1

What is Psychology?

FACTS THAT MATTER

Any knowledge discipline is hard to define because :
(i) It evolves continuously and
(ii) Any one definition cannot capture the range of phenomena involved.
The term psychology is derived from two Greek words :
Psyche meaning soul and Logos meaning science or study of a subject.
Thus, it was a study of the soul or mind.
But since then psychology has moved away considerably and established itself as a
scientific discipline which deals with processes underlying human experience and behaviour.
Range of phenomena

Bases

Biological

Levels

Social

Individual

Dyadic group

Organisational

Discipline defined as :
(A) What it studies : Mental processes, Experiences and Behaviours
(B) How it studies ie. Methods : in different contexts.
Psychology is defined as a science which studies mental processes, experiences and
behaviour in different contexts.
In doing so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically.
It makes sense of the data so that it can be organized as knowledge.
Mental process :
(i) Mental processes are activities of the mind and brain, related to cognition.
(ii) We use mental processes when we think or remember something, or solve a
problem.
(iii) However, these mental activities are different from neural activities, though they
are mutually overlapping processes.
(iv) The mind emerges and evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world
get dynamically organized in the form of a system which is responsible for the
occurrence of various mental processes.
(v) Mental processes include reasoning, learning, thinking, problem solving, perception,
etc.

Experiences:
Experiences can be defined as the learning acquired through everyday life situation.
(i) Experiences are subjective in nature, different for every individual.
(ii) We cannot directly observe or know someones experience.

(iii) Only the experiencing person can be aware or conscious of his/her experiences.
Thus, experiences are imbedded in our awareness or consciousness.
(iv) Experiences are influenced by internal and external conditions of the experiences.
(v) The nature of the experience can only be understood by analyzing a complex set of
internal and external conditions.
(vi) Experiences are important because most of our learning is based on experiences.
Behaviours :
(i) Behaviours are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in. Eg. One
can feel the heart pounding before taking an examination.
(ii) Some behaviours such as thinking may be simple or complex, short or enduring.
(iii) On the other hand, some behaviours can be outwardly seen or sensed and are
called overt, for example laughing.
(iv) All behaviours can be explained on the basis of S-R (Stimulus Response Relations).
Any behaviour, overt or covert, is associated with or triggered by a stimulus.
(v) Both stimulus and response can be internal or external.
(vi) The same stimulus can have different responses, due to the organism variable. It
emphasises upon an individuals uniqueness and variation that make him different
from other.
Psychology as a discipline
(i) It studies behaviour, experience and mental processes.
(ii) It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how different mental
processes result in different behaviours.
(iii) When we observe others, our own point of view or ways of understanding the
world influence our interpretations of their behaviours and experiences.
(iv) Psychologists try to minimize such biases in their explanations of behaviour and
experience in various ways.
(v) Some do so by making their analysis scientific and objective.
(vi) Others seek to explain behaviour from the point of view of those experiencing
persons because they think that selectivity is a necessary aspect of human experience.
Neuroscience and computer science borrow principles continuously from psychology.
There are fast developing brain imaging techniques like MRI, ECG, etc. which make it
possible to study brain processes in real time, i.e, when they are actually taking place.

Psychology as hybrid science :
Psychology is a hybrid science that draws its influence from both natural and social
sciences.
As a natural science :
(i) Modern Psychology has developed because of the application of the scientific
method to study, psychological phenomenon.

10 n PsychologyXI

 (ii) As a physical science, it emphasizes on data that is systematic and can be studied
under controlled conditions.
(iii) It is quantitative and requires analysis.
(iv) It takes influences from both physics and biology and believes in the Hypothetico
Deductive Model (HDM).
(v) Every or any hypothesis can be accepted or rejected on the basis of factors available.
The model suggests that scientific advancement can take place if you have a theory
to explain a phenomenon.
(vi) A hypothesis is a tentative solution to a problem that helps in guiding a research
or a theory.
(vii) Hypothesis has been successfully used for determining many theories related to
learning and memory. For example, the way a child has been brought up in his
family will shape his personality.
Conscious means to be alert and aware of something. We are aware of all the outside
environment as well as of the processes taking place in ourselves. Thus we are aware of
the diverse sensations, perceptions, memories and feelings that take place in ourselves.
In waking consciousness, we perceive time, place and events as real, meaningful and
familiar.
Psychology is a social science because it studies the behaviour of human beings in their
social tests cultural context.
Psychology as a social science discipline focuses on humans as social beings.
It focuses on the individual and communities in relation to their social, cultural and
physical environment.
If we go back in History Psychology was defined as the science of the Mind. The use of
term mind was considered to be relevant since it represents all the mental phenomena
such as perceiving, thinking, imagining, reasoning and so on. But, certain difficulties
regarding the term mind, its nature and its relationship with the body continued to
persist.
Due to many researches particularly in Neurology the term mind has returned in
Psychology. It is true that Mind and brain are different and mind cannot exist without
brain. Recent studies in Neuro Science has proved that there is a relationship between
Mind and Behaviour. These researches and neurological experiments proved that a
person suffer from damage of some part of the brain but his mind had remained intact.
Popular notions about the discipline of Psychology should be understood. Psychology as
a science explains patterns of behaviour which can be predicted and explains behaviour
before the act occur common sense. Psychology is based on hindsight. Professional
Psychologists are trained, affiliated to some institution. They attain educational and
professional qualification and understand, predict and modify human behaviour by
scientific methods.
The emergence of Psychology as a science of mental processes, behaviour and experiences
can be attributed to certain important development in Physiology and Physics as well as
to the efforts of William Wilhelm Wundt who established first Psychological laboratory
in 1879.
The evolution of Psychology can be traced in the major schools of Psychological thoughts.

