Unit 1 Lect-6 PDF

LECTURE-VI
PHOTODETECTORS
CHARGE COUPLED DEVICE (CCD)
PHOTONIC CRYSTALS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
NON LINEAR OPTICAL (NLO) MATERIALS AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE VI
Semiconductors
A conductor allows for the flow of electrons in the
presence of an electric field.
An insulator inpedes the flow of electrons.
A semiconductor becomes a conductor if the electrons
are excited to high enough energies, otherwise it is an
insulator.
allows for a switch which can be on or off
allows for photo-sensitive circuits (photon absorption
adds energy to electron)
Minimum energy to elevate an electron into conduction is
the band gap energy
Simplified silicon band diagram

Conduction band
Eg bandgap
Valence band
1.24
co =
Eg (eV )
Semiconductor Dopants
PN Junctions
In a PN junction, positively charged holes diffuse into the n-type

material. Likewise, negatively charged electrons diffuse in the the p-type
material.
This process is halted by the resulting E-field.
The affected volume is known as a depletion region.
The charge distribution in the depletion region is electrically equivalent
to a 2-plate capacitor.15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE VI
Photon detection in PN junctions
A photon can interact with the semiconductor to create an electron-hole pair.

The electron will be drawn to the most positively charged zone in the PN
junction, located in the depletion region in the n-type material.
Likewise, the positively charged hole will seek the most negatively charged
region.
Each photon thus removes one unit of charge from the capacitor. This is
how photons are detected in both CCDs and most IR arrays.
Charge Coupled Device (CCD)
CCDs work by converting light into a pattern of electronic

charge in a silicon chip. This pattern of charge is converted
into a video waveform, digitized and stored as an image file
on a computer.

A CCD is a device for the movement of electrical charge, usually from
within the device to an area where the charge can be manipulated.
This is achieved by shifting the signals between stages within the
device one at a time.
In a CCD image sensor, pixels are by p-doped MOS capacitors. These

capacitors are biased above the threshold for inversion when image
acquisition begins, allowing the conversion of incoming photons into
electron charges.

The charge packets (electrons) are collected in the potential wells
created by applying positive voltage at the gate electrodes (G).
Applying positive voltage to the gate electrodes in the correct
sequence transfers the charge packets.
In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region (an
epitaxial layer of silicon), and a transmission region made out of a
shift register.

An image is projected through a lens onto the capacitor array (the
photoactive region), causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric
charge proportional to the light intensity at that location.
A one-dimensional array captures a single slice of the image
corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the
sensor. Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control
circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor.
The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge
amplifier, which converts the charge into a voltage.
By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire
contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages.
These voltages are then sampled, digitized and usually stored in
memory.
Photoelectric Effect
Increasing energy
The effect is fundamental to the operation of a CCD. Atoms in a silicon crystal have electrons arranged in
discrete energy bands. The lower energy band is called the Valence Band, the upper band is the Conduction
Band. Most of the electrons occupy the Valence band but can be excited into the conduction band by heating
or by the absorption of a photon. The energy required for this transition is 1.26 electron volts. Once in this
conduction band the electron is free to move about in the lattice of the silicon crystal. It leaves behind a hole
in the valence band which acts like a positively charged carrier.
In the absence of an external electric field the hole and electron will quickly re-combine and be lost.
In a CCD an electric field is introduced to sweep these charge carriers apart and prevent
recombination.
Conduction Band
1.26eV
Valence Band
Hole
Electron
Thermally generated electrons are indistinguishable from photo-generated electrons . They constitute a
noise source known as Dark Current and it is important that CCDs are kept cold to reduce their number.
1.26eV corresponds to the energy of light with a wavelength of 1m. Beyond this wavelength silicon becomes
transparent and CCDs constructed from silicon become insensitive.
CCD Analogy
A common analogy for the operation of a CCD is as follows:
A number of buckets (Pixels) are distributed across a field (Focal Plane of a

