MAIN TEXT

The characteristics of a graph are not always constant. They can vary with the dimensional spaces that the graph
exists in, and to the constraints imposed on it [1]. One of the principal characteristic of a graph is the number of
edges. Nevertheless, even the number of edges of the simple graph in various dimensional spaces and constraints has
not been studied yet.

This study analyzes the simple graph and its maximum number of edges in various dimensional spaces, with and
without geometrical constraints. First; the graph, simple graph and the complete graph are defined along with spaces
and constraints. Then, the simple graph is modelled and its edges are examined in various spaces and constraints.
Several theorems with proofs are introduced concerning the maximum number of edges. Consequently, this
explicitly demonstrates how a certain characteristic of graph vary with dimensional spaces and constraints.

Definition 1.

A graph is an object consisting of two sets called its vertex set and its edge set.

Vertices are set of elements and the links between them are known as edges [2].

Definition 2.

A simple graph is an unweighted, undirected graph in which pairs of distinct vertices may be

connected by only a unique non-oriented edge and contains no self-loops or multiple edges.

The maximum number of edges in a simple graph with n-vertices has not been studied.

Definition 3.

A complete graph is a simple undirected graph in which every pair of distinct vertices is

connected by a unique non-oriented edge.

The maximum number of edges in a complete graph with n-vertices is known as [3]

En ( n 2 n) / 2
(1)

Definition 4.

A geometrical constraint line is a continuous line (eg: x = x 1) in space (x) that divides and

separates the space below it (eg: x < x1) and the space above it (eg: x > x1).

Firstly, the simple graph is simply modeled here. The vertices of the simple graph are assumed as unbiased and
equitable and; hence, are arranged simply inline whenever possible. The edges between pairs of vertices are depicted
here as non-oriented connective lines [4]. This simple graph model is analyzed in various dimensional spaces along
with possible geometrical constraint lines. The equation for the maximum number of edges of the simple graph in
various dimensions with and without geometrical constraint lines were deduced through the observation of vast
number of examples.

Theorem 1.

In three-dimensional space, with or without any geometrical constraint lines, the maximum

number of edges of the simple graph with n-vertices is

E ( n 2 n) / 2,

n0

(2)

If the vertices of a simple graph are placed anywhere within a three-dimensional space with or without constraints,
the connective lines between pairs of vertices will have no restrictions and will be able to freely connect. When
visualized two dimensionally, the connective lines are allowed to crisscross (Fig. 1). Therefore, the first arbitrary
vertex will connect to n-1 number of vertices, the second arbitrary vertex with n-2 vertices, while the third arbitrary
vertex with n-3 vertices and so on.
n

E ( n 1) (n 2) ( n 3) ...( n n) ( n r ) (n 2 n) / 2
r 1

All pairs of vertices will each have a connective line in this situation. The maximum number of edges is the total of
possible connective lines.

Proof. We use induction on n.

For n = 0, E ( n) 0 . Suppose now as inductive hypothesis that E ( k ) ( k 2 k ) / 2 , for some k > 0. Then;
E ( k 1) (( k 1) 2 ( k 1)) / 2 (k 2 k ) / 2 E ( k ) k . Whenever an extra vertex is added, k amount of

new edges are formed. All previous vertices (k) each connect with an edge to the new vertex. This proves the
inductive step. Hence by induction, the maximum number of edges; E ( n 2 n) / 2 is shown true for the simple
graph in a two-dimensional space without constraints, when n > 0.

Theorem 2. In an unconstrained two-dimensional space, the maximum number of edges of the simple graph with nvertices is

E 3( n 2),

n3

(3)

When the vertices are placed within a two-dimensional space without any constraints, the vertices pairs may connect
but without disrupting each other (Fig. 2(a)). This means that the connective lines must not crisscross when
visualized. For simplification, all the vertices are placed inline at x = 0. Therefore, the first arbitrary vertex will
connect to n-1 number of vertices through x > 0 space, the second arbitrary vertex with n-2 vertices through x < 0,
while the remaining vertices can only connect to their adjacent vertex.

E (n 1) (n 2)

n 3

1 3(n 2)

r 1

Thus, not all pairs of vertices can each have a connective line in this situation.

Proof. We use induction on n.

For n = 3, E ( n) 3 . Suppose now as inductive hypothesis that E ( k ) 3(k 2) 3k 6 , for some k > 3. Then;

E ( k 1) 3((k 1) 2) 3k 3 E (k ) 3 . Three new edges form whenever an extra vertex is added.

Connections by the first arbitrary vertex, the second arbitrary vertex and the other adjacent vertex (beside the extra
vertex), each creates an edge. This proves the inductive step. Hence by induction, the maximum number of edges;

E 3( n 2) is shown true for the simple graph in a two-dimensional space without constraints, when n > 3.

Theorem 3. Thus in two-dimensional space where all vertices exist on geometrical constraint lines, the maximum
number of edges of the simple graph with n-vertices is

E 2n 3,

n2

(4)

Now the simple graph in two-dimensional space with constraints is considered. If all the vertices exist on the
geometrical constraint lines, the connective lines are disallowed from disrupting each other and must also connect
above the geometrical constraint lines (Fig. 2(b)). For simplification, all the vertices are placed inline on a
geometrical constraint lines x = 0 and y = 0. Therefore, the first arbitrary vertex will connect to n-1 number of
vertices through x > 0 and y > 0 space while the remaining vertices can only connect to the next adjacent vertex.

E ( n 1)

n 2

1 2n 3

r 1

Proof. We use induction on n.