What is Psychology? n

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Structuralism: It was proposed by Wundt and he studied the structure of conscious

experiences by introspection.
Introspection is a procedure in which individual or subjects in Psychological experiments
are asked to describe their own mental processes or experiences scientifically in detail.
Functionalism: It was proposed by William James and Jonh Dewey. They studied the
functions of concious experiences in how people deal with the environment using
introspection method. It shows the adaptation of human behaviour according to their
changing needs.
Gestalt Psychology: The school was proposed by Koffka, Khler and Werthiemer. It
focussed on human perception. According to Gestalt Psychology, the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts.
Behaviourism: It was proposed by John Watson and Skinner. According to this,
Psychology must focus on what is observable and verifiable.
Psychoanalysis: It was proposed by Dr Sigmund Freud. He focused on unconscious
mind and childhood experiences.
Humanistic Perspective: It was a revolt against Psychoanalysis and Behaviourism
proposed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. It stated that human strive to grow and
unfold their inner potential.
Cognitive Perspective: It focuses on mental processes. It views human beings as
actively constructing their mind through their exploration into the Physical and Social
world. Piaget stated that children actively construct their own minds whereas Vygotsky
suggested that the mind is a joint cultural construction and emerges as a result of
interaction between children and adults.
The modern era of Human Psychology began in the department of Philosophy at Calcutta
University where the first syllabus of experiment on Psychology was introduced and
the first Psychology Laboratory was established in 1915. Calcutta University started
the first department of Psychology in the year 1916 and another department of applied
Psychology in 1938. It was greatly influenced by Dr N.N. Sengupta.
Psychology as a science is closely related to other sciences. Behaviour is closely related to
Biological make up, the hereditary predisposition and his level of maturity. Physiology,
embroyology genetics and biochemistry are relating knowledge with Psychological
functioning of human beings. A large number of hospitals now employ Psychologists.
The roots of Psychology are found in Philosophy particularly with respect to methods
of knowing.
Psychology is closely related to Economics, Political Science and Sociology. Psychology
has provided knowledge related to micro level economic behaviour and consumer
behaviour. Psychology provides understanding of voting behaviour, exercise of power,
opinion polls etc. Sociology is positively related to Psychology, e.g., Psychology studies
human behaviour whereas Sociology studies human behaviour in society, i.e., socio
cultural context.
The information processing approach in cognitive Psychology, to explain memory and
concept of Artificial intelligence is highly linked with computer sciences.
Psychological principles explain crime, criminal behaviour, how well a witness
remembers a crime, etc. Accordingly Psychology is closely related to law and criminology.
Similarly Psychology has close bonds with Mass Communication, Music and Fine Arts,
Architecture and Engineering.

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Psychology as a discipline not only provide understanding to the development of

theoretical knowledge of human behaviour but it has close linkages across Psychological
processes. Psychologists now a days employed to help in diverse activities in different
domains of Professional activities including hospitals, educational settings, industrial
organisations, training institutes, military and government organisations.
Psychology continuously provides knowledge and understanding of human behaviour
in different domains. Some of the emerging perspectives are Evolutionary Psychology,
Cultural Psychology and Positive Psychology.
Evolutionary Psychology is an approach in social and natural sciences that examines
psychological structure from a modern evolutionary perspective.
It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are involved in adaptationsthat
is the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection.
The goal of research in evolutionary psychology is to discover and understand the
design of the human mind.
It is a theoretical approach to Psychology that attempts to explain useful mental and
psychological traits such as memory, perception or language as adaptations, i.e.,
as the functional products of natural selection.
The purpose of this approach is to bring the functional way of thinking about biological
mechanism such as the immune system into the field of Psychology.
In short Evolutionary Psychology is focused on how evolution has shaped the mind and
behaviour.
Cultural Psychology is the study of how psychological and behavioural tendencies are
rooted in and embodied in culture.
It studies how mind and culture are inseparable and mutually constitute, i.e., people are
shaped by culture and their culture is shaped by them.
Cultural Psychology is the study of the way cultural traditions and social practices,
regulate, express and transform the human Psyche, resulting less in Psychic unity for
human kind than in ethnic divergences in mind, self and emotion (Richard Shweder).
Contemporary psychologists have shown increasing interest in understanding what
makes life good and meaningful. This development is termed as positive psychology.
There are some themes which provides direction to research and application of
Psychology are to develop principles of behaviour and mental processes, function of
the attributes of persons and environment, causality of human behaviour, culturally
constructed human behaviour and controlling and modifying the behaviour.
Psychology can be viewed in two fold perspective which are complementary to each
other i.e. Basic Psychology and Applied Psychology. Basic Psychology provides theories
through researchers whereas Applied Psychology is related to the category of application
according to the needs of society.
Psychologists study a wide range of issues related to mental and behavioural
functioning. Psychologists study how the biological system works and socio-cultural
bases shapes human behaviour. Contemporary psychologists study these processes
from a perspective of lifespan. The basic psychological processes are parts of a dynamic
regulated system. All these processes are interconnected and together help the organism
to adapt to environment and grow. Knowing the environment requires several mental
processes, which together are called cognition. Psychologists study how information is
used in thinking, reasoning, decision-making, communicating and solving problems.

