GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY

CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Chapter (3):Thestructure of Bacteria

Although bacterial cells are small in size, they have a complex structure. Some
structures are necessary for growth and survival; others help in bacterial cell mobility
or contribute to the ability of bacteria to cause disease. The bacterial cell structure can
be divided to three main parts according to the location of these structures with regard
to the cell wall:
I.
II.
III.

Structures external to the cell wall.

The cell wall.
Structures internal to the cell wall.
I. Structures external to the cell wall

1) Flagella
Numerous species of bacterial rods, spiral and few cocci are capable of
independent movement called motility. These movements are carried out by using
flagella (sing. flagellum) which are long filamentous whip like structures that push
bacteria. These flagella turn like a rotary engine to generate a propeller-like rotation
force which can reach up to 1500 rpm pushing the bacterial cells in to the aqueous
environments. Some species of bacteria like Proteus are surrounded with many
flagella that they show a wave like movement on solid culture medium, a pattern of
growth known as swarming growth.
Each flagellum is composed of three parts:
The filament.
The hook.
The basal body.
The filament is a hollow structure composed of long, rigid and helical strands
of a protein called falgellin. Flagella are anchored to the cell membrane where they
are attached to a hooklike structure that is connected to the basal body. The basal
body is a set of more than 20 different proteins that form a central rod and a set of
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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

enclosing rings. Gram-positive bacteria have one ring embedded in the cell wall and
another ring embedded in the cell membrane. The number and distribution of flagella
around bacterial cells vary by species and can be used asa method of their
differentiation.
o Monotrichous: bacterial cell has one flagellum at one end.
o Lophotrichous: bacterial cell has a group of flagella (more than one) at one
end.
o Amphitrichous: bacterial cell has a single or group of flagella at each end.
o Peritrichous: bacterial cell has many flagella at various locations all around
the cell.
Flagella are usually 10 to 20 m in length and are many times longer than the
diameter of the cell. They are usually 20 nm thick. Rotation of the flagella can be
clockwise (bacterial cells seems to run or move straight ahead in a short bursts) or
counterclockwise (bacterial cells seems to tumble or move randomly) movement of
flagella requires the cell to generate energy.
Flagella give bacteria the ability to move (the cell are called motile). Cells
usually move towards or away from a certain stimulus, which may be:
Chemical stimulus: nutrients or oxygen etc. (chemotaxis).
Light movement with regards to light is known as phototaxis.
Immune threat: in some diseases like cholera, the flagella help the
disease-causing bacteria to move through the tissue and escape
phagocytosis by white blood cells.
2) Axial filaments
Axial filaments or (endoflagella) are bundles of fibrils that arise beneath the
outer sheath and spiral around the cell. The contraction of these filaments leads to
spiral motion of the bacterial cell (common in spirochetes).
3) Pili and fimbriae
Pili (sing. pilus) are short, thin, hair-like fibers that protrude from the surface of
gram negative bacteria. Pili are shorter than flagella and they are formed of a protein
called pilin. Pili have a specialized proteins called adhesions located at their tips. The
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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

function of pili is to attach bacteria cells to specific surfaces, including animal tissues.
Consequently, pili help bacteria to colonize an area and cause disease. Another type of
pili is the conjugation pili, which is not used for attachment but rather is used in the
transfer of genetic material between cells. Conjugation pili are usually longer and
fewer in number around each bacterial cell than attachment pili. In the last few years
the microbiologists preferred using the term fimbriae (sing. Fimbria) for attachment
pili while keeping the term pili for the structures that function in transfer of genetic
material between cells.
4) Glycocalyx
Many bacteria secrete around themselves an adhering layer of polysaccharides
or polysaccharides and proteins known as glycocalyx. The layer can be thick and
tightly bound to the cell that it becomes known as capsule. When it is thin, loose and
less tightly bound it becomes known as slime layer. A slime layer is composed of a
mass of tangled fibers made of the polysaccharides dextran. When grown in solid
medium, encapsulated cells form smooth (S) colonies while non capsulated cells form
rough (R) colonies.

GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY

CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

In certain species capsules are important in contributing to the bacterial

virulence (the degree to which the pathogenic bacteria cause disease). Bacteria that are
encapsulated cannot be engulfed easily by white blood cells during phagocytosis. That
is why only encapsulated forms of Streptococcus pneumoniae cause pneumonia as
Application:
Glycocalyx and biofilms
The presence of glycocalyx is a key element in the formation of biofilms.
Biofilms are embedded micro colonies of bacteria attached to surfaces. These
surfaces range from the surfaces of industrial pipelines and sewage
treatment systems to medical instruments and even the body tissues. In
biofilms a carbohydrate matrix binds the micro-colonies together and the
surrounding water channels deliver water and remove waste. An important
example of biofilms on body tissue is dental plaque. Dental plaque is material
which accumulates on the tooth surface and is essentially a biofilm formed of
a deposit of dense gelatinous material consisting of protein, polysaccharide
and an enormous mass of bacteria. Bacteria within dental plaque such as the

they escape phagocytosis by white blood cells. Similarly, only the encapsulated forms
of Bacillus anthracis cause anthrax (the capsule of B. anthracis is composed of Dglutamic acid).

II.

The cell wall

All bacteria except the mycoplasma have a cell wall. It is a complex semi-rigid
structure that surrounds the cell. The cell wall plays a critical role in the structure of
the bacterial cell by providing shape and protection. The cell wall gives the bacteria
its characteristic shape and protects the bacteria enhancing its survival. In addition, it
contributes to the ability of some bacteria to cause disease and consequently is the site
of action of several antibiotics. The composition of the cell wall is used to differentiate
major types of bacteria. Although some types of prokaryotes like algae, fungi and
plants have a cell wall; their cell walls differ in its chemical composition from
bacterial cell walls.
A major role of the cell wall is to prevent the cells from bursting (rupture)
because of internal pressure. Most bacteria live in an environment where there are
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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

more dissolved material inside the cell than outside. This hypertonic condition in the
cell means that water would diffuse inward and leads to an increase in internal
pressure of the cell. Without the cell wall, the cell would burst or undergo lysis.
Composition of the cell wall:
The bacterial cell wall consists of a network of chains of a complex substance
called peptidoglycan or murein. The peptidoglycan is composed of alternating units
of two amino containing sugars; N-acetylglucoseamine (NAG) and Nacetylmuramic acid (NAM) linked together by glycosidic bonds. The carbohydrate
backbone occurs in multiple layers connected vertically by side chains of four amino
acids and laterally by peptide cross bridges comprising one extremely large molecule.
There are two major types of the bacterial cell wall. Their difference provide a
means to identify stained bacteria as either gram-positive (blue-purple) or gramnegative (orange-red).
1) Gram-positive bacterial cell wall
About 60-90% of the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria is peptidoglycan with
thickness that can reach 25 nm. In addition to peptidoglycan, gram-positive cell walls
contain an anionic polysaccharide derivative called teichoic acid. Teichoic acid is
formed of sorbitol or glycerol linked by phosphor-diester bonds. Teichoic acid helps
link the peptidoglycan chains together. As teichoic acid is negatively charged (due to
the phosphate groups), it binds and regulates the movement of positively charged ions
(cataions).
When gram-positive bacteria grow in such way that they fail to synthesize a cell
wall, they produce cells known as protoplasts. Unless protoplasts are present in an
isotonic environment with the cytoplasm, they absorb water and then could be
ruptured.
2) Gram-negative bacterial cell wall

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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

