Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
9, SEPTEMBER 2011
3741
I. I NTRODUCTION
Manuscript received April 14, 2010; revised July 23, 2010; accepted
October 1, 2010. Date of publication October 28, 2010; date of current version
August 12, 2011.
D. G. Dorrell is with the School of Mechanical, Electrical and Mechatronic
Systems, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, N.S.W. 2007, Australia
(e-mail: ddorrell@eng.uts.edu.au).
M.-F. Hsieh is with the Department of Systems and Naval Mechatronic
Engineering, National Cheng Kung University (NCKU), Tainan 701, Taiwan
(e-mail: mfhsieh@mail.ncku.edu.tw).
M. Popescu, L. Evans, and D. A. Staton are with Motor Design Ltd.,
SY12 9DA Shropshire, U.K. (e-mail: mircea.popescu@motor-design.com;
lyndon.evans@motor-design.com; dave.staton@motor-design.com).
V. Grout is with the Centre for Applied Internet Research, Glyndwr University, LL11 2AW Wrexham, U.K. (e-mail: v.grout@glyndwr.ac.uk).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2010.2089940
[16][18] show coupled electromagnetic and thermal considerations in PM machines. In recent years, there have been many
papers that cover various aspects of the electromagnetic design
on rare-earth PM motors; for instance, [19][25] show recent
papers on PM-motor design in a variety of situations.
The aim of this paper is not to highlight particular design
aspects of one form of brushless PM motor but rather to give
an overview of many of the factors dictating option selection
and design solutions. Therefore, in this paper, the key design
points related to the design of brushless rare-earth PM machines are outlined and solutions are discussed. Techniques for
analysis are outlined, and these should be useful to a machine
designer who is unfamiliar with this particular type of machine.
Section II will consider electromagnetic and structural issues, while Section III will discuss thermal considerations.
Section IV will put forward analysis techniques. Design examples are included in the discussions.
II. I NITIAL E LECTROMAGNETIC D ESIGN C HOICES
In this section, some basic design choices are discussed.
These are necessary at the outset of the design procedure.
A. Radial or Axial Flux?
Generally, most PM motors are of the radial-flux type. The
reason for this is that fabrication is straightforward and established, using slotted stators with standard round radial laminations, and the electrical loading can be maximized because
of the use of the slots. However, there are good examples of
using axial-flux machines, and the design of these machines
is discussed in [26]. In these machines, the windings tend to
be air-gap windings (although they can have teeth [27]) which
can limit the amount of copper that can be used and, hence,
can limit the amount of loading possible. The windings tend
to be specially formed and shaped, and often, Torus windings
are used; Mendrela et al. [27] review different options for
this type of machine. Axial-flux machines are often used as
motors although they have many advantages (usually related
to their low armature reactance) in the area of generation
[28], particularly in wind generation [29]. However, axial-flux
applications can still be considered as niche, and the focus of
this paper will be on radial-flux laminated motors since these
constitute the majority of brushless PM motors.
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TABLE I
TYPICAL TRVs [1]
C. AC or DC Control?
TRV = 2mean
(1)
where mean is the sheer stress on the rotor (in newtons per
square meter). The sheer stress will be discussed later. Common
limits for the TRV in various machines are quoted in [1], and
these are listed in Table I. However, it can be seen that, generally, the larger and better cooled the machine, the higher the
TRV. In totally enclosed fan-cooled machines, typical windingcurrent-density levels are in the region of 56 A/mm2 . This
limits the electric loading and, hence, stress, which results in
a low-range TRV. Larger water- or oil-cooled machines can
push this much higher. In electric vehicle (EV) and hybrid EV
drive motors [30], the peak power rating is a transient rating
at lower speeds, and the current density during a transient (or
acceleration) period can be in excess of 20 A/mm2 for a period
of several seconds or tens of seconds. Some basic motor types
are listed in Table I although, at this stage, no distinction is
made between ac- and dc-controlled brushless PM machines.
These volumes can be used to calculate an approximate rotor
size. However, initially, a diameter has to be selected based on
the choice of pole number, magnet size, and rotor topology.
