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Oncology (from the Ancient Greek onkos - meaning bulk, mass, or tumor, and the suffix -logy - meaning "study of") is
a branch of medicine that deals with tumors (cancer). A medical professional who practices oncology is an
oncologist.Oncology is concerned with:
The diagnosis of any cancer in a person
Therapy (e.g., surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other modalities)
Follow-up of cancer patients after successful treatment
Palliative care of patients with terminal malignancies
Ethical questions surrounding cancer care
Screening efforts:
o of populations, or
o of the relatives of patients (in types of cancer that are thought to have a hereditary basis, such as
breast cancer.
A.
B.
3. Colon cancer
4. Lung cancer
5. Prostate cancer
Sites of Metastasis
Central Nervous System
Brain
Liver
Regional lymph nodes
Vertebrae
Brain
Liver
Lung
Lymph nodes
Ovaries
Bone
Brain
Liver
Lymph nodes
Pancreas
Spinal cord
Bladder
Bone
Liver
Benzene (Leukemia)
Diesel exhaust (Lung)
Hair dyes (bladder)
Pesticides (Lungs)
Sunlight (Skin; eyes)
Tobacco (Lungs; esophagus; mouth; pharynx; larynx)
smokeless tobacco (snuff and chewing tobacco) increases the risk of oral and esophageal
cancers
* long-term exposure to secondhand smoke increases the risk for lung and bladder cancers
2. Physical Carcinogens
Radiation
Normal Cells
Mitotic division lead to 2 daughter cells
Appearance
Cancer Cells
Mitosis leads to multiple daughter cells that
may or may not resemble the parent. Multiple
mitotic spindles
1. cells larger and grow more rapidly than
normal; pleomorphic
2. Cells not as cohesive; irregular patterns of
expansion
3. Larger, more prominent nucleus
4. Lack characteristic pattern of organization of
host cell
Growth pattern
Function
Other
Metastasis
- ability of cancer cells to spread from the original site of the tumor to distant organs
Stages:
1. Detachment
* tumor cell loses cohesiveness and it has increasing motility
* tumor cell detaches from the primary tumor and create defects in the basemement membranes with
resulting stromal invasion and spread into circulation
2. Migration
* Cancer cells migrate via the lymph or blood circulation or by direct extension
* The lymphatic system provides the most common pathway for the initial spread of malignant cancer cells
* The blood vessels carry cancer cells from the primary tumor to the capillary beds of the lungs, liver and
bones
* Direct tumor extension of tumors to adjacent tissues also occurs
3. Dissemination
* Cancer cells are established at the secondary site which may result from entrapment due to the size of the
tumor clump, adherence to cells at the new through specific interactions, or by binding to exposed
basement membrane
4. Angiogenesis
* Vascularization of the tumor
proposes that immune responses, particularly cell-mediated, provide a defense against cancer
cells by recognizing the antigens on the surface of some neoplastic cells as foreign
- they are killed by cytotoxic T cells that have receptors for specific tumor antigens and by interferonactivated natural killer (NK) lymphocytes and macrophages
- macrophages phagocytize the pathogen and present it as antigen to T and B lymphocytes
Failure of Immune Defenses
- the immune system may be unable to recognize cancer cells as foreign or to mount an immune
response due to the following:
a. its immature, old or weak
b. malnutrition or chronic ailment
c. cancer cells escape detection because they resemble normal cells.