By contrast, gram-negative cell wall has no teichoic acid, the peptidoglycan

layer is thin and accounts only to 10% of the composition of the cell wall. The outer
portion of the cell wall consists of an outer membrane bilayer not found in grampositive cell walls. This membrane consists of an inner layer of phospholipids and an
outer layer of lipopolysaccharides (LPS). The lipid portion of the outer membrane
known as (lipid A) is embedded in the outer half of the membrane bilayer. The lipid A
is an endotoxin when it is released from the bacterial cells into digestive system or
blood stream of an infected host organism; it leads to fever and circulatory collapse.
Examples of endotoxins producing bacteria are E. coli and Salmonella. The poly
saccharide portion of the lipopolysaccharides is attached to lipid A and part of it
known as O-polysaccharide which is used to identify variants of a species in certain
lab tests.
The space between the outer membrane and the plasma membrane is known as
the periplasmic region. It is where the thin layer of peptidoglycan is located. This area
is filled with periplasm which is gel-like material containing digestive enzymes and
transport proteins to speed entry of nutrients into the cell. The outer membrane has
proteins known as porins which for pores through which small molecules pass to the
periplasmic region. Large molecules cannot pass, accounting for the resistance of
gram negative bacteria to many antibiotics, disinfectant and lysozymes. If the cell wall
of gram-negative bacteria is lost, the cells form spheroplasts, which can rupture if
present in hypotonic environment.

GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY

CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Applications:
1) The cell wall is a preferred target for many antibiotics and
antimicrobials.
The cell wall is present in bacteria and not in human, therefore it is a target
for antibiotics and antimicrobials since they affect the bacterial cells without
affecting the host cells.
-

Antibiotics like penicillin and cephalosporines interfere with and

prevent the construction of the peptidoglycan layer of the cell wall
leading to an increase in the internal pressure of the cell and its
rupture.
- Lysozyme present in many body secretions as saliva, tears and
mucous cleave the peptidoglycan of the cell wall.
2) Cell wall and the gram stain mechanism
The principle of the Gram stain is based on the difference in the structure
between gram- positive and gram-negative cell walls. When the first dye
(crystal violet) is applied the dye is picked-up by the both types of the cell
wall. When iodine (mordant or fixer) is added, it forms a complex with the
crystal violet that accumulate as crystals in gram-positive cells in larger
amounts due to the thick layer of peptidoglycan found. The application of
alcohol (decolorizer) dissolves the lipids in the outer membrane of the gram-

3) A typical cell walls

The cell wall of Mycobacterium consists of a waxy material known as mycolic
acid in addition to peptidoglycan.
Mycoplasma, which are the smallest type of bacteria and do not have a cell
wall, instead, their plasma membrane have lipids called sterols to help the cells
from rupture.
Archaea do not have peptidoglycans in their cell wall, instead, they have
unusual components of polysaccharides and proteins.

Characteristic
Peptidoglycan
7

Gram-positive
Yes, thick layer

Gram-negative
Yes, thin layer

GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY

Teichoic acid
Outer membrane
Lipopolysaccharide
Porin proteins
Periplasmic region

CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Yes
No
No
No
No

III. Structures internal to the cell wall

1) Cell membrane
8

No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY

CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

The cell membrane (also called cytoplasmic membrane) (usually called plasma
membrane in eukaryotes) is the boundary layer between the cell cytoplasm and the
cells external environment. It functions as a permeability barrier to keep cytoplasmic
constituents inside the cell and other substances outside.
The cell membrane of the bacterial cells is about 40% phospholipids and 60%
proteins. The phospholipids are arranged as a parallel layer known as the phospholipid
bilayer. Each phospholipid molecule consists of a polar head formed of a hydrophilic
(water soluble) phosphate group with glycerol and a non-polar hydrophobic (water
insoluble) tail composed of fatty acids. The polar heads lie to the outer side of the cell
membrane while the non-polar tails lie in the interior of the bilayer. The proteins are
embedded in the membrane where some are enzymes that function in cell wall
synthesis. Other are enzymes used in energy metabolism. Some proteins extend form
one end of the membrane to the other end and play an important role in transport of
nutrients across the membrane. The mosaic of proteins and phospholipids in the cell
membrane is dynamic and can move laterally in the membrane surface (fluid mosaic
model).
Main functions of the cell membrane
a- Selective permeability
The most important function of the cell membrane is that its acts a selective
barrier through which materials can enter and exit the cells. Large molecules as
proteins cannot pass, while small molecules such as amino acids, simple sugars,
nitrogenous bases can pass. Ions usually pass slowly while lipid soluble molecules
enter and exit more easily as the membrane consists mainly of phospholipids.

b- Production of energy
Some enzymes that are embedded in the cell membrane act as energy
metabolism enzymes that help break down the nutrients and produce ATP. This fact
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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

makes the membrane of the cell membrane similar to the inner mitochondrial
membrane of eukaryotes.

