CHAPTER 3

HEREDITY AND VARIATION

1. CELL DIVISION
1.
2.
3.
4.

The nucleus of a cell contains many small-thread like structures called chromosomes.
Chromosomes are built from molecules called Deoxyribonucleic acids. (DNA)
Each DNA molecules contains thousands of genes.
Genes exist in pairs. One gene is inherited from the father and one from the mother.

NUCLEUS

CELL

CHROMOSOME

GENE

DNA

MITOSIS & MEIOSIS

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Mitosis occurs in all somatic cells, except in sex cells.

It produces 2 daughter cells.
Meiosis occurs in sex organs to produce gametes.
One parent cell produces 4 daughter cells. The number of chromosomes is half of the
number in parent cell.
There are 2 stages in meiosis, called meiosis_I_ and meiosis II_.

THE STAGES IN MITOSIS

Parent cell
The chromosomes shorten, fatten and
become clearly visible
Chromosome replication into thread
like structures called chromatids.

Chromosomes align themselves at the

equatorial plate

Sister chromatids separate and move

to the opposite poles
Centromeres divide
At the same time cell begins to divide

The new nuclear membrane

is formed

Two daughter cells are

produced

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THE STAGES IN MEIOSIS

Parent cell

Chromosomes in nucleus
shorten and fatten

Replication and crossing

over in chromatids occur

Chromosomes are arranged

at equatorial plate

Chromatids separate and

move to opposite poles

2 daughter cells formed

Chromosomes are
arranged at the centre of
the cell

Chromatids separate
Cell begin to split

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Each daughter cell contains half

the number of chromosomes of
the parent cell
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Compare and Contrast between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis
Cell division
1
Product
2
Number of chromosomes
Same
Genetically identical
Yes
Place
In somatic cells
To produce new cells for growth
Purpose
and to replace damaged cells

Meiosis
2
4
Half the number
No
In sex cells
Gametes

Difference between mitosis and meiosis

The Importance of Mitosis and Meiosis

MITOSIS
1.Mitosis form new cells for growth and to replace a damaged or died cells.
2.To ensure that the number of chromosomes in daughter cell is identical to that of the parent cell.
MEIOSIS
1. To produce gametes with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cells.
2. It allows a species to maintain a constant number of chromosomes in the offspring.
3. To form variation between species.

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2. INHERITANCE
1. Inheritance is a process of passing genetic information of characteristics or traits from parents to
offspring.
2. Genes are divided into 2, dominant and recessive.
3. Human beings have _46 chromosomes. This means that we have _23_ pairs of homologous
chromosomes.
4. Combination of genes it possesses is called genotype.
5. The characteristics that can be observed or determined is called phenotype.
6. A dominant gene is a gene which can show the characteristics it controls when it pairs with a
recessive gen.
7. The recessive gene only shows its characteristics when paired with another recessive gene.
Characteristics

Dominant
characteristic

Recessive
characteristic

Tongue rolling

Ability to roll the tongue

Inability to roll the tongue

Ear-lobe

Presence of ear-lobe

Absence of ear-lobe

Eye colour

Brown eyes

Blue eyes

Skin pigment

Normal skin pigment

Absence of skin pigment(Albinism)

Mechanism of Inheritance of Traits

Father
Parents

Mother

(Free ear lobe)

(Attached ear lobe)

EE

ee

Meiosis

Gamet

Fertilization

Offspring

Ee

Ee

Ee

Ee

All free ear lobe

The schematic diagram shows the inheritance of ear lobe

Dominant genes are represented by capital letters whereas recessive genes are represented
by small letters.
E represents the genes for free ear lobe, which is the dominant gene.
e represents the gene for attached ear lobe which is the recessive gene.