telescope) in a square array. The buckets are placed on top of a series of
parallel conveyor belts and collect rain fall (Photons) across the field. The
conveyor belts are initially stationary, while the rain slowly fills the buckets
(During the course of the exposure). Once the rain stops (The camera shutter
closes) the conveyor belts start turning and transfer the buckets of rain , one by
one , to a measuring cylinder (Electronic Amplifier) at the corner of the field (at
the corner of the CCD)
The animation in the following slides demonstrates how the conveyor belts work.
CCD Analogy
RAIN (PHOTONS)
VERTICAL
CONVEYOR
BELTS
(CCD COLUMNS)
BUCKETS (PIXELS)
HORIZONTAL
CONVEYOR BELT
MEASURING
CYLINDER
(OUTPUT
AMPLIFIER)
(SERIAL REGISTER)
Exposure finished, buckets now contain samples of rain.
Conveyor belt starts turning and transfers buckets. Rain collected on the vertical conveyor
is tipped into buckets on the horizontal conveyor.
Vertical conveyor stops. Horizontal conveyor starts up and tips each bucket in turn into
the measuring cylinder .
After each bucket has been measured, the measuring cylinder

is emptied , ready for the next bucket load.
A new set of empty buckets is set up on the horizontal conveyor and the process
is repeated.
Eventually all the buckets have been measured, the CCD has been read out.
MOS Capacitor Geometry

A Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS)
capacitor has a potential difference
between two metal plates separated by an
insulator.
Charge Couple Devices

CCDs rely upon the charge generation in the depletion
region of the MOS capacitor.
An applied voltage, which is pulsed, holds the charge
created by the photons generating current in the
photodiode.
The potential in the capacitor is linearly dependent on the
voltage applied to the surface electrode.
The charges are confined laterally, since the
neighbouring MOS capacitor is at a lower potential, so
the charges do not leave the potential well.
A CCD shown as an array of MOS capacitors
Potential well (p-channel) in a surface of CCD.

The amount of charge generated depends on the light
intensity and the period during which light is allowed to fall
on the CCD.
The charges are then shifted out serially from the array
using a shift registry.
The stored charges in the pulses mutually repel each other,
although thermal diffusion and self-induced drift can blur
individual pulses.
A CCD array imager.

A pixel represents a single point in an image, and for a CCD camera, it's
often defined by the optics of a much-reduced image area.
A pixel comprises of three to four MOS capacitors, or a size on the order of
10 microns, so the charge collection can have a higher potential (see next
page).
1024 x 1024 dot-matrix arrays are common with 4096 x 4096 now readily
available for commercial cameras.
Good film has a resolution of only 2024 x 2024, high-quality film has 4048 x
4048 and very expensive film has a slightly higher than this.
Films collection is non-linear, especially at low and high light intensity so
underexposure or overexposure is common.
CCD signal collection is linear so what you see is what you get.
Thus, modern CCDs are much better than film.
A four phase CCD, showing four MOS capacitors/pixel.

Often 3-5 capacitors are used per pixel to increase the signal and to vary the
resolution.
Higher resolution imaging requires the use of more pixels, which requires using
less capacitors/pixel.
High resolution imaging uses 3 capacitors/pixel, medium resolution imaging
uses 4 capacitors/pixel and low resolution imaging uses 5 capacitors per pixel.
Structure of a CCD
The diagram shows a small section (a few pixels) of the image area of a CCD. This pattern is repeated.
Channel stops to define the columns of the image
Plan View
Transparent
horizontal electrodes
to define the pixels
vertically. Also
used to transfer the
charge during readout
One pixel
Electrode
Insulating oxide
n-type silicon
Cross section
p-type silicon
Every third electrode is connected together. Bus wires running down the edge of the chip make the
connection. The channel stops are formed from high concentrations of Boron in the silicon.
Structure of a CCD
Below the image area (the area containing the horizontal electrodes) is the Serial register . This also
consists of a group of small surface electrodes. There are three electrodes for every column of the image
area
Image Area
On-chip amplifier
at end of the serial
register
Serial Register
Cross section of
serial register
Once again every third electrode is in the serial register connected together.
Charge Collection in a CCD.
Charge packet
pixel
boundary
incoming
photons
pixel
boundary
Photons entering the CCD create electron-hole pairs. The electrons are then attracted towards
the most positive potential in the device where they create charge packets. Each packet
corresponds to one pixel
n-type silicon
Electrode Structure
p-type silicon
SiO2 Insulating layer
CCD Clocking
Capturing Images
How charges are stored

