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There is nothing in the universe to compare with the human brain. This
mysterious three-pound squishy tissue controls all necessary functions of our physical
body, receives information from the outside world and makes it understandable, and goes
beyond that which is understandable to embody the essence of our mind and soul.
Intelligence, creativity, emotion, love, memories are but a few of the many things the
brain does. The weight of the brain changes from birth through adulthood. At birth, the
average brain weighs about one pound, and grows to about two pounds during childhood.
The average weight of an adult female brain is about 2.7 pounds, while the brain of an
adult male weighs about three pounds.
The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell, touch, taste,
and hearing - often many at one time. It puts together the messages in a way that has
meaning for us, and can store that information in our memory. Our brain controls our
thoughts, memory and speech, the movements of our arms and legs and the function of
many organs within our body. It also determines how we respond to stressful situations
(i.e., writing of an exam, loss of a job, illness) by regulating our heart and breathing rate.
Nervous system

(CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) is composed of spinal nerves that branch
from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain. The PNS
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

includes the autonomic nervous system, which controls our vital internal
functions such as respiration, digestion, heart rate, and secretion of hormones.

The

Brain
The
brain,
when fully

developed, is a large organ which fills the cranial cavity. Early in its development the
brain becomes divided into three parts known as the forebrain, the midbrain and the
hindbrain. The brain lies within the skull and is shaped like a mushroom. The brain
consists of four principal parts:

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the brain stem

the cerebrum
the cerebellum
the diencephalon

The brain weighs approximately 1.3 to 1.4 kg. It has nerve cells called the
neurons and supporting cells called the glia.
There are two types of matter in the brain: grey matter and white matter. Grey
matter receives and stores impulses. Cell bodies of neurons and neuroglia are in the grey
matter. White matter in the brain carries impulses to and from grey matter. It consists of
the nerve fibers (axons).
The brain stem
The brain stem is also known as the Medulla oblongata. It is located between the
pons and the spinal cord and is only about one inch long.
The cerebrum
The cerebrum forms the bulk of the brain and is supported on the brain stem. The
cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres. Each hemisphere controls the activities of the
side of the body opposite that hemisphere.
The hemispheres are further divided into four lobes:

Frontal lobe

Temporal lobes
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe

The cerebellum
This is located behind and below the cerebrum.
The diencephalon
The diencephalon is also known as the fore brain stem. It includes the thalamus
and hypothalamus. The thalamus is where sensory and other impulses go and coalesce.
The hypothalamus is a smaller part of the diencephalon
The brain is composed of three parts: the brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebrum.
The cerebrum is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
A. Brainstem - includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It acts as a relay center
connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs many
automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and
sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing. Ten of the
twelve cranial nerves originate in the brainstem. The brainstem is the lower
extension of the brain, located in front of the cerebellum and connected to the
spinal cord. It consists of three structures: the midbrain, pons and medulla
oblongata. It serves as a relay station, passing messages back and forth between
various parts of the body and the cerebral cortex. Many simple or primitive
functions that are essential for survival are located here.
1. Midbrain - is an important center for ocular motion

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2. Pons - is involved with coordinating eye and facial movements, facial sensation,
hearing and balance.
3. Medulla oblongata - controls breathing, blood pressure, heart rhythms and
swallowing. Messages from the cortex to the spinal cord and nerves that branch
from the spinal cord are sent through the pons and the brainstem. Destruction of
these regions of the brain will cause "brain death." Without these key functions,
humans cannot survive.
The reticular activating system is found in the midbrain, pons, medulla and part of
the thalamus. It controls levels of wakefulness, enables people to pay attention to their
environments, and is involved in sleep patterns. Originating in the brainstem are 10 of the
12 cranial nerves that control hearing, eye movement, facial sensations, taste, swallowing
and movements of the face, neck, shoulder and tongue muscles. The cranial nerves for
smell and vision originate in the cerebrum. Four pairs of cranial nerves originate from the
pons: nerves 5 through 8.

B. Cerebrum - the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left
hemispheres. It is separated from the cerebrum by the tentorium (fold of dura).
The cerebrum, which forms the major portion of the brain, is divided into two
major parts: the right and left cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum is a term
often used to describe the entire brain. A fissure or groove that separates the two
hemispheres is called the great longitudinal fissure. The two sides of the brain
are joined at the bottom by the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum connects
the two halves of the brain and delivers messages from one half of the brain to the
other. The surface of the cerebrum contains billions of neurons and glia that
together form the cerebral cortex

C. Cerebellum - located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle

movements, maintain posture, and balance. The cerebellum fine tunes motor
activity or movement, e.g. the fine movements of fingers as they perform surgery
or paint a picture. It helps one maintain posture, sense of balance or equilibrium,
by controlling the tone of muscles and the position of limbs. The cerebellum is
important in one's ability to perform rapid and repetitive actions such as playing a
video game. It performs higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and
hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of
movement.