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Monohybrid cross
Y for dominant traits ( yellow seeds)
y for recessive traits (green seeds)

Parents:

YY

Phenotype:

__Yellow__

Gametes:

Genotype:
Phenotype:

yy
___Green___

___Yy___ ___Yy__

Yy

__yellow___ yellow

____Yy___

yellow

yellow

________________________________________________________________________

F1 Generation:

Yy

Phenotype:

yellow seed

Gametes:

Genotype:
Phenotype:

YY
__yellow_

Yy
_yellow seed__

Yy
___yellow

Yy
__yellow_

yy
_green

Phenotype ratio: ____3 yellow_____:_____1 green_____

3.

SEX DETERMINATION AND THE OCCURANCE OF TWINS

1. Human has 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs are autosomes and 1 pairs is sex
chromosomes.
2. Type of the sex chromosomes are _X_ and _Y__.
3. Females have _XX_ sex chromosome, while male have _XY_ sex chromosomes.
4. Female has contains 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes XX(44 + XX) while
male has 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 types of sex chromosomes X and Y(44 + XY)
5. The sex of a child is determined by the father according to the type of sperm.

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The schematic diagram below show how sex is determined.

Parents:

Father
XY

Mother
XX

Meiosis

Gametes:

Fertilisation

Genotype:

XX

Phenotype:
Girl
Genotype ratio:
Phenotype ratio:

XY

XX

Boy
1XX
1 girl

:
:

Girl
1XY
1 boy

XY
Boy

TWINS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

There are two types of twins, identical and non-identical twins.

Identical twins are formed from _1_ sperm and_1_ ovum, while non-identical twins are formed
from _2_ sperms and _2_ ova.
Identical twins have same genetic traits, sex_ and appearance_.
Non-identical twins may have different_genetic traits and may have similar or different sex.
In identical twins, if the two embryos do not completely separate, they are called
_siamese_ twins.
The differences between identical twins and non-identical twins.
Characteristic
Number of ovums involved
Number of sperms involved
Number of zygotes produce
Number of placentas
Sex of child (same / different)
Genetic traits (same / different)

6.

Identical twins
1
1
1
1
Same
same

Non-identical twins
2
2
2
2
Same/different
different

The similarities between this two types of twins are born through pregnancy.

4. MUTATION
1. What is mutation?
The spontaneous random change to the structute of genes or chromosomes of an
organism.
2. There are two types of mutation, gene mutation and chromosomes mutation.
3. The change that occurs in chemical structure of a gene is gene mutation.
4. The change of gene sequence in a chromosome or the change in the number of chromosomes
is chromosomes mutation.
5. The examples of gene mutation are albinism, colour blindness and haemophilia.
6. The examples of chromosome mutation are Downn syndrome, Klinefelters and Turners
syndrome.
7. The Downs syndrome is caused by the presence of one extra chromosome at chromosome 21
in the somatic cells.
8. The characteristics of Klinefelters syndrome are narrow shoulders and small testes.
9. The Turners syndrome is a women who lacks one X chromosome.
10. There are some factors that can increase the chance of mutation : High frequency radiowaves,
toxic chemical and nuclear radiation.

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11.

The advantages and disadvantages of mutation:

Advantages
Causes variations and organisms able to adapt
to the environment
More resistant to diseases, wheather and
polluted environment

Disadvantages
Causes infertility
Causes physical, mental and foetus
retardation

5. GENETIC RESEARCH
1. Genetic research have contributed to the field of _medicine_and agriculture_.
2. The example of contribution in each field:
Medical
To make human insulin for diabetics
Sheep can produce milk which contains protein
that can cure haemophilic

Agriculture
Species Tenera a new breed of oil palm fruits
The sahiwal Friesian cows which produce more
milk

3. Selective breeding is very important. It is done on crops and livestock.

4. The importance of selective breeding in plants and livestocks are:
i. Resistant to diseases.
ii. Shorter growth period.
iii. Higher yield.
iv. Better quality.
6. VARIATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Variation is the difference among individuals of the same group.