CCDs are comprised of
pixels (capacitors) which are
MOS (Metal Oxide
Semiconductors).
MOS allow electron charges
to build up within the wells.
CCD Phased Clocking: Introduction
Charge packet
pixel
boundary
incoming
photons
pixel
boundary
Photons entering the CCD create electron-hole pairs. The electrons are then attracted
towards the most positive potential in the device where they create charge packets.
Each packet corresponds to one pixel
n-type silicon
Electrode Structure
p-type silicon
SiO2 Insulating layer
CCD Phased Clocking: Step 1

+5V
1
2
3
0V
-5V
+5V
0V
-5V
+5V
0V
-5V
Time-slice shown in diagram
CCD Phased Clocking: Step 2

+5V
1
2
3
0V
-5V
+5V
0V
-5V
+5V
0V
-5V
k1
Capturing Images
Light incoming photons falls onto the
surface of a pixel.
(CDD - 2D array of pixel elements)
Result- generates free electrons in the
silicon of the CCD due to the photoelectric
effect, proportional to the number of photons
striking it. These electrons collect in little
packets.
Point- the total charge is proportional to the
light intensity at that pixel.
A brighter image ( higher electrical charge).
A darker image ( lower electrical charge).
Drawback- only measures intensity.
Not color!!!
CCDs normally have 1 to 5 million packets
15PY102L UNITof1 charge.
LECTURE VI
Slide 59
k1
Photoelectric Effect - electrons are formed within the pixel after the absorption of energy (photons)
k, 03-Dec-08
u1
Interline Architecture
Courtesy
of UNIT
Molecular
Expressions
15PY102L
1 LECTURE
VI
Slide 60
u1
Interline CCD - each pixel is composed of a photodiode and an associated light-shielded CCD. After exposure, the charges in each photodiode
are immediately transferred to the adjacent CCD, where the readout process is conducted.
or
Only one pixel shift has to occur to transfer from image area to storage area.
user, 30-Nov-08
Storing the image

Analog to digital converter
Samples the analog signal and turns the
information into bytes of (1s and 0s).
Charge amplifier converts the charge into
voltage.
Record bytes in a storage medium

Memory Cards
Hard Drive
DVD
u2
Applications
Digital Photography
Astronomy
Sensors
Electron Microscopy
Medical Fluoroscopy
Optical and UV Spectroscopy
Slide 62
u2
Because of its superior sensitivity, the CCD has revolutionized the firld of astronomy and is found on many scientific space vechiles such as the
Hubble Telescope.
user, 17-Nov-08
Devices
Astronomical Telescopes
Scanners
Bar code readers
Machine vision for robots.
Optical character recognition (OCR)
Photonic Crystals
Photonic crystals are composed of periodic dielectric, metallodielectric or even superconductor microstructures or nanostructures
that affect the propagation of electromagnetic waves (EM) in the
same way as the periodic potential in a semiconductor crystal
affects the electron motion by defining allowed and forbidden
electronic energy bands.
Photonic crystals contain regularly repeating regions of high and low
dielectric constant. Photons propagate through this structure or not
depending on their wavelength.
Photonic Crystals
Wavelengths that are allowed to travel are known as modes. Groups of
allowed modes form bands. Disallowed bands of wavelengths are called
photonic band gaps.
Photonic crystals are classified depending on the fabrication techniques.
1. One dimensional photonic crystals (layers of different dielectric
constant may be deposited or adhered together to form a band gap in a
single direction Bragg grating isotropic or anisotropic)
2. Two dimensional photonic crystals (Triangular or square lattices of
holes)
3. Three dimensional photonic crystals (The woodpile structure or
inverse colloidal crystals)
Photonic Crystals
Periodic Surprises in Electromagnetism
A photonic crystal is a geometry with periodic dielectric
constant
Like electronic states in solids, EM modes form bands
Band gaps can form, in which propagation is prohibited
Definition:
A photonic crystal is a periodic arrangement of a dielectric
material that exhibits strong interaction with light
Examples:
1D: Bragg Reflector
2D: Si pillar crystal
3D: colloidal crystal
Photonic Crystals
periodic electromagnetic media
1887
1987
1-D
2-D
periodic in
one direction
periodic in
two directions
3-D
periodic in
three directions
with photonic band gaps: optical insulators
(need a
more
complex
topology)
Photonic Crystals
periodic electromagnetic media
can trap light in cavities
3D Pho to nic C rysta l w ith De fe c ts
and waveguides (wires)
magical oven mitts for