D. The cerebral cortex appears grayish brown in color and is called the "gray
matter." The surface of the brain appears wrinkled. The cerebral cortex has sulci
(small grooves), fissures (larger grooves) and bulges between the grooves called
gyri. Beneath the cerebral cortex or surface of the brain, connecting fibers
between neurons form a white-colored area called the "white matter."

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The cerebral hemispheres have several distinct fissures. By locating these
landmarks on the surface of the brain, it can effectively be divided into pairs of "lobes."
Lobes are simply broad regions of the brain. The cerebrum or brain can be divided into
pairs of frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes. Each hemisphere has a frontal,
temporal, parietal and occipital lobe. Each lobe may be divided, once again, into areas
that serve very specific functions. The lobes of the brain do not function alone they
function through very complex relationships with one another.
Lobes of the brain
Frontal lobe
Personality, behavior, emotions
Judgment, planning, problem solving
Speech: speaking and writing (Brocas area)
Body movement (motor strip)
Intelligence, concentration, self awareness
Parietal lobe

Interprets language, words

Sense of touch, pain, temperature (sensory strip)
Interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor, sensory and memory
Spatial and visual perception

Occipital lobe

Interprets vision (color, light, movement)

Temporal lobe

Understanding language (Wernickes area)

Memory
Hearing
Sequencing and organization

Messages within the brain are delivered in many ways. The signals are transported
along routes called pathways. Any destruction of brain tissue by a tumor can disrupt the
communication between different parts of the brain. The result will be a loss of function
such as speech, the ability to read, or the ability to follow simple spoken commands.
Messages can travel from one bulge on the brain to another (gyri to gyri), from one lobe
to another, from one side of the brain to the other, from one lobe of the brain to structures
that are found deep in the brain, e.g. thalamus, or from the deep structures of the brain to
another region in the central nervous system.

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Deep structures

Hypothalamus - The hypothalamus is located in the floor of the third ventricle and is the
master control of the autonomic system. It plays a role in controlling behaviors such as
hunger, thirst, sleep, and sexual response. It also regulates body temperature, blood
pressure, emotions, and secretion of hormones.
Thalamus - The thalamus serves as a relay station for almost all information that comes
and goes to the cortex. It plays a role in pain sensation, attention, alertness and memory.
Basal ganglia - The basal ganglia include the caudate, putamen and globus pallidus.
These nuclei work with the cerebellum to coordinate fine motions, such as fingertip
movements.
Limbic system - The limbic system is the center of our emotions, learning, and memory.
Included in this system are the cingulate gyri, hypothalamus, amygdala (emotional
reactions) and hippocampus (memory).
Other parts of the brain
Other parts of the brain include the midbrain and the pons:

the midbrain provides conduction pathways to and from higher and lower centers

the pons acts as a pathway to higher structures; it contains conduction pathways

between the medulla and higher brain centers

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The spinal cord
The spinal cord is along tube like structure which extends from the brain. The
spinal cord is composed of a series of 31 segments. A pair of spinal nerves comes out of
each segment. The region of the spinal cord from which a pair of spinal nerves originates
is called the spinal segment. Both motor and sensory nerves are located in the spinal
cord.
The spinal cord is about 43 cm long in adult women and 45 cm long in adult men
and weighs about 35-40 grams. It lies within the vertebral column, the collection of bones
(back bone).
Other parts of the central nervous system
The meninges are three layers or membranes that cover the brain and the spinal
cord. The outermost layer is the dura mater. The middle layer is the arachnoid, and the
innermost layer is the pia mater. The meninges offer protection to the brain and the spinal
cord by acting as a barrier against bacteria and other microorganisms.
The Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) circulates around the brain and spinal cord. It protects and
nourishes the brain and spinal cord.

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Cranial nerves
The brain communicates with the body through the spinal cord and twelve pairs
of cranial nerves ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves that control hearing, eye
movement, facial sensations, taste, swallowing and movement of the face, neck, shoulder
and tongue muscles originate in the brainstem. The cranial nerves for smell and vision
originate in the cerebrum.
Number
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII

Name
Olfactory
Optic
Oculomotor
Trochlear
Trigeminal
Abducens
Facial
Vestibulocochlear
Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
Accessory
Hypoglossal

Function
Smell
sight
moves eye, pupil
moves eye
face sensation
moves eye
moves face, salivate
hearing, balance
taste, swallow
heart rate, digestion
moves head
moves tongue

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Blood supply

Blood is carried to the brain by two paired arteries, the internal carotid arteries
and the vertebral arteries. The internal carotid arteries supply most of the cerebrum. The
vertebral arteries supply the cerebellum, brainstem, and the underside of the cerebrum.
After passing through the skull, the two vertebral arteries join together to form a single
basilar artery. The basilar artery and the internal carotid arteries communicate with
each other at the base of the brain called the Circle of Willis. The communication
between the internal carotid and vertebral-basilar systems is an important safety feature
of the brain. If one of the major vessels becomes blocked, it is possible for collateral
blood flow to come across the Circle of Willis and prevent brain damage.