The examples of variation in human are fingerprints, ability to roll a tongue, ear lobe and
blood group.
There are two types of variation, continuous and discontinuous.
The example of continuous variation are height, body weight, intelligence, skin colour, width
of shoulder and length of sole.
The examples of discontinuous variation are blood group, fingerprint, ability to roll the
tongues, ear lobe, left-handedness and presence of dimples.
The similarity of continuous and discontinuous variation is caused by crossing over in meiosis
and mutation.
The differences between the two types of variation:

Type
Has distinct characteristics
Environmental factors
Can be inherited

Continuous variation
Small degree of variation
Affected
No

Discontinuous variation
Clear-cut differences
Not affected
Yes

8. There are two factors that cause variation, genetic and environmental.
9. Mutation may also be another factor of variation and it will produce new variety.
10. Variation is very important for us. The example of the important of variation are:
i. Enable each individual to be different from others.
ii. More resistant to changes in the surrounding.
iii. To form new breeds.
7. CODE OF ETHICS IN GENETIC RESEARCHES
Misused of knowledge in genetics can cause various controversial issues concerning religion and
humanity. Code of ethics in genetic researches is important to ensure that genetic researches benefit
mankind.
Example: Human cloning and the marketing of genetically modified products have become hot
issues debated at present.If cloning is carried out on humans, serious problems would arise. Religious
people consider humans produced by cloning as not having souls.

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PAPER 1
1. Which of the following is the unit of inheritance found in chromosomes?
A
B

Gene
Sperm

C
D

Gamete
Nucleus

2. What is the function of cell division through meiosis?

A
B
C
D

3.

Produces more siblings

Replaces damaged tissues
Increases the size of an organism
Creates variation in a population of organisms

The diagram below shows four stages of mitosis in a plant cell.

Which of the following is the correct sequence of mitosis process?

A
B

4.

P,R,Q,S
R,P,S,Q

C
D

Q,P,R,S
S,P,R,Q

A goldfish has 100 chromosomes in each body cell. How many

chromosomes are found in each male gamete?
A
B

25
50

C
D

75
100

5. What is the number of chromosomes found in a female human skin cell?

A
B

22+ X
22+ Y

C
D

44 +XX
44+XY

6. Which of the following processes in plants involves meiosis?

A
B

Bud growth
Root growth

C
D

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Repair of tissue
Formation of pollen

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7. Chromosomes duplicate during cell division. How many times does replication of
chromosomes occur during mitosis and meiosis?

A
B
C
D
8.

Mitosis
once
once
twice
twice

Meiosis
once
twice
once
twice

What is the name of the thread-liked structure found within the nuclei of a cell?
A
B

Gene
Autosome

C
D

Nucleus
Chromosomes

9. The diagram below shows a process in the human body.

Parent cell

Process Y
Daughter cells

What is the name of the process?

A
B

Mitosis
Fertilization

C
D

Meiosis
Cross-over

10. Where does mitosis take place?

A
B

11.

Sperm
Anther

C
D

Ovary
Somatic cells

The diagram below shows cell division in an animal cell.

Which of the following statement is correct about the cell division?

A
B
C
D

Cell divides once only

Four identical cells are produced
Have the same kind of chromosomes
Similar number of chromosomes as parent cell

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12. The diagram below shows four stages of meiosis.

Which of the following shows the correct sequence?

A
B
13.

Q,S,P,R
Q,R,P,S

Occurs in ovary
Produces gametes
Produces two daughter nuclei
Chromosomes number is halved

What are dominant genes?

A
B
C
D

15.

C
D

Which of the following statements is true about mitosis?

A
B
C
D

14.

P,R,S,Q
R,S,P,Q

Cannot reproduce themselves

Fully express their characteristics
Do not express their characteristics
Multiply to produce more daughter cells

When can the recessive genes be expressed fully?

A
B
C
D

Dominant genes are absent

Dominant genes are present
Both dominant and recessive genes are absent
Both dominant and recessive genes are present

16. The diagram shows the stages in human reproduction.

Sperm

Testes

Stage Y
Stage X

Zygote

Baby

Ovum

Ovaries
What are stages X and Y?