For n = 2, E ( n) 1 . Suppose as inductive hypothesis that E ( k ) 2k 3 , for some k > 2. Then;

E ( k 1) 2(k 1) 3 2k 1 E ( k ) 2 . Two edges form whenever an extra vertex is added. Each

connection by the first arbitrary vertex and the adjacent vertex (beside the extra vertex) provides an edge. This

proves the inductive step. Hence, by induction the maximum number of edges; E 2n 3,

is true for the simple

graph in a two-dimensional space with all vertices (n) existing on the continuous geometrical constraint line, when n
> 2.

Nevertheless, if only a certain number of vertices exist on the geometrical constraint lines (no) while others exist
exclusively above them (ni) (Fig. 2(c)), then the maximum number of edges of the simple graph with n-vertices is
obtained from Eq.3 and Eq.4 as
Eni , no (3( ni 2)) (2no 3) [5]
Eni , no 3ni 2no 4,

ni 1, no 1

(5)

Theorem 4. In an unconstrained one-dimensional space, the maximum number of edges in a simple graph with nvertices is

E n,

n0

(6)

When the vertices (n) are placed in a one-dimensional space (on a continuous axis) without any constraints,
connective lines between pairs of vertices must exist on the continuous axis itself and are not allowed to overlap and
cause disruptions (Fig. 3(a)). All vertices can only connect once to the next adjacent vertex.
n

En 1 n
r 1

Thus, many pairs of vertices will not each have a connective line. The number of edges is the total of possible
connective lines.

Proof. We use induction on n.

For n = 0, E ( n) 0 . Suppose now as inductive hypothesis that E ( k ) k , for some k > 0. Then;

E (k 1) k 1 E (k ) 1 . A net of one edge forms whenever an extra vertex is added. The connections by the
two adjacent vertices (on each side of the extra vertex) give two edges but the adding of an extra vertex breaks a
connection between the two adjacent vertices. This proves the inductive step. Hence, by induction the maximum
number of edges; E n

is true for the simple graph in a one-dimensional space with no constraints, when n > 0.

Theorem 5. In two-dimensional space where all vertices exist within a constraint, the maximum number of edges in
a simple graph with n-vertices is

E n 1,

n 1

(7)

If all the vertices exist within the constraint of a one-dimensional space with constraint, then the connective lines are
disallowed to disrupt each other and must also exist only within the constraint (Fig. 3(b)). Only n-1 vertices can only
connect once to the next adjacent vertex

n 1

1 n 1

r 1

Proof. We use induction on n.

For n = 1, E ( n ) 0 . Suppose now as inductive hypothesis that E ( k ) k 1 , for some k > 1. Then;

E ( k 1) ( k 1) 1 E ( k ) 1 . One edge forms whenever an extra vertex is added. The adjacent vertex
(beside the extra vertex) makes a connection and gives an edge. This proves the inductive step. Hence, by induction
the maximum number of edges; E n 1 is true for the simple graph in a one-dimensional space with a
constraint, when n > 1.

This study shows that the maximum number of edges of the simple graph (Eq. 2 Eq. 7) is dependent on the
dimensional spaces it exists in. In two-dimensional space, the maximum number of edges is also found to depend on
the position of vertices on possible geometrical constraint lines. Meanwhile in one-dimensional space, the maximum
number of edges is found to depend on the existence of a constraint. The assumption concerning the vertices as
being equitable is warranted as there is no preference among vertices and the simple graph is isomorphic.

Only in three-dimensional spaces, the simple graph is always a complete graph regardless of the existence of
possible geometrical constraint lines and the locations of vertices. The simple graph is a complete graph, in onedimensional space (without constraint) and in two-dimensional spaces (with or without constraints), only if the
number of vertices < 3.

In this study, a characteristic of a graph is shown to change due to constraints imposed on it and the dimensional
spaces it exist in. The findings of this study can be utilized in many fields [5] as the relationship between elements in
various dimensional spaces and constraints can be examined and further understood to vary [6].

Acknowledgements
This work was conducted in MSI UniKL. D. John Jabaraj thanks Joyce, Leela and Marial for taking care of him
while growing up.

References
1] Rossi F, van Beek P, Walsh T (2006)Handbook of Constraint Programming. Elsevier B.V., Netherlands.

2] Xu J (2003) Theory and Application of Graphs (Network Theory and Applications). Kluwer Academic
Publishers, USA.

3] McAllister W (2009) Data Structures and Algorithms Using Java. Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Canada.

4] Muscat J, Buhagiar D (2006) Connective spaces. Mem Fac Sci Eng Shimane Univ Series B: Mathematical
Science 39:113.

5] Fiedler M (1973) Algebraic connectivity of graph. Czechoslovak Mathematical Journal 23(2):298-305.

6] Nykamp DQ (2007) A mathematical framework for inferring connectivity in probabilistic neuronal networks,
Mathematical Biosciences 205:204-251.

List of Figures

Fig. 1: Example of edges of simple graph when vertices are placed: (a) in an unconstrained three-dimensional space,
(b) on the geometrical constraint lines of three-dimensional space and (c) above and on geometrical constraint lines
of three-dimensional space. .

Fig. 2: Example of edges of simple graph when vertices are placed: (a) in an unconstrained two-dimensional space,
(b) on the geometrical constraint lines of two-dimensional space and (c) above and on geometrical constraint lines of
two-dimensional space. .

Fig. 3: Example of edges of simple graph when vertices are placed: (a) in an unconstrained one-dimensional space,
(b) within the constraint of one-dimensional space.