Others produce substances that shield them from recognition or they
may be coated with fibrin
d. use of immunosuppressive drugs which can suppress immune system
Classification of Neoplasms
1. Benign from latin word benigunus- kind
2. Malignant
Characteristic
Speed Growth
Mode of Growth
Capsule
Cell characteristics
Recurrence
Benign Neoplasm
Grows slowly
Usually continues to grow throughout
life unless surgically removed
May have periods of remission
Grows by enlarging and expanding
Always remains localized; never
infiltrates surrounding tissues
Malignant Neoplasm
Usually grows rapidly
Tends to grow relentlessly throughout life
Rarely, neoplasm may regress spontaneously
Metastasis
Effect of Neoplasm
Never occur
Not harmful to host unless located in
area where it compresses tissue or
obstructs vital organs
Does not produce cachexia (weight
loss, debilitation, anemia, weakness,
wasting)
Prognosis
Very good
Tumor generally removed surgically
Benign Neoplasms
Malignant Neoplasms
Osteoma
Fibroma
Lipoma
Osteosarcoma
Fibrosarcoma
Liposarcoma
Adenoma
Papilloma
Adenocarcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
Hematopoietic
Erythrocytes
Granulocytes
Lymphatic tissue
Erythroleukemia
Leukemia
Hodgkins disease, malignant lymphoma
Lymphocytes
Plasma cells
Lymphocytic leukaemia
Multiple myeloma
3. Host modification
- aims to alter the bodys internal environment to decrease the risk of or to reverse a carcinogenic process
Cancer Prevention
1. Skin: Avoid exposure to sunlight
2. Oral: Annual oral examination
3. Breast: Monthly BSE from age 20
4. Lungs: Avoid cigarette smoking; annual chest x-ray
5. Colon: DRE for person over age 40. Rectal biopsy, proctosigmoidoscopic examination, Guiac stool examination for
persons age 50 and above
6. Uterus: annual Paps smear from age 40
7. Basic: annual physical examination and blood examination
Dietary Recommendations against cancer
1. Avoid obesity
2. Cut down on total fat intake
3. Eat more high fiber foods raw fruits and vegetables, whole grain cereal
4. Include food rich in vitamin A and C in daily diet
5. Include cruciferous vegetables in the diet: brocolli, cabbage, cauliflower, brussel sprouts
6. Be moderate in the consumption of alcoholic beverages
7. Be moderate in the consumption of salt-cured, smoked-cured and nitrate-cured foods
Recommendations of the American Cancer Society for Early Cancer Detection
1. For detection of breast cancer
a. Beginning at age 20, routinely perform monthly breast self-examination
b. Women ages 20-39 should have breast examination by a healthcare provider every 3 years
c. Women age 40 and older should have a yearly mammogram and breast self-examination by a healthcare
provider
2. For detection of colon and rectal cancer
a. all persons age 50 and older should have a yearly fecal occult blood test
b. digital rectal examination and flexible sigmoidoscopy should be done every 5 years
c. Colonoscopy with barium enema should be done every 10 years
3. For detection of uterine cancer
a. yearly papanicolao (Pap) smear for sexually active females and any female over age 18
b. At menopause, high-risk women should have an endometrial tissue sample
4. For detection of prostate cancer
a. beginning at age 50, have a yearly digital rectal examination
b. beginning at age 50, have a yearly prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test
American Cancer Societys seven warning signs of cancer (uses acronym CAUTION US):
1. Change in bowel or bladder habits
2. A sore that does not heal
3. Unusual bleeding or discharge
4. Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere
5. Indigestions or difficulty in swallowing
6. Obvious change in wart or mole
7. Nagging cough or hoarseness
8. Unexplained Anemia
9. Sudden loss of weight
Diagnostic tests of Cancer
1. Biopsy/cytology
a. Histologic and cytologic examination of specimens are performed by the pathologist on tissues collected by
needle aspiration of solid tumors, exfoliation from epithelial surface, and aspiration of fluid from blood or body
cavities
b. Tissues may be obtained by excisional biopsy, incisional biopsy, and needle biopsy
c. By examination of these tissues, the name, grade, and stage of the tumor can be identified
h. If working routinely near radiation sources, wear a monitoring device to measure exposure
i. Educate client in all safety measures
6. Evaluation: client demonstrates measures to protect others from exposure to radiation, identifies interventions to
reduce risk of infection, remains free from infection, achieves adequate fluid and nutritional intake
activities of daily living (ADLs) at level of ability