holding and controlling light
with photonic band gaps: optical insulators
1D Photonic Crystals
Bragg mirror
Antireflection coatings (Fresnel equations)
Braggs law:
2n average d cos( ) = m
Photonic crystals in two dimensions
Photonic crystal waveguides
Joannopoulos et al.
2D Photonic Crystal: holes in semiconductor dielectric

0.35
frequency w (units 2pc/a)
crystal
modes
0.3
waveguide
modes
0.25
crystal
modes
0.2
0.15
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
wavevector |k| (unitsp/a)

2
3D Photonic Crystals
Woodpile structures
Colloidal crystals
Inverse opals
Focused Ion Beam

...
Photonic Bandgap: No propagation of light with frequencies within the

bandgap for three directions !
W.L. Vos [AMOLF]
S.Y. Lin et al, Nature 394 (1998) 251

Start of Nonlinear Optics

Nonlinear optics started
by the discovery of
Second Harmonic
generation shortly after
demonstration of the
first laser.
(Peter Franken et al
1961)
Introduction
Question:
Is it possible to change the
color of a monochromatic
light?
Answer:
Not without a laser light
NLO sample
input
output
NON-LINEAR MATERIALS
Definition
If the physical properties of optical materials depend on the
intensity of light, such materials are known as non-linear
materials.
Explanation
The light is an electro-magnetic radiation in the frequency
range 1015 Hz. When it passes through any optical material, due
to the oscillating electric and magnetic fields, the atoms or
molecules of the material experience oscillating force.
Since the magnitude of the magnetic field is

small it may be ignored. With the conventional light
sources the electric field strength is of the order
103 V/cm.
Since the inter atomic field strength is in the range
107 to 1010 V/cm, the field due to the light does not
affect the atoms.The material behaves linearly.
Instead of light, when intense laser radiation which

generates field of strength 108 to 109 V/cm passes through
the material, the atoms are influenced by this high field. This
results in induced dipoles oscillating with higher amplitudes.
Only when the amplitude of oscillation is small linear effect is
observed.
Owing to this concept, let us take the case of
oscillations of a simple pendulum. The oscillations are simple
harmonic only when the amplitude is small (i.e., we equate
the sine[Sin] of the angle swept by the pendulum to the angle
itself that is sin ,since it is small). When amplitude is
large, higher harmonic terms come into play. Under this
condition nonlinear effects originate. At such high fields, the
optical properties depend on intensity.
P =0 E
Non-linear phenomena are,

1.Higher harmonic generation
2.Optical mixing
3.Parametric amplification
4.Optical phase conjugation
5.Soliton.
1. HIGHER HARMONIC GENERATION

In a linear medium, polarization P is proportional to the electric filed E that
induces it. P=oE where is the electric susceptibility.
In nonlinear medium, for higher fields, i.e., higher intensities of light.
P = 0 ( 1 E + 2 E 2 + 3 E 3 + ....)
where 1 is the linear susceptibility and 2, 3 .. are higher order

nonlinear susceptibilities. With increase of filed higher order terms come into
play. Let us assume that the field is strong enough to give rise to 2, then
P = 0 (1 E + 2E 2 )
The electric field passing through the medium can be represented by