The geometry may also be dictated by the space in which the
motor has to fit. Starting with a two-pole motor geometry, the
diameter-to-axial-length ratio will be close to unity and will
increase with pole number (moving from a long cylindrical
shape to a disk shape). This is a crude sizing approximation
for radial-flux machines over a wide power range. The first key
point to remember is that the stator yoke thickness is governed
by the flux per pole (since it has to carry this); therefore,
it decreases as the pole number increases. High-pole-number
machines tend to have a much higher diameter compared with
the axial length. In totally enclosed machines, the TRV tends
to be in the range of 714 kN m/m3 for small ferrite-magnet
motors, 20 kN m/m3 for bonded NdFeB magnets, and
1442 kN m/m3 for rare-earth magnets, and it is hard to
increase beyond this without using a very specialized topology.
If high-energy magnets are used, then high-efficiency machines
can be designed, and also, it allows the motor to be more
compact. When NdFeB magnets are utilized, it is reasonable
to expect a peak electromagnetic efficiency of over 90% even
on smaller machines.
In terms of the sheer or tangential air-gap stress, (1) shows a
direct relationship to the TRV, as proved in [1]. The TRV gives
DORRELL et al.: REVIEW OF DESIGN ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES FOR PERMANENT-MAGNET MOTORS
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Fig. 2. Surface- and interior-PM four-pole rotors with red and blue magnets
oppositely polarized. Gray areas denote the laminated core. Red and blue
areas are oppositely magnetized magnets. (a) Nonsalient surface-magnet rotor.
(b) Salient interior-magnet rotor.
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D
2
D
(y, t) dy
0
D
D
br (y, t)Jst (y, t) dy
=L
2
(2)
DORRELL et al.: REVIEW OF DESIGN ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES FOR PERMANENT-MAGNET MOTORS
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give the sheer stress. The air-gap flux density due to the PM
rotors is
br (y, t) =
Brm cos (mp(r t ky + m ))
(3)
m
Jsnw cos(pr t nw ky + nw )
(4)
nw
where nw = 1, 2, 3, etc., for the general case in a threephase winding. Using (2), the product of (3) and (4) shows that
torque is a function of the product of the cosine terms when
the phase angles are equal. For the main torque, nw = mp,
where m = 1 and time variation is zero, i.e., a steady torque.
Working through the mathematics, the general case for the
torque vibration is
m1
ftorque
(5)
Fig. 5. Example of 18-slot 8-pole ac machine with one slot skew. (a) Distribution of one phase for three-phase sine winding. (b) Half cross-section for
IPM machine. (c) Three-phase controlled sinusoidal current on rotor q-axis.
(d) Three-phase back EMF. (e) Electromagnetic torque.
TABLE II
18-SLOT 8-POLE IPM AC MOTOR EXAMPLEOPERATING
AND G EOMETRIC P ROPERTIES
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Fig. 7. Interaction of back EMF and current in dc machine, illustrating torqueproducing region in waveforms.
there are three slots per pole which is not accounted for in the
waveforms.
It is also necessary to consider the torque-producing region of
the waveforms. This is shown in Fig. 7. If the back-EMF wave
is too narrow, then there is torque ripple when the back EMF
is multiplied by the current. In addition, the dc machine used
Hall probes, and if they are only slightly out of position, then
there will be considerable torque ripple. This was investigated
in [39].
3) Delta Connection: Delta connection is not recommended
in a brushless PM machine. If there is any third time harmonic
in the phase back EMF, then this will induce a circulating zeroorder current in the mesh, as shown in Fig. 8. This will cause
excessive current and copper losses and potential burnout of the
winding.
Fig. 6. Comparison of idealized short-pitched and fully pitched windings
in a 12-slot 4-pole dc machine. The windings are one phase of a balanced
three-phase set in each case. (a) Short-pitched coils (two-third pitching).
(b) Fully pitched concentrated coils. (c) Trapezoidal 120-electrical-degree
three-phase current set. (d) Three-phase back EMF with short-pitched windings. (e) Electromagnetic torque with short-pitched winding. (f) Three-phase
back EMF with fully pitched windings. (g) Electromagnetic torque with fully
pitched winding.
DORRELL et al.: REVIEW OF DESIGN ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES FOR PERMANENT-MAGNET MOTORS
Fig. 8.