What is Psychology? n

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WORDS THAT MATTER

1. Behaviour: Any covert or overt action/reaction a person or animal does that can be
observed in some way.
2. Behaviourism: A school of thought that emphasises objectivity, observable behavioural
responses, learning, and environmental determinants.
3. Cognition: All the mental activities associated with knowing; namely, perceiving,
thinking, and remembering, etc. These are associated with processing, understanding,
and communication information.
4. Cognitive economy: A term to denote maximum and efficient use of the capacity of
long-term memory through organisation of concepts in a hierarchical network.
5. Consciousness: Awareness of the general condition of ones mind, awareness of
particular mental contents, or self-awareness.
6. Constructivism: Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively
constructing their minds through their exploration into the physical and the social
world.
7. Developmental Psychology: A branch of psychology which establishes the physical,
social and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages over a life-span,
from conception to old age.
8. Functionalism / Functional fixedness: The tendency to think of thinks only in terms of
their usual functions, impediments to problem solving. The school of psychology that
emphasised the utilitarian, adaptive functions of the human mind or consciousness.
9. Gestalt: An organised whole, Gestalt psychologists emphasise our tendency to integrate
pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
10. Gestalt psychology: A branch of psychology in which behaviour is viewed as an
integrated whole, greater than the sum of its parts.
11. Humanistic approach: The approach to Psychology that emphasises the person, or the
self, and personal growth and development.
12. Hue: Property of chromatic colours or name of the colours.
13. Introspection: The process of looking inward to ones feeling and conscious experience.
14. Mind: Mind is a concept, which refers to unique set of individuals sensations,
perceptions, memories, thoughts, dreams, motives and emotional feelings.
15. Neuro psychology: It is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes as
function of brain activity and the nervous system.
16. Physiological psychology: A scientific study of human and animal behaviour based
on the relationship of physiological processes like those of nervous system, hormones,
sensory organs and the behavioural parameters.
17. Psychoanalysis: A method of psychotherapy in which the therapist attempts to bring
repressed unconscious material into conscious.
18. Sociology: The systematic study of the biological basis for social behaviour.
19. Stimulus: Any well-defined element in the environment affecting the organism, which
may lead to an overt or a covert response.
20. Structuralism: Associated with Wilhelm Wundt, the approach to psychology that seeks
to understand the structure and operation of consciousness, or the human mind.

14 n PsychologyXI

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

Q 1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour?
Ans. Behaviour refers to any response of an organism that can be measured. Any covert or
overt action/reaction a person does that can be observed in some ways.
A person running to catch train is an example of overt behaviour.
The working of human memory or problem solving might be thought of as behaviour,
even though they cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from their product.
Q 2. How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the
discipline of Psychology?
Ans. The popular theories of human behaviour are based on common sense and may or
may not be true if investigated scientifically.

Common sense based on hind sight. Psychology as a science looks for patterns of
behaviour which can be predicted and not explained after the behaviour occurs.

Dwecks study on children (who gave up too easily when faced with difficult
problems or failures) is worth mentioning here.

Commonsense tells us to give them easy problems, first in order to increase their
success rate so that their confidence goes up.
Dweck found that children who had always succeeded because they were given easy
problems could not cope up with difficult problems and gave up faster in comparison
to those who had experience of both success and failure and were taught to put more
effort to deal with difficult problems.
Such studies prove that predictions based on empirical studies are reliable and valid.
Q 3. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.
Ans. Psychology as a modern discipline has a short history but a long past. It grew out of
ancient philosophy. It emerges as a scientific discipline in the following phases:

1. Structuralism:
It is the oldest school/approach to psychology, and it was proposed by William Wundt.

Structuralists were interested in analysis of human mind and its structure.

They were interested in conscious experience and wanted to study the building
blocks of mind.

They used introspective method to study mental processes and experiences.

2. Functionalism :
It is an approach to psychology, developed by an American Psychologist William
James.

They (Functionalists) emphasised on what the mind does and the function of
consciousness in adjustment to the environment

According to them consciousness is an on-going stream of mental process, it cant
be broken down into parts.

They also used introspective method to study mental processes and experiences.

3. Behaviourism :
Proposed by John B. Watson who viewed psychology as the science of behaviour and
behaviour could be described objectively in terms of stimuli and responses (S-R).

This approach proposed that mentalist concepts such as consciousness, image or
mind cannot be measured or studied objectively and scientifically.

What is Psychology? n

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Watson emphasised on observable and verifiable response to stimuli.

He was influenced by Pavlovs classical conditioning and was interested in the
study of learning.

4. Gestalt Psychology:
This approach was a revolt against structuralism, founded in Germany by Wertheimer,
Kohler and Koffka

It focused on perceptual originisation (organisation of what we see) and they also
demonstrated the laws of perceptual organisation.

Structuralist wanted to break down perception into elements but Gestalt stated
that when we look at the world, our perceptual experience is more than the sum
of the components of the perceptions i.e. we give meaning to perception.

