seabased.com)

SeaRaser

WavepowerWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
SeabasedAB.

AlvinSmith(Dartmouth
WaveEnergy)\Ecotricity

Sweden

UK

Buoy

Buoy

Offshore

Nearshore

Linear
generatoron
seabed

Hydraulic
ram

2015

2008

EnergyAgencyisdevelopingitsfirstwavepowerpark,northwestof
SmgenontheSwedishWestcoast.Thefirstphaseofthewavepower
parkwasdeployedduringtheweekcommencing23March2015and
comprises36waveenergyconvertersandonesubstation.r.[76][79]
Consistingofapistonpump(s)attachedtotheseafloorwithafloat(buoy)
tetheredtothepiston.Wavescausethefloattoriseandfall,generating
pressurizedwater,whichispipedtoresoviorsonshorewhichthendrive
hydraulicgenerators.[80][81]
Itiscurrently"undergoingextensivemodellingaheadofaseatrial"[82]
TheSINNPowerWECconsistsofavariablenumberofbuoyswhichare
attachedtoaninflexiblesteelframe.Electricityisgeneratedwhentheup
anddownmotionofthewavesliftsthebuoys.Thefloatingbodieslifta
rodthatrunsthroughageneratorunit.[83]
Afullsizedprototypewillbetestedinlate2016,marketentryisplanned
for2017.

SINNPowerWaveEnergy
Converter
(http://www.sinnpower.com/)

SINNPowerGmbH

Germany

Buoy

Offshore

Linear
generator

2014

SINNPowerWaveEnergyConverter

UnnamedOceanWave
PoweredGenerator

SRIInternational

US

Buoy

Offshore

Electroactive
polymer
artificial
muscle

2004

Atypeofwavebuoys,builtusingspecialpolymers,isbeingdevelopedby
SRIInternational.[84][85]

Wavebob

Wavebob

Ireland

Buoy

Offshore

DirectDrive
PowerTake
off

1999

Wavebobhaveconductedsomeoceantrials,aswellasextensivetanktests.
Itisanoceangoingheavingbuoy,withasubmergedtankwhichcaptures
additionalmassofseawaterforaddedpowerandtunability,andasasafety
feature(Tank"Venting")

WaveEL

Waves4Power

Sweden

Buoy

Offshore

Hydroelectric
turbine

2010

Waves4PowerisadeveloperofbuoybasedOWEC(OffshoreWave
EnergyConverter)systems.Thereareplanstoinstallademonstrationplant
in2015atRundetestsite(Norway).Thiswillbeconnectedviasubsea
cabletotheshorebasedpowergrid.[86][87]

2013

Theideabehindthisconceptistoreducethemooringmeansforwave
energystructures.Wavepistonsystemsuseverticalplatestoexploitthe
horizontalmovementinoceanwaves.Byattachingseveralplatesinparallel
onasinglestructuretheforcesappliedonthestructurebytheplateswill
tendtoneutralizeeachother.Thisneutralizationreducestherequired
mooringmeans.Forcecancellationisthetermusedbytheinventorsof
thetechnologytodescribetheneutralizationofforces.Testandnumerical
modelsprovethatforcecancellationreducesthemeansformooringand
structureto1/10.Thestructureisasteelwirestretchedbetweentwo
mooringpoints.Thewireisastrongandflexiblestructurewellsuitedfor
offshoreuse.Themooringisslackmooring.Whentheverticalplates
movebackandforththeyproducepressurizedwater.Thepressurized
wateristransportedtoaturbinethroughPEpipes.Acentralturbinestation
thenconvertsittoelectricpower.Calculationsonthecurrentdesignshow
capitalcostofEUR0,89perinstalledwatt.

Wavepiston

WavepistonApS

Denmark

Oscillating
wavesurge
converter

Nearshore

Pumpto
shore
(hydro
electric
turbine)

WiththeWaveDragonwaveenergyconverterlargewingreflectorsfocus
wavesuparampintoanoffshorereservoir.Thewaterreturnstotheocean
bytheforceofgravityviahydroelectricgenerators.