E = E0Cos t, Hence
P = 0 ( 1 E 0 cos wt + 2 E 02 cos 2 wt )
= 0 1 E0 cos wt + 0 2 E02
(1 + cos 2 wt)
2
1
1
= 0 2 E 02 + 0 1 E 0 cos wt + 0 2 E 02 cos 2 wt
2
2
The nonlinear polarization indicates that it contains the second harmonic

of (third term) as well as an average (d.c.) term (first term) called
optical rectification. It can be shown that only in the crystals lacking
inversion symmetry, second harmonic generation (SHG) is possible.
SHG crystals are Quartz, Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP),
Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP), Barium titanate (BaTiO3) and
Lithium Iodate (LiIO3).
Second Harmonic Generation
( 2)
The fundamental radiation from a laser is pass through SHG crystal, due
to SHG, it converts into double the frequency i.e., half the wavelength takes
place. For example 1.064m radiation from Nd:YAG laser gets converted to
0.532m on passing through crystals like KDP, ADP etc.
If the incident radiation from the laser is intense enough such that the
polarization needs to be represented by three terms, then
P =
E +
+ 3E
= 0 ( 1 E0 cos wt + 2 E02 cos 2 wt + 3 E03 cos 3 wt )
1
3
1
1
= 0 2 E02 + ( 0 1 E0 + 0 3 E03 ) cos wt + 0 2 E02 cos 2wt + 0 3 E03 cos3wt
2
4
2
4
The last term in the above equation represents third harmonic

generation at frequency 3. Likewise one can account for higher harmonic
generation.
2. OPTICAL MIXING
The generation of new frequencies with help of nonlinear phenomena is
called optical mixing. Suppose two coherent waves of unequal
frequencies, 1 and 2 are traversing the material, then
E = E1 cos 1 t + E2 cos 2 t
P = 0 1 ( E 1 cos 1 t + E 2 cos 2 t ) + 0 2 ( E 1 2 cos 2 1 t + E 22 cos 2 2 t ) + 2 0 2 E 1 E 2 cos 1 t cos 2 t
The second term gives rise to 22. The last term can be expressed as
20 2 E1 E2 cos 1t = 0 2 E1 E2 [cos (1 + 2) t + cos (1 2) t]
Thus waves of frequencies 1, 21, 2, 22, (1+2) and (12) are
generated.
Using proper optical arrangement it is possible to get sufficiently intense
output at any one of these frequencies.
The generation of (1+ 2) is called frequency-up conversion and

(12) is called frequency-down conversion.
Crystals like KDP, ADP are used for up conversion while LiNbO3, quartz
are used for down conversion.
Arrangement for generating a new frequency by optical mixing
Sum Frequency Generation
( 2)
3 = 1 + 2
Application:
Tunable radiation in the
UV Spectral region.
2
1
Difference Frequency Generation
( 2)
Application:
The low frequency
photon, 2 amplifies in
the presence of high
frequency beam . This
1
is known as parametric
amplification.
3 = 1 2
3. PARAMETRIC AMPLIFICATION
The amplification of a weak signal frequency 1 is mixing with a strong
pump beam of frequency 2 inside a nonlinear crystal is possible. Then
photon of pump beam at frequency 3 is converted into two photons.
(a) Signal wave photon 1
(b) Idler wave photon 2
i.e.
3 = 1 + 2
Signal is thus amplified. Crystal like KDP, LiNbO3, LiIO3 are used for this
purpose.
Optical Parametric amplifier and oscillator
4. OPTICAL PHASE CONJUCTION

Let us consider a diverging beam, conjugate of the beam is nothing
but a converging beam. i.e., if we give time or wave front reversal to a
beam, we can get conjugate beam.
Nonlinear media which are capable of reversing the incident optical

beam to produce its phase conjugate beam are called Phase
Conjugate Mirrors (PCM).
To understand the property of PCM, let us compare the reflection of a
plane wave front and diverging spherical wave front at ordinary mirror
with these at a PCM [Shown in below fig].
Reflection of plane wave front and spherical wave front at (a) ordinary mirror
and (b) PCM.
Thus in PCM, wave front reversal takes place. Another

interesting property of PCM is distortion correction.
When a plane wave front (i) passes through a distorting medium the
wave front is distorted (ii). If this distorted wave front is reflected at the
ordinary mirror and the reflected distorted wave (iii) is allowed to pass
through the distorting medium again further distortion takes place (iv) as
shown in Fig below (a).
Instead if it is reflecting by PCM phase reversal takes place (iii) and
when it again passes through the distorting medium, distortion correction
takes place and plane wave front is obtained (iv) as shown in Fig below
(b).
Optical phase conjugation has very interesting applications such as
distortion correction in optical fibres, optical image processing, optical
neural network etc.
Stages of distortion from(i) to(iv) in (a) indicates enhanced distortion

of a plane wave front after passing through distorting medium twice;
once before reflection and another after reflection at a plane mirror. In (b)
the role of distortion correction by a PCM is indicated.
What is the phase conjugation