For example, when we look at a table we do not see four wooden legs and trapezoid
plain surface above it but we recognise it as a table.
5. Psychoanalysis:
This approach was proposed by Dr. Sigmund Freud.

He viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires
and conflicts of which we are not aware at present.

He used psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological
disorders.
6. Humanism:
It was advocated by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

They emphasised on the free will of human beings i.e. people are free to do
whatever they choose to do. Their actions are not predetermined by any force.

They said that human beings strive to grow and unfold their inner potential i.e.
what they are capable of doing.

According to them all individuals have innate tendency to self actualise and all
human activities are goal directed and worthwhile.

7. Cognitive Perspective/Constructivism:
This perspective is a combination of Gestalt approach and structuralist approach.
This approach focuses on cognition i.e. how we know the world through thinking,
understanding, perceiving, memorising and problem solving etc.

Jean Piaget and Vygotsky are the pioneers of this approach.

Cognitive psychologists view the human mind as an information processing
system like a computer.

Mind is considered to receive, process, transform, store and retrieve information.

Mind is dynamic and human beings actively construct their minds as they interact
with the social and physical environment and interaction between adults and
children.
Q 4. What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other
disciplines can be fruitful? Take any two problems to explain.
Ans. Psychology is located at the intersection of many fields of knowledge pertaining to
human functioning.

It contributes to the growth of other disciplines and draws subject-matter from
them as well.

16 n PsychologyXI

In the study of brain and behaviour psychology shares its knowledge with
neurology, physiology, biology, medicine and computer science.
In studying the meaning, growth and the development of human behaviour in
a socio-cultural context, psychology shares its knowledge with anthropology,
sociology, social work, political science and economics.

Q 5. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a

clinical psychologist.
Ans. (a) PsychologistA psychologist is someone who possesses the knowledge of
psychology and holds recognized degree in the field; they work in diverse areas,
like teaching, counselling, community etc.
PsychiatristThey are qualified medical-practitioners who are concerned with
psychological well-being of individuals.
Clinical Psychologist and psychiatrist are different in the qualification and in roles.
Clinical Psychologist cannot administer or prescribe drugs whereas psychiatrists are
medical professionals and trained in administering medicine/drugs to treat mental
disorders.

(b) CounsellorA counsellor provides advice to the persons who suffer from
motivational and emotional problems, they provide vocational guidance also.
Clinical psychologistA clinical psychologist also helps people with behavioural,
mental and emotional problems.

They are post- graduate in Psychology and are specialised professionals.

They provide therapy for various mental disorders, anxiety, fear or stress of
any type.

They use interview and administer psychological tests to diagnose the
clients problem.
Q 6. Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can
be put to practice.
Ans. Psychology is not only a subject that satisfies curiosities of our mind about human
nature, but it is also a subject that offers solutions to a variety of problems. It
ranges from personal to family, a community or even national and international
dimensions.

The solution of these problems may involve political, economic and social reforms;
however, these problems are a result of unhealthy thinking, negative attitude
towards people and self and undesirable patterns of behaviour.

A psychological analysis of these problems helps both in having a deeper
understanding of these problems and also finding effective solutions.

Psychology enables an individual to understand oneself in a balanced and positive
way without being reactionary, in order to deal with everyday challenges and meet
with personal expectations.

Therefore, understanding of psychology enables a person to build stronger
relationships at community level and improve individual strength.
Q 7. How can knowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promote
environment friendly behaviour?
Ans. Environmental psychology studies the interaction between natural and man-made
environment and human behaviour.

The knowledge of environmental psychology can help us prevent big disasters.

What is Psychology? n

17

We can learn to modify our behaviour to prevent any unwanted and painful
outcome.

For example, if we know the hazards of growing population, we can certainly
apply some measure to stop population growth.
Q 8. In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch
of psychology do you think is most suitable. Identify the field and discuss the
concerns of the psychologists working in this field.
Ans. The branch of social psychology is the most suitable for solving problems like crime.
It explores through thought process of people and their influence on other. Social
psychologists are concerned with topics like attitude, conformity, obedience to
authority, social motivation, inter-group relations, etc.
In answering such questions the knowledge of psychology for Lawer and a criminologist
is also very essential. If they have the knowledge of psychology they can understand
how well a witness remembers the incident? How well can he/she report such facts
when taking the witness stand in the court.

MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED

I. Learning Checks

( LC : 1 Mark )

Q 1. The first psychological laboratory was established by _______________.

(a) Wilhelm Wundt
(b) J.B. Watson
Ans. (a) Wilhelm Wundt
Q 2. The famous book Principles of Psychologys written by ______________.
(a) J.B. Watson
(b) William James
Ans. (b) William James
Q 3. James and Wundt thought that psychology is the study of mind.
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a) True.
Q 4. The school of Structuralism was established by
(a) Wilhelm Wundt
(b) E.B. Titchener
Ans. (a) Wilhelm Wundt
Q 5. The main method used by the structuralists to discover these elementary units of mind
was introspection.
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a) True
Q 6. The Gestalt school was founded by
(a) John Dewey
(b) Wolfgang Kohler
Ans. (b) Wolfgang Kohler
Q 7. The German word Gestalt means form or configuration.