The client undergoing external radiation therapy (teletheraphy)
1. The radiation oncologist marks specific locations for radiation treatment using a semipermanent type of ink
a. Treatment is usually given 15-30 minutes per day, 5 day per week, for 2-7
weeks
b. The client does not pose a risk for radiation exposure to other people
2. side effects of external radiation therapy
a. Tissue damage to target area (erythema, sloughing, hemorrhage)
b. Ulcerations of oral mucous membranes
c. Gastrointestinal effects such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea
d. Radiation pneumonia
e. Fatigue
f. Alopecia
g. Immunosuppression
3.Priority nursing diagnoses: risk for infection; impaired skin integrity; social
isolation; disturbed body image; anxiety; fatigue
4. Client education exam for external radiation
a. Wash the marked area of the skin with plain water only and pat skin dry; do not use soaps, deodorants,
lotions, perfumes, powders or medications on the site during the duration of the treatment; do not wash
off the treatment site marks
b. Avoid rubbing, scratching, or scrubbing the treatment site; do not apply extreme temperatures (Heat or
Cold) to the treatment site ; if shaving, use only an electric razor
c. Wear soft, loose-fitting over the treatment area
d. Protect skin from sun exposure during the treatment and for at least 1 year after the treatment is
completed; when going outdoors, use sun-blocking agents with sun protector factor (SPF) of at least 15
e. Maintain proper rest, diet, and fluid intake as essential to promoting health and repair of normal tissues
f. Hair loss may occur; choose a wig, hat, or scarf to cover and protect head (refer to care of client with
alopecia later in chapter)
5. Nursing management of the client receiving external radiation
a. Monitor for adverse side effects of radiation
b. Monitor for significant decreases in white blood cell counts and platelet
counts
c. Client teaching (refer to later sections for management of
immunosuppression, thrombocytopenia
6. Evaluation; client identifies interventions to reduce risk of infection, remains
free from infection, achieves adequate fluid and nutritional intake, participates
in activities of daily living (ADLs) at level of ability, and maintains intact
skin.
The Client Undergoing a Bone Marrow Transplant (BMT)
1. BMT used in the treatment of leukemias, usually in conjunction with radiation or chemotherapy
a. Autologous BMT the client is infused with own bone marrow harvested
during remission of disease
b. Allogenic BMT the client is infused with donor bone marrow harvested
from a healthy individual
2. The bone marrow is usually harvested from the iliac crest, then frozen and stored until transfusion
3. Before receiving the BMT, the client must first undergo a phase of immunosuppressive therapy to destroy the
immune system, infection, bleeding, and death are major complications that can occur during this conditioning phase
4. After immunosuppression, the bone marrow is transfused intravenously through a central line
5. Side of BMT
a. malnutrition
b. infection related to immunosuppression
c. bleeding related to thrombocytopenia
6. Priority Nursing Diagnoses
a. Risk for infection
b. Risk for hemorrhage
c. Risk for imbalanced nutrition
d. Social isolation
e. Anxiety
7. Nursing Management of client undergoing a bone marrow transplant
a. Monitor for graft-versus-host disease
b. Provide private room for the hospitalized client; client will be hospitalized for 6-8 weeks
c. Encourage contact with significant others by using telephone, computer, and other means of communication
to reduce feelings of isolation
d. Refer to management for imbalanced nutrition, immunosuppression and thrombocytopenia
8. Evaluation: client evaluates understanding of risks and participates in activities that reduce risk of infection,
hemorrhage, and malnutrition; client demonstrates effective coping mechanisms
4. Cardiac tamponade
a. Pericardial effusion secondary to metastases or esophageal cancer can lead to compression of heart,
restricting heart movement and resulting in cardiac tamponade
b. Signs and symptoms are related to cardiogenic shock or circulatory collapse: anxiety, cyanosis,
dyspnea,hypotension, tachycardia,tachypnea,impaired levels of consciousness, and increased central venous
pressure
c. Pericardiocentesis is performed to remove fluid from pericardial sac
d. Nursing interventions
1) administering oxygen
2) maintaining intravenous line
3) Monitoring vital signs
4) hemodynamic monitoring
5) administration of vasopressor agents