The signal wave
~
Es (r , t ) = Es e it + C.C.
iks .r
Es = s As e
The phase conjugated wave
~
* it
Ec (r , t ) = rE s e + C.C.
Optical Phase Conjugation

Phase conjugation mirror
PCM
M
M
PCM
5. SOLITONS
The concept of pulse propagation without change of shape and loss of
energy for any long distance is referred to as solitons.
In fibre optic communication, the light signal is sent in the form of light
pulses. Since the light source is not hundred percent monochromatic and
also the signal travels through very long distance, due to chromatic
dispersion, pulse broadening takes place.
This limits the bit rate or transmission capacity of the fibre. Also due to
absorption and scattering, the energy of the pulse reduces and pulse loose
its height.
During this propagation of the optical pulse through the fibre, there is
change in pulse shape, height and width. In order to compensate for the
loss and reshape the pulses repeaters have to be installed at regular
intervals.
This problem can be overcome by making use of some nonlinear effects.

Since the diameter of the fibre is very small (of the order of few microns),
even for a modest input optical power, the field inside the fibre can be large
enough to cause nonlinear effects. The refractive index of the fibre core
becomes intensity dependent.
n = n0 + n1I2
Where n1 is the nonlinear component of refractive index and
I-is the intensity of light.
(we must remember that intensity of light I E2, Here E is the strength of the
applied electric field).
When a light pulse is launched, for the leading edge of the pulse where
intensity (I) is increasing, there is an increase in refractive index and
hence velocity of the wave decreases.
At the trailing edge refractive index decreases and hence velocity of the
wave increases. This phenomenon is called self phase modulation
(SPM).
This SPM results in compression of the pulse in time. With proper
choice, it is possible to cancel or compensate for the pulse broadening
due to chromatic dispersion.
Next One how to overcome the problem of energy loss due to absorption
and scattering when the light pulse propagates through the fibre.
It is, now-a-days, possible to fabricate fibres which amplify the light signal
propagating through it. They are called fibre amplifiers. By pumping the
atoms inside the fibre by sending a pump beam, population inversion is
created in the fibre core.
When the signal pulse is sent amplification takes place which
compensates for the loss. Thus the signal pulses can be made to travel for
very long distances without any change in their shape and pulse width. The
concept of pulse propagation without change of shape and loss of energy
for any long distance is referred to as solitons. It has been found that such a
pulse must have sech2 distribution in intensity for propagation.

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LECTURE-VI

15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE VI

15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE VI

Simplified silicon band diagram

15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE VI

15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE VI

In a PN junction, positively charged holes diffuse into the n-type

Photon detection in PN junctions

A photon can interact with the semiconductor to create an electron-hole pair.

Charge Coupled Device (CCD)

CCDs work by converting light into a pattern of electronic

Charge Coupled Device (CCD)

In a CCD image sensor, pixels are by p-doped MOS capacitors. These

Charge Coupled Device (CCD)

Charge Coupled Device (CCD)

A common analogy for the operation of a CCD is as follows:

A number of buckets (Pixels) are distributed across a field (Focal Plane of a

Exposure finished, buckets now contain samples of rain.

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After each bucket has been measured, the measuring cylinder

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MOS Capacitor Geometry

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Charge Couple Devices

A CCD shown as an array of MOS capacitors

Charge Couple Devices

Potential well (p-channel) in a surface of CCD.

Charge Couple Devices

15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE VI

Charge Couple Devices

A CCD array imager.

Charge Couple Devices

Charge Couple Devices

A four phase CCD, showing four MOS capacitors/pixel.

Charge Collection in a CCD.

SiO2 Insulating layer