(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a) True
Q 8. Functionalist psychologists were interested in the fact that mind and behaviour are
adaptive they enable an individual to adjust to a changing environment.
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a) True

18 n PsychologyXI

 Q 9. The Behaviorist school of psychology was founded by ____________.

(a) Max Wertheimer
(b) J.B. Watson
Ans. (b) J.B. Watson
Q 10. J.B. Watson rejected mind as the subject of psychology and insisted that psychology be
restricted to the study of behaviour the observable activities of people and animals.
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a) True
Q 11. The term _________describes the key idea of psychoanalysis.
(a) unconscious motivation
(b) subconscious motivation.
Ans. (a) unconscious motivation
Q 12. According to psychoanalytic theory, the urges and drives are hidden from the
awareness of the individual, in other words, they are _____________.
(a) subconscious
(b) unconscious
Ans. (b) unconscious.
Q 13. The work of the counseling psychologist is quite similar to that of the clinical
psychologist.
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a) True
Q 14. Developmental psychology has both research and applied aspects.
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a) True
Q 15. The word psychology is derived from the Greek words psyche meaning mind and
logos meaning experiment.
(a) True
(b) False
Ans. (a) True
Q 16. ________________is concerned with the attempt to understand human behaviour from
the biological perspective.
(a) Biopsychology
(b) Abnormal psychology
Ans. (a) Biopsychology
Q 17. ____________psychology is concerned with internal processes such as attention,
perception, thinking, reasoning, language and memory.
(a) Cognitive
(b) Developmental
Ans. (a) Cognitive
Q 18. _____________psychology is a broad field in which psychological knowledge is
brought to bear upon social problems.
(a) Community
(b) Applied
Ans. (a) Community
Q 19. The humanistic approach to psychology was developed mainly by ________.
(a) Abraham Maslow
(b) Carl Wright
Ans. (a) Abraham Maslow

What is Psychology? n

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II. Very Short Answer Type Questions

(VSA: 2 Marks )

Q 1. Who is credited with the establishment of first psychological laboratory and when?
Ans. In the year 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany.
Q 2. Define Cognition.
Ans. Cognition refers to the process of knowing.

It involves attending, perceiving, thinking, understanding, reasoning, problem
solving and other mental process by which we know our world.
Q 3. What is school psychology?
Ans. It is a branch of psychology which studies learner, learning and teaching. It focuses on
designing, programs that promote intellectual, social and emotional development of
children. It also focuses on the needs of special children.
Q 4. What is introspective method?
Ans. Introspective method was given and used by structural psychologist.

It was used to analyse the structure of mind.

Here the individuals were asked to describe in detail their own mental processes
or experience.

It is skill of looking within.
Q 5. What do you mean by the terms Stimulus and Response?
Ans. Stimulus is anything which initiates activity or any change in the physical energy.
A response is observable verbal (expressed in words) or non verbal (using signs and
gestures) activity of a living organism.

For exampleMother scolds the child and the child starts crying; here, scolding is
stimulus and crying is response.
Q 6. Where and how community psychologists work?
Ans. Community psychologists work for mental health agencies, private organisations and
state governments, both in urban and rural areas.

They focus on problems related to community mental health and physical health
as well.

They work for community based rehabilitation.
Q 7. Where and why organisational psychologists are needed?
Ans. Organisational psychologists are needed in big and small business enterprises.

Organisational psychologists help in the role related problems of employees.

They help in selection and training of employees by assessing their aptitudes and
area of interest.

III. Short Answer Type Questions

(SA-I: 3 Marks)

Q 1. What is psychology?
Ans. The term psychology is derived from two Greek words Psyche meaning soul and
logos meaning science or study of a subject.
Psychology is considered as a scientific discipline aimed at understanding the

20 n PsychologyXI

complexities of mental process, experiences and behaviour of individuals in different

contexts.
It is treated as a natural as well as social science.
It ranges from overt actions, (anything we say or do, e.g.-going to the market or
responding to question asked by the teacher), to covert activities (activities inside our
brain which can be observed).
Q 2. Is there any difference between mind and brain?
Ans. Yes. Although they are interdependent but both mind and brain are separate entities.

Brain is biologically evolved organ concerned with complex functioning of human
being.

For example, brain performs functions like basic body functions and survival,
motivation and emotions, higher mental processes including language, planning,
problem-solving and reasoning.

On the other hand, mind is a concept and unique to every individual having
varying experiences.

It is a set of individuals sensations, perceptions, memories, thoughts, dreams,
motives and feeling and emotions.
Q 3. How is a counsellor and a clinical psychologist different?
Ans.

Counsellor
Clinical Psychologist
Counselling psychologists work with Clinical psychologists specialise in helping
persons who suffer from motivational clients with behavioural problems by
and emotional problems.
providing therapy for various mental
disorders, anxiety, fear or stress.
A counselling psychologist may be They may be involved in conducting
involved in vocational rehabilitation interviews and administering psycholoprogrammes, or helping people in making gical tests to diagnose the clients problems,
professional choices or in adjusting to and use psychological methods for their
new and difficult situations of life.
treatment and rehabilitation.
Counselling psychologists work for They work either as private practitioners
public agencies such as mental health or at hospitals, mental institutions, or
centres, hospitals, schools, colleges and with social agencies.
universities.