The passage of substances through membranes

Application:
The cell membrane is a target for some antibiotic and antimicrobials
-

The antibiotic polymyxin forms holes in the membrane leading to

disturbance in the flow of molecules in and out of the cell.
Detergents and surfactants as alcohol and quaternary ammonium
compounds dissolved the lipid bilayer resulting in leakage of the
cytoplasm from the cells and death through cell lysis

Passive diffusion
Substances move along a concentration gradient from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration without the consumption of energy
(ATP). Passive diffusion includes simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Simple diffusion:
The movement of molecules or ions from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration across the cell membrane till there is an even distribution
(equilibrium) on both sides. Cells rely on simple diffusion for the transport of simple
molecules like oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Facilitated diffusion:
The movement of molecule from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration across the cell membrane took place with the help of a carrier. The
carrier is a protein that undergoes a conformational change that allows it to transport
the molecule from one side of the membrane to another. In some bacteria Glucose is
transported by facilitated diffusion in addition to fructose, urea and some vitamins.
Active process

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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

In active transport the cell uses energy to move substances from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration (against concentration gradient). Active
process includes active transport and group translocation.
Active transport:
The cells use energy in form of ATP to move substances from outside to inside
the cells. Usually there is a carrier for each transported substance or a group of closely
related substances. The molecule is transported exactly the same without any changes
in its structure. Among the substances transported by active transport are some sugars,
most amino acids and organic acids and a number of inorganic ions as sulfate,
phosphate, chloride, potassium and sodium.
Group translocation:
Group translocation is a process in which the substance to be transported is
chemically altered in the course of passage along the membrane and consequently, the
product appears inside the cell is chemically different from the external substrate. An
example is the transport of sugars as glucose, mannose and fructose, which are
phosphorylated during transport by phosphotransferase system (glucose and other
sugars are transported by facilitated diffusion in some bacteria and by group transport
in others).
Osmosis and the movement of solvent molecules (water transport)
Osmosis is the net movement of solvent molecules from an area of high solvent
concentration to an area of a low solvent concentration, across a selectively permeable
membrane, till equilibrium is achieved and an equal osmotic pressure is achieved in
both sides of the membrane. In living system the chief solvent is water and osmotic
pressure refers to the pressure required to prevent the movement of water (pure water
with no solutes) into a solution with some solutes.
A bacterial cell may be subjected to any type of three kinds of osmotic solutions
according to the concentration of solutes in the media.
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GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY

o In an

CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Isotonic solution.
Hypotonic solution.
Hypertonic solution.
isotonic (iso-osmotic), (iso=equal) solution, solute concentration is the

same in both sides of the cell membrane and water leaves and enter the cell at
the same rate.
o In a hypotonic (hypo-osmotic), (hypo=less) solution, the concentration of the
solute concentration outside the cell membrane is less than inside. Most bacteria
live in hypotonic solution and swelling due to movement of the solvent
molecules to the inside of the cell is contained by the cell wall. Cells with weak
cell wall may rupture and undergo osmotic lysis as a result of excessive solvent
intake.
o In a hypertonic (hyper-osmotic), (hyper= more), the concentration of the solute
in the medium is higher than inside the cell and water tend to go from inside the
cell to outside. If bacteria are placed in a hyper tonic solution they shrink and
collapse as water leaves the cell to the outside.