WaveDragon

ErikFriisMadsen

Denmark

Overtopping
device

Offshore

Hydroelectric
turbine

2003

WaveDragonseenfromreflector,prototype1:4

TheWaveRollerisaplateanchoredontheseabottombyitslowerpart.
Thebackandforthmovementofsurgemovestheplate.Thekineticenergy
transferredtothisplateiscollectedbyapistonpump.Fullscale
demonstrationprojectbuiltoffPortugalin2009.[88][89]

WaveRoller(http://aw
energy.com/about
waveroller/waveroller
concept)

AWEnergyOy(http://aw
energy.com)

Finland

Oscillating
wavesurge
converter

Nearshore

Hydraulic

1994

WaveRollerfarminstallationinPeniche,
Portugal.August2012

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TheWavestarmachinedrawsenergyfromwavepowerwithfloatsthatrise
andfallwiththeupanddownmotionofwaves.Thefloatsareattachedby
armstoaplatformthatstandsonlegssecuredtotheseafloor.Themotion
ofthefloatsistransferredviahydraulicsintotherotationofagenerator,
producingelectricity.WaveStarhasbeentestinga1:10machinesince
2005inNissumBredning,Denmark,itwastakenoutofdutyin
November2011.A1:2WaveStarmachineisinplaceinHanstholmwhich
hasproducedelectricitytothegridsinceSeptember2009.[90]

WaveStar

WaveStarA/S

Denmark

Multipoint
absorber

Offshore

Hydroelectric
turbine

2000

WaveStarmachineinHanstholm.

Amorecompletelistofwaveenergydevelopersismaintainedhere:Waveenergydevelopers(http://www.emec.org.uk/marineenergy/wave
developers/)[76]

EnvironmentalEffects
Commonenvironmentalconcernsassociatedwithmarineenergydevelopmentsinclude:
Theriskofmarinemammalsandfishbeingstruckbytidalturbineblades
TheeffectsofEMFandunderwaternoiseemittedfromoperatingmarineenergydevices
Thephysicalpresenceofmarineenergyprojectsandtheirpotentialtoalterthebehaviorofmarinemammals,fish,andseabirdswithattraction
oravoidance
Thepotentialeffectonnearfieldandfarfieldmarineenvironmentandprocessessuchassedimenttransportandwaterquality.
TheTethysdatabaseprovidesaccesstoscientificliteratureandgeneralinformationonthepotentialenvironmentaleffectsofwaveenergy.[91]

Potential
Theworldwideresourceofwaveenergyhasbeenestimatedtobegreaterthan2TW.[92]Locationswiththemostpotentialforwavepowerincludethe
westernseaboardofEurope,thenortherncoastoftheUK,andthePacificcoastlinesofNorthandSouthAmerica,SouthernAfrica,Australia,and
NewZealand.Thenorthandsouthtemperatezoneshavethebestsitesforcapturingwavepower.Theprevailingwesterliesinthesezonesblow
strongestinwinter.

Challenges
Thereisapotentialimpactonthemarineenvironment.Noisepollution,forexample,couldhavenegative
impactifnotmonitored,althoughthenoiseandvisibleimpactofeachdesignvarygreatly.[7]Other
biophysicalimpacts(floraandfauna,sedimentregimesandwatercolumnstructureandflows)ofscalingup
Worldwaveenergyresourcemap
thetechnologyisbeingstudied.[93]Intermsofsocioeconomicchallenges,wavefarmscanresultinthe
displacementofcommercialandrecreationalfishermenfromproductivefishinggrounds,canchangethe
patternofbeachsandnourishment,andmayrepresenthazardstosafenavigation.[94]Wavesgenerateabout2,700gigawattsofpower.Ofthose2,700
gigawatts,onlyabout500gigawattscanbecapturedwiththecurrenttechnology.[23]

Wavefarms
Portugal
TheAguadouraWaveFarmwastheworld'sfirstwavefarm.Itwaslocated5km(3mi)offshorenearPvoadeVarzim,northofPorto,
Portugal.ThefarmwasdesignedtousethreePelamiswaveenergyconverterstoconvertthemotionoftheoceansurfacewavesintoelectricity,
totallingto2.25MWintotalinstalledcapacity.ThefarmfirstgeneratedelectricityinJuly2008[95]andwasofficiallyopenedonSeptember23,
2008,bythePortugueseMinisterofEconomy.[96][97]ThewavefarmwasshutdowntwomonthsaftertheofficialopeninginNovember2008as
aresultofthefinancialcollapseofBabcock&Brownduetotheglobaleconomiccrisis.Themachineswereoffsiteatthistimedueto
technicalproblems,andalthoughresolvedhavenotreturnedtositeandweresubsequentlyscrappedin2011asthetechnologyhadmovedonto
theP2variantassuppliedtoEonandScottishPowerRenewables.[98]Asecondphaseoftheprojectplannedtoincreasetheinstalledcapacityto
21MWusingafurther25Pelamismachines[99]isindoubtfollowingBabcock'sfinancialcollapse.