Q 4. Describe the relationship between the mind and behaviour.

Ans. 1. Recent studies have shown that there is a relationship between mind and behaviour.
Using positive visualisation techniques and feeling positive emotions, one can bring
about significant changes in bodily processes.
2. Ornish has shown this in a number of studies with his parents.
3. In these studies, a person with blocked arteries was made to visualise that blood
was flowing through her/his blocked arteries. After practicing this over a period
of time, significant relief was obtained by these patients as a degree of blockage
became significantly less.
4. Mental imagery has been used to cure various kinds of phobias.
5. A new discipline called Psycho-neuro-immunology has emerged which emphasises
the role played by the mind in strengthening the immune system.

What is Psychology? n

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 Q 5. Differentiate between basic and applied psychology.

Ans.

Psychologists work in the basic areas like teaching and research, biological basis
of behaviour, the processes of sensation and perception, learning and memory,
cognition, human development, emotion, personality, social behaviour, ethnic
and gender identity, and sexual orientation.
Applied psychologists put the basic knowledge of psychology in helping people
and applying theories in day to day life.
They specialize in applied fields such as clinical treatment, personal or marital
counselling, industrial or educational applications, or health psychology.

IV. Short Answer Type Questions

(SA-II : 4 Marks)

Q 1. Define and explain the nature of psychology.

Ans. Psychology is considered to be a science as it adopts the scientific method to arrive at
conclusions.

Psychology is a scientific study of mental processes, experiences and behaviour.

This definition points out towards three key areas which constitute the field of
psychology.

Psychology studies COGNITIVE PROCESSES (mental processes): like thinking,
remembering, perceiving and learning which involves internal mental activities and
not directly observable.

Mental process refers to state of consciousness or awareness.

These are used to solve problems and other cognitive activities.

It involves brain activities and mental process although both are interdependent.

They are inferred from observations of peoples verbal behaviour, muscular
reactions and non-verbal cues.

For example, we cant observe how the person observes an object (say, dog) but
we can infer it from his/her reactions, whether he is scared if he runs away from
the dog or is not scared, when he sees a dog.

Psychology studies BEHAVIOUR: Behaviour is action or reaction of individual to any
initiating cause (stimuli).

Psychologist also take into account the context of behaviour, e.g. family setting or
official setting.

They study animal behaviour also for comparison purposes.

Psychology studies overt (observable) or as well as covert (internal) behavioural
pattern.

Psychology studies EXPERIENCES

Experience is what we feel at a given point of time.

It brings the subjective nature of the experiencing person as a function of his/her
awareness or consciousness.

These are internal state of mind.

Experiences are influenced by external or internal conditions.

Psychology also attends to altered state of consciousness, which creates new
experience, e.g. dreams, meditation or drug-intake situations etc.

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 Q 2. Discuss Psychology as a Natural Science.

Ans. Psychology as a natural science emerged by the development in physics what is called
hypothetical deductive model. This model suggest that scientific advancement can
take place only if one have theory to explain the phenomena. e.g. bigbang theory to
explain formation of universe.
This approach assumes that all behavioural phenomena have causes which can be
discovered if we can collect data systematically under controlled condition.

Psychology is also considered as a life science, which assumes that all behavioural
phenomena have causes which can be discovered if we can collect data
systematically under controlled conditions.

Scientific psychology has always been connected with physiology. Recently
neuroscience has also studied the links between mind and brain. The physics and
experts in the area of artificial intelligence have started studying consciousness.

Like natural science, psychology also formulates theories, deduce hypothesis
from the theories, test them and then approve or disapprove them accordingly.

Psychology is also influenced by evolutionary approach to explain various kinds
of behavioural patterns such as attachment and aggression.
Q 3. Discuss Psychology as a Social Science.
Ans. Human beings are both biological as well as social beings.

The socio-cultural context and peoples participation in culture make psychology
a social science.

Psychology as a social science discipline focuses on humans as social beings and
studies it in socio-cultural context.

There are individual differences with regards to various psychological traits.

While psychologists do observe particular individuals and their behaviour they
are more interested in dis-covering general patterns and regularities in relation to
their socio-cultural and physical environment.

They use samples to understand the population and to formulate laws and theories
which can be generalized.

Humans are not only influenced by their socio-cultural context. They also create
them.
Thus, to conclude it can be said that psychology has become a hybrid science that is
concerned with the interrelationship of the physical, psychological and physiological
aspects of reality.
Q 4. Discuss the subject-matter and application of psychology in everyday life.
Ans. Subject-matter of Psychology.

Psychology addresses a wide range of issues related of mental and
behavioural functioning.

Psychology studies how the biological system works and socio-cultural
bases shape human behaviour.

Attention, memory, perception and learning form a core issue of psychology.

They study motivation, emotion, individual differences in various traits and
abnormal behaviour also.
Thus the field of psychology is very wide and diverse.

What is Psychology? n

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Application of Psychology.

1. Individual Level:

Psychologists concern themselves to the problems of children, adolescents,
adults and the elderly people and deals with them at individual level.

It addresses problems related to education (e.g. school counselling), health,
environment social justice, women development, inter group relations etc.

It helps in understanding ones own self also.

2. Social Level:

These are related to social problems like development, population, poverty,
violence, environment problems etc.