2) Cytoplasm
The cell membrane encloses the cytoplasm which is the foundation substance of
the cell and the center of its growth and metabolism. The cytoplasm is a thick
gelatinous semitransparent mass, which contains proteins, amino acids, sugars,
nucleotides, salts, vitamins and ions all dissolved in water. In addition, the cytoplasm
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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

contains several bacterial structures with specific functions (nucleotides, plasmids,

ribosomes and inclusion bodies).
a- Nucleoid (nuclear area of the bacterial chromosome)
The nucleoid is the chromosome region in the bacteria. It is the area in the
cytoplasm where DNA aggregates and is not surrounded by any membrane.
The bacterial chromosome is a closed loop of DNA which carries the set of
genes of the organism. The genes contain the hereditary information of the cell. Genes
determine what kind of proteins and enzymes the cell can make, in addition to other
cell characteristics such as the metabolic reactions it can carry.
The number of genes on bacterial chromosome can reach up to 3,500 genes on
the chromosome of a certain bacterial species. Unlike eukaryotes (diploid genes), there
is only one copy of the bacterial chromosome and therefore it does not undergo
meiosis. Mitosis does not occur in bacteria; instead bacteria divide by binary fission
(discussed later). Within the last few years, the exact sequence (type of bases) of the
whole chromosome of many bacterial species was determined.
b- Plasmids
Plasmids are small nonessential molecules of DNA which exists away from the
nucleoid. Plasmids are approximately 1/10 (one tenth) of the size of a bacterial
chromosome and can carry from 5 to 100 genes. There can be one or more of the same
or different plasmid in the same bacterial cell. Plasmids multiply independently from
the bacterial chromosome and from cell reproduction.
Although plasmids may carry few genes that are not essential for the growth,
they usually carry genes that are significant for disease processes. For example; some
plasmids carry genes for toxic products that contribute to the pathogenicity of the
bacteria. Other plasmids may carry antibiotic resistance gene (R resistance plasmid).
Plasmids can be transferred between cells during bacterial recombination (discussed

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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

later). Plasmids are very important tools in industrial microbiology and biotechnology
which both use genetic engineering.
c- Ribosomes
Ribosomes are responsible for protein biosynthesis. They are present in the
cytoplasm of bacterial cells and their number may reach tens of thousands in an
actively growing cell, thus giving the cytoplasm its granular appearance.
They are composed of RNA (ribosomal RNA or rRNA) and proteins (ribosomal
proteins). Ribosomes are present in all organisms (prokaryotes and eukaryotes),
however; prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller in size than eukaryotic ribosomes.
Bacterial ribosomes are 70S while eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S (where S is the
Svedberg unit which is the sedimentation coefficient when the ribosomes are
centrifuged it is related to the size of ribosomes).
The bacterial 70S ribosomes are composed of two subunits; the small subunit
(30S) and the large subunit (50S). During translation both subunits associate to form
the 70S ribosome. Each subunit is composed of ribosomal RNA and ribosomal
proteins. The small subunit is formed of one molecule of rRNA (16S) and more than
20 ribosomal proteins. The large subunit is formed of two molecules of rRNA (23S
and 5S) and over 30 ribosomal proteins.

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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Application:
The bacterial ribosomes is an important target for antibiotics
-

The ribosome is an essential organelle in any living cell as it carries

protein biosynthesis for cell. Due to the differences between bacterial
and eukaryotic (human) ribosomes, antibiotics can target the bacterial
ribosomes without affecting the human (host) ribosomes.
Many antibiotics target the bacterial ribosomes and therefore inhibit
translation in the bacterial cells. Some examples for antibiotics that
target the small subunit are; streptomycin, tetracycline, and aminoglycosides such as kanamycin and gentamycin.
Antibiotics can also target the large subunit (chloramphenicol,
erythromycin, clindamycin and streptogramines)

d- Inclusion bodies (granules)

Inclusion bodies are cytoplasmic structures found in many bacteria species.
Several types of inclusion bodies are common and are found in many species of
bacteria. Some special types of inclusion bodies are unique to certain species.
Many inclusion bodies store nutrients. They are taken when the nutrients are in
abundance and utilized when the nutrients are scarce. They are formed of aggregates
of polysaccharides (glycogen) or elemental sulfur, phosphates and compounds
containing nitrogen or lipids.
- Metachromatic or voultin granules are large granules formed of inorganic
phosphates; they are used for production of energy (ATP). They stain deeply
with dyes such as methylene blue hence the name metachromatic. These
granules are characteristic for the bacteria Corynebacterium diphtheria so
they are used for its identification (they have a diagnostic significance).
- Magnetosomes are special types of inclusion bodies containing crystals of an
iron containing compound called magnetite (Fe3O4). Bacteria that contain
magnetosomes (Aquaspirillum magnetotacticum) can orient themselves to the
environment by aligning themselves with the local magnetic fields.
- Carboxysomes are inclusion bodies that contain enzymes needed for carbon
dioxide fixation and utilization.
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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