A
B
C
D

X
Mitosis
Meiosis
Meiosis
Mitosis

Y
Mitosis
Mitosis
Meiosis
Mitosis

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17.

Which of the following processes is involved in the formation of zygote?

A
B

Mitosis
Meiosis

C
D

Mutation
Fertilization

18. Which of the following is dominant trait in human?

A
B

Curly hair
Blue eyes

C
D

Left handed
Attached ear lobe

19. The gene for tall characteristics T of a pea tree is more dominant than t, which
reveals the short characteristics. Which of the cross below will produce half of the filial
which are tall?
A TT and tt
B Tt and Tt

C
D

TT and Tt
Tt and tt

20. Azman who has the ability to roll his tongue has gene Aa and marries Siti who
has the same ability and has gene Aa too.
What is the percentage of having children that are not able to roll t tongue?
A
B

100%
75%

C
D

50%
25%

21. The diagram shows sex determination in human

Parent

Gamete

Offspring

44+XY

44+XX

22+Y

44+XX

22+X

22+X

44+XY

44+XY

Which of the following chromosomes are found in gamete P and offspring Q ?

A
B
C
D

22

P
22+Y
22+X
22+Y
22+X

Q
22+ X
44+XX
44+XX
44+XY

What is the chromosome in a normal human egg cell ?

A 22+ X
B 23+XY

C 22+Y
D 23+XX

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23. The diagram shows a first generation of cross breeding of two flowers
Parents

red flower

First
Generation

red
flower

red
flower

white flower

white
flower

white
flower

R represents the dominant genes for red flower

r represent s the recessive genes for white flower
What are the genes for the parents?

A
B
C
D

Male
RR
RR
Rr
rr

Female
Rr
rr
rr
Rr

24. Farid who is able to roll his tongue has the genotype Gg. He married Sara who
is also able to roll her tongue and has the genotype Gg. What percentage of their
children will be able to roll their tongues?
A
B

25%
50%

C
D

75%
100%

25. What determines the gender of a baby ?

A
B
C
D

Chromosomes in the ovum

Type of sex chromosomes in the sperm
Number of chromosomes in the sperm
Number of chromosomes in the ovum

26. Which of the following is the correct genotype?

A
B
C
D

Male
XX
XY
YY
XX

Female
XY
XX
XX
YY

27. What is the percentage probability that a couple will have a baby girl?
A 25%

B 50%

75%

D 100%

28. What is the chromosome number of a female foetus?

A 22+X
B 22+Y

C 44+XX
D 44+XY

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29. How are identical twins formed?

A
B
C
D

Two ova fertilized by two different sperms

One ovum fertilized by two different sperms
Two ova fertilized by one sperm before splitting into two
One ovum fertilized by one sperm before splitting into two

30. Why can non-identical twins be of different sexes ?

A
B
C
D
31.

Which of the following describes Siamese twins?

A
B
C
D

32.

Born separately
Have different genetic content
Have underdeveloped body parts
Identical twins do not separate completely

Two children are identical twins. Which of the following characteristic is not common
between them?
A
B

33.

They arise from the same zygote

The same sperm fertilizes two different ova
Two different sperms fertilize two different ova
Two different sperms fertilize the same ovum

Sex
Height

C
D

Blood group
Ability to roll tongue

What is the term used for the sudden and permanent changes in the DNA ?
A
B

Mitosis
Mutation

C
D

Variation
Crossing over

34. Which of the following can cause mutation?

A
B
C
D

35.

Changes in the shape

Random physical changes
Changes in the genes structure
Random fusion of a sperm and an ovum

The nucleus of a boys skin cell has 47 chromosomes. What is the name of the genetic
disorder the boy is suffering from ?
A
B

Albinism
Downs syndrome

C
D

Sickle cell anemia

Turners syndrome

C
D

Hormone imbalance
Changes in chromosomes number

36. What causes albinism?

A
B

Virus infection
Mutation of a gene

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37.