Psychology offers solution to a variety of problems ranging from deeply
personal to problems related with larger society.
Thus, the knowledge of psychology is quite useful in our everyday life.
Q 5. Describe the relation of psychology with other disciplines.
Ans.

Psychology has an inter disciplinary approach.

Any discipline which deals or involves people must consider the humane aspect
of individual being.

In order to understand fully the nature of human being, he should studied in
totality of his being thus it is necessary to build an alliance with other disciplines.

Psychology is related with following fields:

PHILOSOPHY

Psychology originated from philosophy eg. Study of soul.

Earlier the subject-matter of psychology was the concern of philosophy.

Psychology greatly draws from philosophy particularly with respect to the
methods of knowing and various domains of nature.
Thus philosophy and psychology are closely linked.

MEDICINE

The well-being of an individual is not only physical well being but mental health
is also very important.

Psychologist employed in hospitals prevent people from engaging in health
hazardous behaviour and help in adhering to the prescribed doctors advise
regarding healthy behaviour.

Psychologists work in ICU also and deal with patients in post operative stage.

ECONOMICS, POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGY

Psychology has contributed a great deal to the study of micro-level economic
behaviour, consumer behavior, saving behaviour and decision making.

Political science uses psychological approach in understanding issues like exercise
of power and authority, nature of political conflicts and voting behaviour.

Sociology and Psychology together try to understand socio-cultural basis of
behaviour. Sociology studies the society whereas psychology studies individual
in the society.

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 Q 6. Is psychology a natural or social science?

Ans. Psychology is both a natural and social science.

1. Modern psychology has developed because of the application of scientific methods
to study psychological phenomenon. Based on a theory, scientists propose a
hypothesis. The hypothesis is then tested and proved true or false and revised
based on data that one generated. Till date, most of the research in psychology
follows this approach. Apart from this, psychologists have also been considerably
influenced by the evolutionary approach which is dominant in biological sciences.
This approach has also been used to explain diverse kinds of psychological
phenomenon such as attachment and aggression to mention just a few. Thus,
psychology is a natural science.

2. However, psychology is recognised more as a social science because it studies the
behaviour of human beings in their socio-cultural contexts. Humans are not only
influenced by their socio-cultural contexts, they also create them. Psychology as a
social science discipline focuses on humans as social beings. It shows how different
people experience and behave in similar situations differently. Thus, psychology
is a social science with focus on the individuals and communities in relation to
their socio-cultural and physical environment.

V. Long Answer Type Questions

( LA : 6 Marks )

Q 1. Define Psychology and explain different fields or scope of psychology.

Ans. PSYCHOLOGY

1. According to Morgan (1986) Psychology is the science of human and animal
behaviours. It includes the application of this science to human problems. The
purpose is to understand behaviour, to explain behaviour, predict and control
behaviour.

2. Contemporary psychology is made up of many specialized sub-fields, each with
its specific subject matter, theories and methods.
BRANCHES/FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
It investigates mental processes involved in acquisition, storage, manipulation
and transformation of information received from the environment along with its
use and communications.
The major cognitive processes are attention, perception, memory, reasoning,
problem solving, decision-making and language.

BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

It studies biological processes in order to establish link between these
processes and behaviour.

It studies physical system including brain, nervous system, the immune
system and genetics.

NEUROPSYCHOLOGY has emerged as a field of research where
psychologists collaborate with neuro scientists and study the role of
neurotransmitters in associated mental function.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

It studies the physical, social and psychological changes that occur at
different ages and stages over a life span.

What is Psychology? n

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It studies the individual from conception [the time when mother conceives
the child] till death.
It studies how biological inheritance and particular experiences influences
psychological characteristics such as intelligence, morality, temper etc.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology attempts to understand the nature and causes of individual
behaviour and thought in social situations.
It studies individual as social beings.
It studies the effect of society and culture on individual behaviour and vice
versa.
It also studies group behaviour and interpersonal relations.
Social psychologists are interested in such topics as attitudes, conformity,
obedience, interpersonal attraction, helpful behaviour, prejudice, aggression,
social motivation etc.
CROSS-CULTURAL AND CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
It examines the role of culture in understanding behaviour, thoughts and
emotions.
It assumes that human behaviour is also a product of culture along with
heredity.
ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
This field focuses on the interaction between the physical world and human
behaviour.
Environmental stressors like noise, heat, pollution, crowding and their
effects are studied.
The influence of physical arrangement of the workplace on health, the
emotional state and interpersonal relations are also investigated.
In recent years, disposal of waste, alteration in climate, nuclear energy,
population explosion etc are becoming serious.
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
This field explores the relationship between body and mind.
Areas of interest for health psychologists are stress and coping.
Health psychology focuses on the role of psychological factors (For example
stress, anxiety) in the development, prevention and treatment of illness.
They also try to understand the psychological strategies for coping with illness.
CLINICAL AND COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY
Clinical psychology deals with causes, treatment and prevention of
psychological disorders.
Counselling psychologists provide advice and help in everyday functioning
and problems of people. They deal with less serious problems.
Clinical psychologists sometimes work closely with psychiatry in treatment,
prevention and diagnosis; unlike psychiatrist they cant prescribe medicines.
INDUSTRIAL/ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
This field applies the principles of psychology to work place.