UnitedKingdom
Fundingfora3MWwavefarminScotlandwasannouncedonFebruary20,2007,bytheScottishExecutive,atacostofover4million
pounds,aspartofa13millionfundingpackageformarinepowerinScotland.ThefirstmachinewaslaunchedinMay2010.[100]
AfacilityknownasWavehubhasbeenconstructedoffthenorthcoastofCornwall,England,tofacilitatewaveenergydevelopment.TheWave
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hubwillactasgiantextensioncable,allowingarraysofwaveenergygeneratingdevicestobeconnectedtotheelectricitygrid.TheWavehub
willinitiallyallow20MWofcapacitytobeconnected,withpotentialexpansionto40MW.Fourdevicemanufacturershavesofarexpressed
interestinconnectingtotheWavehub.[101][102]ThescientistshavecalculatedthatwaveenergygatheredatWaveHubwillbeenoughtopower
upto7,500households.Thesitehasthepotentialtosavegreenhousegasemissionsofabout300,000tonsofcarbondioxideinthenext25
years.[103]

Australia
ACETOwavefarmoffthecoastofWesternAustraliahasbeenoperatingtoprovecommercialviabilityand,afterpreliminaryenvironmental
approval,underwentfurtherdevelopment.[104][105]Inearly2015a$100million,multimegawattsystemwasconnectedtothegrid,withallthe
electricitybeingboughttopowerHMASStirlingnavalbase.Twofullysubmergedbuoyswhichareanchoredtotheseabed,transmittheenergy
fromtheoceanswellthroughhydraulicpressureonshoretodriveageneratorforelectricity,andalsotoproducefreshwater.Asof2015athird
buoyisplannedforinstallation.[106][107]
OceanPowerTechnologies(OPTAustralasiaPtyLtd)isdevelopingawavefarmconnectedtothegridnearPortland,Victoriathrougha
19MWwavepowerstation.TheprojecthasreceivedanAU$66.46milliongrantfromtheFederalGovernmentofAustralia.[108]
OceanlinxwilldeployacommercialscaledemonstratoroffthecoastofSouthAustraliaatPortMacDonnellbeforetheendof2013.This
device,thegreenWAVE,hasaratedelectricalcapacityof1MW.ThisprojecthasbeensupportedbyARENAthroughtheEmergingRenewables
Program.ThegreenWAVEdeviceisabottomstandinggravitystructure,thatdoesnotrequireanchoringorseabedpreparationandwithno
movingpartsbelowthesurfaceofthewater.[56]

UnitedStates
Reedsport,OregonacommercialwaveparkonthewestcoastoftheUnitedStateslocated2.5milesoffshorenearReedsport,Oregon.The
firstphaseofthisprojectisfortenPB150PowerBuoys,or1.5megawatts.[109][110]TheReedsportwavefarmwasscheduledforinstallation
spring2013.[111]In2013,theprojecthasgroundtoahaltbecauseoflegalandtechnicalproblems.[112]
KaneoheBayOahu,HawaiNavysWaveEnergyTestSite(WETS)currentlytestingtheAzurawavepowerdevice[113]

Patents
U.S.Patent8,806,865(https://www.google.com/patents/US8806865)2011OceanwaveenergyharnessingdevicePelamis/Salter'sDuck
Hybridpatent
U.S.Patent3,928,967(https://www.google.com/patents/US3928967)1974ApparatusandmethodofextractingwaveenergyTheoriginal
"Salter'sDuck"patent
U.S.Patent4,134,023(https://www.google.com/patents/US4134023)1977Apparatusforuseintheextractionofenergyfromwaveson
waterSalter'smethodforimproving"duck"efficiency
U.S.Patent6,194,815(https://www.google.com/patents/US6194815)1999Piezoelectricrotaryelectricalenergygenerator
WaveenergyconvertersutilizingpressuredifferencesUS20040217597A1(http://www.google.com/patents/US20040217597)2004Wave
energyconvertersutilizingpressuredifferences[114]