Which of the following pairs is correct?

A
B
C
D

Mutation
Downs syndrome
Klinefelters syndrome
Turners syndrome
Albinism

Characteristics
47 chromosomes in the nucleus
XYY in the gene
Lack of one Y chromosome in the gene
Additional Y chromosomes in the gene

38. What is the advantages of mutation?

A
B
C
D

Form underdeveloped individuals

Produce more varieties of new species
Stop the process of growth in organisms
Encourage the process of growth in organisms

39. The information shows the characteristics of an individual.

Lacks pigmentation in the skin

Has white skin, eye lashes and hair
Skin is sensitive to sunlight

What is the name of genetic disorder the individual is suffering from?

A
B

40.

Albinism
Haemophilia

C Colour blindness
D Downs syndrome

Which of the following is a result of gene mutation?

A Haemoplilia
B Downs syndrome
C Turners syndrome
D Klinefelters syndrome

41. The diagram shows the cross between two different varieties of mango

Mango K
-has thick flesh
- sweet
-small fruit

Mango L
-slightly thinner flesh
-not so sweet
-big fruit

Mango M

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What is the purpose of crossing Mango K with Mango L?

A Plenty of fruits
B Big and sweet fruits
C Trees bear fruits faster
D Big fruits with thick flesh

42. What is the term used for the selection of plants or animals of desirable traits?
A Gene screening
B Artificial breeding
C Natural selection
D Selective breeding

43. What is the production of genetically identical individuals called?

A
B

Cloning
Breeding

C
D

Back-crossing
Hybridization

44. The diagram shows the breeding of two different types of oil palm

Oil Palm X

Oil Palm Y

small fruit
thin mesocarp
thin endocarp

bigger fruit
thicker mesocarp
thicker endocarp

Oil Palm Z
What is the result of breeding these oil palms ?
A Plenty of oil palm
B Sweeter oil palm
C Oil palm Z produces plenty of palm oil
D Oil palm Z becomes more resistant to disease

45. Which of the following is an example of a continuous variation?

A Fingerprint
B Blood group

C Height
D Type of ear lobe

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46.

Which of the following graphs correctly shows the distribution frequency of

continuous variation?
A

47. Which of the following is the example of discontinuous variation?

A
B
C
D

48.

Height
Skin colour
Blood group
Body weight

What is the meaning of variation?

A
B
C
D

Sudden change in hereditary material

Sudden change in external appearance caused by the environment
Different expression of similar characteristics among individuals of
the same species
Different expression of similar characteristics among individuals of
the different species

49. Which of the following does not involve genetic engineering?

A
B
C
D

Gene therapy for treating cancer

The production of Tenera oil palm
The production of insulin by bacteria
The production of genetically modified food

50. What is the characteristics desired from the genetic research done on plants?
A
B
C
D

Matures faster
Produces less fruit
Easy to get diseases
Has short life span

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PAPER 2

SECTION A
1.

Pupils in a certain class had their weight measured. The data obtained is shown below:
Weight of pupils ( kg )
36
58
47

41
59
50

45
51
43

46
45
51

45
46
38

43
48
47

44
45
49

40
47
48

53
49
54

52
44
46

(a) Complete Table 1 using the given data.

Weight of pupils (kg)

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

Number of pupils

TABLE 1
(b) Using the data in table 1, draw a histogram below to show the distribution of
the weight of pupils.
Number of pupils
14

12

35-39

40-44

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45-49

50-54

55-59

Weight (kg)

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[2 Marks]
(c)

What type of variation is shown by a pupils weight ?

[ 1 Mark]

(d)

Other than weight, state two examples that show the same type of variation.

[ 1 Mark]
SECTION B

1.

Diagram 1 shows the process involved in the formation of twins

Ovum

sperm

Process Q

Process R

Two zygote
formed

DIAGRAM 1
(a) Name the process that takes place at Q
.
[ 1 Mark]
(b) Name the type of cell division that takes place at R

[ 1 Mark]
(c) State the type of twins formed in the figure shown above.