26 n PsychologyXI

It deals with work place behaviour focusing on both the employer and
employees.

It is concerned with issues such as leadership, employee motivation, conflict
management, group processes and organization change.

Industrial psychologists also train employees and develop criteria for
selection.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

This field is concerned with all the aspects of learning process.

Educational psychologists work with individual child also to evaluate
learning and emotional problems.

This field also lays emphasis on revolutionising the education system;
teacher training, methods of teaching etc. are covered in this area.

A related field SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY focuses on designing programme
that promotes intellectual, social and emotional development of children,
including the special children.

SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY

Sports psychology applies psychological principles to improve sports
performance by enhancing the motivation of players and team.

OTHER BRANCHES
Apart from these there are many other important areas of psychology which
help people in different ways. For example: forensic psychology, ecological
psychology, space psychology and so on.
Q 2. Discuss some of the themes/issues which provide direction to research and
application of Psychology.
Or
What are basic concerns of modern Psychology?
Ans. 1. Psychology like other sciences attempts to develop principles of behaviour and
mental processes.
The main concern of research is in understanding and explanation of behaviour
and mental processes. The conclusions drawn on the basis of studies which can be
applied to everyone and are universal. For example:

Experimental psychology focuses on cognitive processes.

Physiological psychology concentrates on physiological bases of behaviour.

Developmental psychology studies qualitative and quantitative changes in
behaviour.

Social psychology focuses on the study of individuals behaviour in social
context.

2. Human behaviour is a function of the attributes of a person and environment.
According to Curt Lewin behaviour is the product of a person and his environment.
Psychologists focus on explanation of various psychological phenomena based on
individual environment interactions.

3. Human behaviour is caused:

Causal explanations are main focus to all the sciences because without
understanding them no prediction will be possible.

What is Psychology? n

27

When it is said the behaviour has multiple causes it means that it is difficult
to pin-point the cause of behaviour.

4. Understanding of human behaviour is cultural construct:

A group of psychologists believes that at present all psychological principles
explain human behaviour in Euro-American perspective.

Psychologists from Asia, Africa and Latin America have been critical to
Euro-American approaches which are propagated as universal.

A similar criticism is made by Feminists who argue that psychology offers a
male perspective only.

They argue in favour of dialectical approach which accommodates both
male and female perspectives in understanding human behaviour.
Emerging trends in psychology tries to use psychological theories, principles and facts
to diagnose and resolve problems related to individual and organizational settings,
clinical services, education and environment, health, community development and
study of positive aspects of human behaviour.
By and large, modern psychology is equally focusing on theoretical aspects of the subject
as well as the applied role of psychologists to deal with the lives of needy people.

TEST ASSIGNMENT
Part-A

1. Psychology is derived from two Greek words________________and _______________

meaning science or study of a subject.

2. _____________,______________,______________and ____________________are a few
mental processes.

3. Experiences are _______________________in nature.

4. The first laboratory of Psychology was opened by ____________________in the year
___________________.

5. _________________influenced and infused physics in the Hypothetico Deductive
model.

6. Wilhelm Wundt used ________________as a procedure in which subjects were asked
to jot down their own mental processes.

7. ____________approach was proposed by William James.

8. __________________used functionalism to argue that human beings seek to function
effectively by adapting to their environment.

9. Which one of the following is unconscious part of mind according to Freud?
(a) Id
(b) Ego
(c) Super Ego
(d) Brain
10. The behaviourist perspective was first offered by :
(a) Freud
(b) Watson
(b) Skinner
(d) Darwin
11. Which perspective uses computer model for psychological analysis ?
(a) Humanistic perspective
(b) Psychodynamic perspective
(c) Cognitive perspective
(d) Behaviourist perspective

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 12. Which of the following is not scientific knowledge ?

(a) Observations
(b) Evidence
(d) Data collection
(d) belief
13. The goal of psychology is to develop theories about various aspects of :
(a) Behaviour
(b) Experience
(b) Consciousness
(d) mind
14. Who established the first experimental laboratory to study conscious experience ?
(a) Welhelm Wundt
(b) Carll Roger
(c) J. B. Watson
(d) Skinner
15. Who developed psychoanalysis ?
(a) Ivan Pavlov
(b) Wundt
(c) Sigmund Freud
(d) W.C. Skinner

Part- B

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

Define and explain the meaning of the word psychology.

What is mind? How mind is related to brain?
What is organizational psychology?
Differentiate between social psychology and cross-culture psychology.
What is cognitive perspective on human nature?
What are the basic characteristics of scientific knowledge?

Part- C

22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

What is Gestalt psychology?

Describe humanistic perspective on human behaviour.
Discuss organizational psychology in brief.
How basic psychology is different from applied psychology?
Discuss some of the major disciplines linked to the field of psychology.
How is psychology used in everyday life? Discuss.
What do you understand by the term Introspection?
Differentiate between social psychology and sociology.
Explain: (a) evolutionary psychology; (b) cultural psychology; (c) positive psychology.

Part- D

31. What are the four main activities of psychologists as related to behaviour? Explain
them in brief.
32. Differentiate between clinical psychologists and counselling psychologists.
33. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology in India.
34. Explain main fields of specialization in psychology.
35. Explain some of the themes which provide direction to research and application of
psychology.

What is Psychology? n

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