e- Gas vacuoles
Gas vacuoles are hollow cavities found in many aquatic bacteria like
Cyanobacteria and Halobacteria. These hollows cavities store gas in protein sacs. Gas
vacuoles are important for aquatic bacteria as they maintain its buoyancy and keep the
bacteria at a reasonable depth, so that they receive adequate amount of sunlight and
nutrients.
3) Endospores
Certain species of gram positive bacteria like Bacillus and Clostridium produce
highly resistant structures called endospores or simply spores.
Bacteria normally grow, mature and reproduce as vegetative cells, but when
conditions become hard as when nutrients like carbon, nitrogen or oxygen
become limited or other environmental pressure exist; spore are formed.
Endospores are very resistant to environmental conditions. By containing little
water, they are heat resistant and are one of the few very resistant structures
ever known. They are resistant to drying, heating, radiation and lethal
chemicals. For examples endospores can resist boiling for two hours whereas
vegetative cells die at 80C. Some spore can survive for years in 70% alcohol.
Spore formation begins when the bacterial chromosome replicates, a small
amount of cytoplasm gathers with it and the cell membrane grows in to seal off
the developing spore within the cytoplasm.
Thick layer of peptidoglycan are then formed and several coats of proteins
surround the spore. The vegetative cells disintegrate and the spore is released.
Endospores contain dipicolinic acid a unique organic substance that helps to
stabilize their protein and DNA.
Endospores may develop at the end of the cells, near the end or at the center of
the cell depending o the species.
When the environmental conditions are favorable for cell growth the protective
layers breakdown and the endospore germinate into vegetative cell.
Endospores represent a dormant form of life in bacteria; they are not a
reproductive process.

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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Spores of Bacillus anthracis cause anthrax. The organism and the disease have
gained international attention in the last few years due to the potential use of the
spores in bioterrorism.
Structure
Flagella

Pilli & fimbria

Chemical
composition
Protein

Function

Comment

Motility

Protein

- Attachment to surfaces.
- Transfer of genetic material
-Buffer to environment.
-Cell protection.
-Attachment to surfaces.
-Contribute to disease (capsule)

- Present in many rods

and spirilla, few cocci.
-Vary in number and
placement
Found in many gram
negative bacteria.
Capsule and slim layer
found in biofilms
(dental plaque)

Glycocalyx

Polysaccharides and
small protein

Cell wall

-Gram +ve:
Much peptidoglycan
With teichoic acid
-Gram ve:
Less peptidoglycan,
no teichoic acid in
outer membrane
Protein and
phospholipids

Cell membrane

Cytosol

- Cell protection.
-Shape determination.
-Prevent cell lysis.

-Cell boundary.
-Transport in/out.
-Site of enzymatic reactions

Water, amino acids,

sugars and ions

Foundation substance of the cell

Ribosomes

RNA and proteins

Protein synthesis

Inclusion bodies

-Glycogen, sulfur

-Nutrients storage

Metachromatic

-Polyphosphate

-ATP production.

Magnetosomes

-Magnetite

-Cell orientation

Gas vacuoles
Chromosomes

-Air vacuoles
DNA

-Buoyancy
Site of genetic code and
inheritance

DNA

Site of some genes

granules

Plasmid

17

-Site of activity of
penicillin & lysozyme.
-Absent in Mycoplasma
-Gram ve release
endotoxin.
-Fluid mosaic model
-Susceptible to
detergent, alcohol and
some antibiotics.
-Semi transparent and
gel-like.
-Center of biochemistry
and growth.
Important target for
antibiotics
-Used as nutrients
during starvation.
-Found in diphtheria
-Helps locate preferred
habitat
-Located in the nucleoid
-Exists as single closed
loop.
-May contain R factors.
-Important in genetic

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CHAPTER (3): THE STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

engineering.

18