[ 1 Mark]
(d) State two similarities found in the zygote formed after process R.
.
.
[ 1 Mark]

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(e) What type of twins that will be formed if process R is incomplete?

.
[ 1 Mark]
(f) If the spermatozoa in the figure carries 22+Y chromosome,
(i) what will be the sex of the zygotes?
.
[ 1 Mark]
(ii) state the number and the type of sex chromosomes in both the zygotes
.
[ 1 Mark]
2. Diagram 3 shows the cross-breeding of pea plants. T represents the dominant
genes while t represents the recessive gene.

Parent

Tall plant

Short plant

Genotype

Gamete

Genotype

Tt

Phenotype

Tall

Tall

Tall

Tall

DIAGRAM 3
(a)

What is meant by gene?

.
[ 1 Mark]
(b) The above pea plant have a pair of Tt genes which show the tall trait. Explain this.
.

[ 1 Mark]
(c)

Complete the above figure by writing the possible genotypes of the parent, gamete
and offspring
[2 Marks]

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3.

The bar chart below shows the result of a study in a group of students.
2. of
Number
students

80
60
40
20

able

unable

Roll tongue

(a) Calculate the percentage of students who are able to roll their tongues.
.
[ 1 Mark]
(b) i) What are the characteristics shown by the graph above?
.
.
[ 1 Mark]
ii) What is the type of variation in this situation?
.
[ 1 Mark]
(c) i) Is the presence or absence of ear lobes the same type of variation as (b)ii?
.
[ 1 Mark]
ii) Give reasons for your answer in (c) i.
.
.
[1 Mark]

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(a) What does cell division refers to?

.

(b)

.
[ 1 Mark]
What is meiosis?
.
.
[ 1 Mark]

(c)

Compare the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells and in the parent
cell

(d)

[ 1 Mark]
State two importance of meiosis in organisms
i)

ii)

[2 Marks]

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5. (a) What is mutation?

[ 1 Mark]
(b) State two types of mutation and explain each of them
1.

..

2.

...
[2 Marks]

(c) Give two examples of consequences of each mutation named in (b)

1.
2.
[2 Marks]
(d) i) What is Klinefelters syndrome?
.
[ 1 Mark]
ii) What is the cause of Klinefelters syndrome?

.
[ 1 Mark]

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SECTION C

1.

No two individuals are alike. Every person is unique in himself

(a) Examine the above statement, then suggest a suitable hypothesis for an
investigation to determine the weight of forty students (boys and girls) who are all
18 years of age.
[1 Mark]
(b) Describe an experiment that could be carried in the classroom to verify your
hypothesis.
Your description should include the following:
(i) Aim of the investigation
[1 Mark]
(ii) Identification of variables
[3Marks]
(iii) List of apparatus
[1 Mark]
(iv Tabulation of data
[1 Mark]
(v) Conclusion
[1 Mark]

2. Study the statement below

The length of leaves is a type of continuous variation

(a) Suggest a suitable hypothesis to investigate this statement.

[1 Mark]

(b) Design an experiment to test your hypothesis this statement

(i) Aim of the experiment
(ii) Identification of variables
(iii) List of materials and apparatus
(iv) Method
(v) Recording and analyzing
(vi) Conclusion

[1 Mark]
[2 Marks]
[1 Mark]
[3 Marks]
[1 Mark]
[1 Mark]

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3.

(a) State four differences between cell division through mitosis and meiosis.
[4 Marks]
(b)

Hair

Skin

Cell division

Liver

Red blood
cell

The cell division that takes place in the body parts of a student is shown above. Explain
how you would build a concept based on the information above. Your explanation should
include the following.
(i) Identify two common features
(ii) Build an initial concept
(iii) Give one example of body part that undergoes this cell division and one
example of body part that does not undergo this cell division.
Give reason for each example.
(iv) Explain the actual concept
[6 Marks]

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