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Zero-order 3rd time harmonics in delta-connected brushless PM motor. (a) 3-phase current and 3rd time harmonics. (b) Circulating zero-order set.
TABLE III
TYPICAL MAGNET DATA
Fig. 9. Second quadrant operation for ferrite (grades 1 and 5) and NdFeB
(Crumax 2830) magnets.
Fig. 10. Ferrite and rare-earth magnet thermal considerations. (a) Ferritemagnet example. (b) Rare-earth magnet example.
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a+bB
Bpk pk
+ Ce1
dB
dt
2
(6)
DORRELL et al.: REVIEW OF DESIGN ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES FOR PERMANENT-MAGNET MOTORS
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Fig. 12. Comparison of B/H and frequency/iron-loss curves for Losil 800/65 and Transil 35 steels (B = 1.7 T for loss data).
TABLE IV
INSULATION CLASSIFICATIONS [NEMA MG 1-2006]
(AMBIENT BELOW 40 C)
There is a strong requirement for more energy-efficient motors. Improved thermal design can lead to a cooler machine with
reduced losses. Copper loss is a function of winding resistance
and, therefore, is a function of temperature. Rare-earth PM
flux reduces with increased temperature. The size of a motor
is ultimately dependent upon the thermal rating. The motor
components that are limited by the temperature are wire or
slot liner/impregnation, bearings (life), magnet (loss of flux
and demagnetization limit), plastic cover (low melting point),
encoder, and housing (safety limit).
The temperature of the winding insulation has a large impact
on the life of the machine. Many companies use curves such as
that shown in [56] to estimate motor life, and these are related
to the insulation classifications in Table IV.
Magnets are usually isolated from the main heat sources
so that they are protected from severe transient overloads.
The windings are most susceptible to transient overloading.
However, rare-earth magnets (SmCo and NdFeB) exhibit
local eddy-current losses as heat sources, which are difficult
to estimate or measure. Hence, there is a much longer time
constant for magnets compared with windings although it is
essential to know the magnet temperature for transient and
demagnetization calculation.
In this section, traditional thermal designs will be outlined,
and then, modern techniques will be reviewed.
A. Traditional Thermal-Sizing Methods
Traditional thermal sizing uses a single parameter, which is a
thermal resistance, as shown in Fig. 13(a), for the housing heattransfer coefficient. In addition, the winding current density
and specific electric loading are considered. Traditional thermal
modeling tends to be empirical with data obtained from the
following:
1) simple rules of thumb, e.g., for a totally enclosed machine, a conductor current density of 5 A/mm2 and a heattransfer coefficient [Fig. 13(b)] of 12 W/m2 / C;
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Fig. 13. Traditional thermal modeling using single thermal resistance and single heat-transfer coefficient. (a) Thermal resistance from winding to ambient.
(b) Heat-transfer coefficient.
TABLE V
TYPICAL CURRENT DENSITY AND HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
DORRELL et al.: REVIEW OF DESIGN ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES FOR PERMANENT-MAGNET MOTORS
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Fig. 14. Thermal circuits and winding model of machine. (a) Lumped thermal model (part model) with heat sources, thermal resistances, and thermal
capacitancessurface-magnet rotor. (b) Multilayer winding representation when there is a high temperature gradient. Traditional winding for random-wound
coils and 54% slot fill.
The peak current for both simulations was 15 A, and the same
short-pitched winding in Fig. 6(a) was utilized. Interestingly,
in the Appendix, the theoretical ac/dc control rating ratio was
calculated to be 1.5. Here, by simply changing from sineto square-wave control, the torque increases by 1.15. If the
winding is fully pitched for the dc control, then the torque is
1.07 so that the ratio is 1.23. However, the rms current with
the dc control is higher. Using the same rms currents and fully
pitched winding in the dc simulation gives a torque ratio of
1.07. These results were obtained in the SPEED PC-BDC and
PC-FEA environments.
B. Frozen Permeability Method
This method is a very powerful tool for separating out the
different torque components due to excitation and reluctance
Fig. 16. Prius PM-motor cross section in SPEED PC-BDCthis shows two
magnets per pole and high saliency.
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Fig. 17. One-pole machine from static FEA solution. Peak flux density in
teeth is about 2.10 T. Load current is 190.9 A on the q-axis (1500 r/min).