Seealso
Oceanthermalenergyconversion
OfficeofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy(OEERE)
Worldenergyconsumption

Notes
a.Theenergyfluxis

with

thegroupvelocity,seeHerbich,JohnB.(2000).Handbookofcoastalengineering.McGrawHill

Professional.A.117,Eq.(12).ISBN9780071344029.Thegroupvelocityis
,seethecollapsedtable"Propertiesofgravitywavesonthe
surfaceofdeepwater,shallowwaterandatintermediatedepth,accordingtolinearwavetheory"inthesection"Waveenergyandwaveenergyflux"below.
b.Here,thefactorforrandomwavesis116,asopposedto18forperiodicwavesasexplainedhereafter.Forasmallamplitudesinusoidalwave
withwaveamplitude thewaveenergydensityperunithorizontalareais
or
usingthewaveheight
for
sinusoidalwaves.Intermsofthevarianceofthesurfaceelevation
theenergydensityis
.Turningtorandomwaves,thelast
formulationofthewaveenergyequationintermsof isalsovalid(Holthuijsen,2007,p.40),duetoParseval'stheorem.Further,thesignificantwaveheight
isdefinedas
,leadingtothefactor116inthewaveenergydensityperunithorizontalarea.
c.Fordeterminingthegroupvelocitytheangularfrequencyisconsideredasafunctionofthewavenumberk,orequivalently,theperiodTasafunctionofthe
wavelength.

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projectdelayedduetoearlyonsetofwinterweatherOregonLiveOct2012
112.oregonlive.comOregonwaveenergystallsoffthecoastofReedsport
(http://www.oregonlive.com/environment/index.ssf/2013/08/oregon_wave_e
nergy_stalls_off.html),30August2013
113.PrototypeTestingCouldHelpProveaPromisingEnergySource
(http://energy.gov/eere/articles/prototypetestingcouldhelpprove
promisingenergysource)
114.FreePatentsoOline.comWaveenergyconvertersutilizingpressure
differences(http://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2004/0217597.html),11
April2004

Furtherreading
Cruz,Joao(2008).OceanWaveEnergyCurrentStatusandFutureProspects.Springer.ISBN3540748946.,431pp.
Falnes,Johannes(2002).OceanWavesandOscillatingSystems.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521017491.,288pp.
McCormick,Michael(2007).OceanWaveEnergyConversion.Dover.ISBN0486462455.,256pp.
Twidell,JohnWeir,AnthonyD.Weir,Tony(2006).RenewableEnergyResources.Taylor&Francis.ISBN0419253300.,601pp.

Externallinks
Waveenergyconverters(http://www.emec.org.uk/marineenergy/wavedevices/)(alistofmaintypesof
WikimediaCommonshas
waveenergyconverters,includinganimations)
mediarelatedtoWave
"Oceanwavesournewelectricitysupplier"(http://www.uu.se/en/news/newsdocument/?
power.
id=1339&area=5,12,16&typ=artikel&na=&lang=en)Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100107095548/http://www.uu.se/en/node1019)7January2010atthe
WikimediaCommonshas
WaybackMachine.(Uppsalauniversity2010)
mediarelatedtoRenewable
KateGalbraith(September22,2008)."PowerFromtheRestlessSeaStirstheImagination".NewYork
energy.
Times.Retrieved20081009.
"WavePower:TheComingWave"(http://www.economist.com/search/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11482565)fromtheEconomist,June5,2008
RussianCompanyDevelopsMobileWaveEnergyGenerator(http://www.offshorewind.biz/2013/04/22/russiancompanydevelopsmobile
waveenergygenerator/)
"TheuntimelydeathofSalter'sDuck"(http://www.greenleft.org.au/back/1992/64/64cenb.htm)
"OceanPowerFightsCurrentThinking"(http://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/14268/)
"WaveenergyinNewZealand"(http://www.publicaddress.net/default,4132.sm)
"Howitworks:Wavepowerstation"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1032148.stm)
"EnvironmentalEffectsofRenewableEnergyfromtheSea"(http://tethys.pnnl.gov)Tethys
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