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The Circle of Willis
The Circle of Willis or the Circulus Arteriosus is an arterial polygon where the
blood carried by the two internal carotid arteries and the basilar system comes together
and then is redistributed by the anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries. The
posterior cerebral artery is connected to the internal carotid artery by the posterior
communicating artery.
Internal Carotid System
The internal carotid artery divides into two main branches called the middle
cerebral artery and the anterior cerebral artery. The middle cerebral artery supplies
blood to the frontoparietal somatosensory cortex. The anterior cerebral artery supplies
blood to the frontal lobes and medial aspects of the parietal and occipital lobes. Before
this divide, the internal carotid artery gives rise to the anterior communicating artery
and the posterior communicating artery.
Vertebral Artery
The two vertebral arteries run along the medulla and fuse at the pontomedullary
junction to form the midline basilar artery, also called the vertebro-basilar artery. Before
forming the basilar artery, each vertebral artery gives rise to the posterior spinal artery,
the anterior spinal artery, the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) and branches to
the medulla.
Basilar Artery
At the ponto-midbrain junction, the basilar artery divides into the two posterior
cerebral arteries. Before this divide, it gives rise to numerous paramedian, short and long
circumferential penetrators and two other branches known as the anterior inferior
cerebellar artery and the superior cerebellar artery.
Neurons
The neuron is the basic unit in the nervous system. It is a specialized conductor
cell that receives and transmits electrochemical nerve impulses. A typical neuron has a
cell body and long arms that conduct impulses from one body part to another body part.

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There are three different parts of the neuron:

the cell body

dendrites
axon

Cell body of a neuron

The cell body is like any other cell with a nucleus or control center.
Dendrites
The cell body has several highly branched, thick extensions that appear like cables
and are called dendrites. The exception is a sensory neuron that has a single, long
dendrite instead of many dendrites. Motor neurons have multiple thick dendrites.
The dendrite's function is to carry a nerve impulse into the cell body.
Axon
An axon is a long, thin process that carries impulses away from the cell body to
another neuron or tissue. There is usually only one axon per neuron.
Myelin Sheath
The neuron is covered with the Myelin Sheath or Schwann Cells. These are white
segmented covering around axons and dendrites of many peripheral neurons. The
covering is continuous along the axons or dendrites except at the point of
termination and at the nodes of Ranvier.

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The neurilemma is the layer of Schwann cells with a nucleus. Its function is to
allow damaged nerves to regenerate. Nerves in the brain and spinal cord do not have a
neurilemma and, therefore cannot recover when damaged.
Types of neuron
Neurons in the body can be classified according to structure and function.
According to structure neurons may be multipolar neurons, bipolar neurons, and unipolar
neurons:

Multipolar neurons have one axon and several dendrites. These are common in the
brain and spinal cord

Bipolar neurons have one axon and one dendrite. These are seen in the retina of
the eye, the inner ear, and the olfactory (smell) area.
Unipolar neurons have one process extending from the cell body. The one process
divides with one part acting as an axon and the other part functioning as dendrite.
These are seen in the spinal cord.

The Peripheral nervous system

The Peripheral nervous system is made up of two parts:

Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system
The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that pick up
sensory information or sensations from the peripheral or distant organs (those away from
the brain like limbs) and carry them to the central nervous system.
These also consist of motor nerve fibers that come out of the brain and take the
messages for movement and necessary action to the skeletal muscles. For example, on
touching a hot object the sensory nerves carry information about the heat to the brain,
which in turn, via the motor nerves, tells the muscles of the hand to withdraw it
immediately.
The whole process takes less than a second to happen. The cell body of the neuron
that carries the information often lies within the brain or spinal cord and projects directly
to a skeletal muscle.
Autonomic Nervous System
Another part of the nervous system is the Autonomic Nervous System. It has three
parts:

the sympathetic nervous system

the parasympathetic nervous system

the enteric nervous system

This nervous system controls the nerves of the inner organs of the body on which
humans have no conscious control. This includes the heartbeat, digestion, breathing
(except conscious breathing) etc.
The nerves of the autonomic nervous system enervate the smooth involuntary
muscles of the (internal organs) and glands and cause them to function and secrete their
enzymes etc.

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The Enteric nervous system is the third part of the autonomic nervous system. The
enteric nervous system is a complex network of nerve fibers that innervate the organs
within the abdomen like the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, gall bladder etc. It contains
nearly 100 million nerves.
Neurons in the peripheral nervous system
The smallest worker in the nervous system is the neuron. For each of the chain of
impulses there is one preganglionic neuron, or one before the cell body or ganglion, that
is like a central controlling body for numerous neurons going out peripherally.
The preganglionic neuron is located in either the brain or the spinal cord. In the
autonomic nervous system this preganglionic neuron projects to an autonomic ganglion.
The postganglionic neuron then projects to the target organ.
In the somatic nervous system there is only one neuron between the central nervous
system and the target organ while the autonomic nervous system uses two neurons.