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Fig. 18. Separation of torque at 1500 r/min with 190.9-A loadingvariation of current phase with respect to q-axis.
Fig. 19. Separation of torque at 6000 r/min with 35.4-A loadingvariation of current phase with respect to q-axis.
Fig. 20. Efficiency plot for PC-BDC simulations using phase angles of 0 ,
30 , and 60 .
The work in this paper often uses various commercial software products as the working environments while discussing
the fundamental design concepts. The products are not necessarily unique, and a designer should consider trying different
products in order to assess their suitability and even developing
their own design software using the large body of scientific
algorithms and design and analysis techniques already published. In terms of alternatives, there are other notable examples
3754
peak of the flux density wave is limited by the steel saturation characteristics. The analysis here makes that assumption.
Hence, under ac control, only the fundamental of the air-gap
flux density wave should be considered, together with the main
current density wave. This is for a distributed winding, and a
three-phase winding is assumed. The mean stress is then
mean =
Bpk(fund) Jrms
Bpk(fund) Jpk
=
2
2
(A1)
where the stator current density can be estimated from a sinusoidal spatial variation on the stator surface [Fig. 22(a)] so that
Jrms =
Fig. 22. Air-gap flux density and stator surface current density for ac and dc
motors. (a) B and J for ac machine. (b) B and J for dc machine.
AC
Nph Irms
3KW
.
2
D
(A2)
.
= 0.55
D
2 2D
(A3)
4
Bpk(trap) .
(A4)
Hence
mean =
.
= 0.7
D
2 2D
(A5)
2
Bpk(trap) Jpk .
3
(A6)
Jpk = KW
2Nph Ipk
6Nph Ipk
DC
= KW
.
2/3 D/2
D
(A7)
For a trapezoidal current waveform with a width of 120 electrical degrees [Fig. 22(b)], the rms current is
2
Ipk .
Irms =
(A8)
3
Putting (A5) into (A7) gives
2 3 6Bpk(trap) Nph Irms
mean =
3 2
D
6Bpk(trap) Nph Irms
.
= 0.82
D
(A9)
DORRELL et al.: REVIEW OF DESIGN ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES FOR PERMANENT-MAGNET MOTORS
Vpk Ipk
= 3Vrms Irms .
2
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
(A10)
[23]
[24]
[25]
(A12)
[26]
[27]
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David G. Dorrell (M95SM08) is a native of
St. Helens, U.K. He received the B.Eng. (Hons.)
degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering from
The University of Leeds, Leeds U.K., in 1988,
the M.Sc. degree in Power Electronics Engineering
from The University of Bradford, Bradford, U.K., in
1989, and the Ph.D. degree from The University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K., in 1993.
He has held lecturing positions with Robert
Gordon University, Aberdeen, U.K., and the University of Reading, Berkshire, U.K. He was a Senior
Lecturer with the University of Glasgow, Glasgow, U.K., for several years. In
2008, he took up a post with the University of Technology Sydney, Sydney,
Australia, where he was promoted to Associate Professor in 2009. He is
also an Adjunct Associate Professor with National Cheng Kung University,
Tainan, Taiwan. His research interests cover the design and analysis of various
electrical machines and also renewable-energy systems with over 150 technical
publications to his name.
Dr. Dorrell is a Chartered Engineer in the U.K. and a Fellow of the Institution
of Engineering and Technology.
Min-Fu Hsieh (M02) was born in Tainan, Taiwan,
in 1968. He received the B.Eng. degree in mechanical engineering from National Cheng Kung University (NCKU), Tainan, in 1991 and the M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees in mechanical engineering from the
University of Liverpool, Liverpool, U.K., in 1996
and 2000, respectively.
From 2000 to 2003, he served as a Researcher
with the Electric Motor Technology Research Center,
NCKU. In 2003, he joined the Department of Systems and Naval Mechatronic Engineering, NCKU, as
an Assistant Professor. In 2007, he was promoted to Associate Professor. His
area of interests includes renewable-energy generation (wave, tidal current, and
wind), electric propulsors, servo control, and electric machine design.
Dr. Hsieh is a member of the IEEE Magnetics, Industrial Electronics,
Oceanic Engineering, and Industrial Applications Societies.
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