Q4.

Write a short note on any three of the following.

A. Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
Data flow diagram (DFD) represents the flows of data between different processes in a
business. It is a graphical technique that depicts information flow and the transforms that
are applied as data move form input to output. It provides a simple, intuitive method for
describing business processes without focusing on the details of computer systems. DFDs
are attractive technique because they provide what users do rather than what computers
do.
DFDs are constructed using four major components
1. external entries
2. data stores
3. processes and
4. data flows
D. WaterFall Model

Waterfall Model was first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as a linearsequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall model,
each phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and there is no
overlapping in the phases.
Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for software development.
The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential flow;
hence it is also referred to as a linear-sequential life cycle model. This means that any
phase in the development process begins only if the previous phase is complete. In
waterfall model phases do not overlap.
The sequential phases in Waterfall model are:

Requirement Gathering and analysis: All possible requirements of the system to

be developed are captured in this phase and documented in a requirement
specification doc.

System Design: The requirement specifications from first phase are studied in this
phase and system design is prepared. System Design helps in specifying hardware
and system requirements and also helps in defining overall system architecture.

Implementation: With inputs from system design, the system is first developed in
small programs called units, which are integrated in the next phase. Each unit is
developed and tested for its functionality which is referred to as Unit Testing.

Integration and Testing: All the units developed in the implementation phase are
integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the entire system
is tested for any faults and failures.

Deployment of system: Once the functional and non functional testing is done, the
product is deployed in the customer environment or released into the market.

Maintenance: There are some issues which come up in the client environment. To
fix those issues patches are released. Also to enhance the product some better
versions are released. Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the customer
environment.

E. E.R.Diagram

An Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD) is a visual representation of different data using

conventions that describe how these data are related to each other.
The Three Main Components of ER Diagram
1. Entity - An Entity can be any object, place, person or class. In E-R Diagram,
an entity is represented using rectangles. Consider an example of an Organization.
Employee, Manager, Department, Product and many more can be taken as entities
from an Organization.
2. Attribute - An Attribute describes a property or characteristic of an entity. For
example, Name, Age, Address etc. can be attributes of a Student. An attribute is
represented using eclipse.

Types

of Attribute
Simple Attribute
Composite Attribute
Derived Attribute
Single valve Attribute
Multi valve Attribute

3. Relation Ship - A Relationship describes relations between entities. Relationship is

represented using diamonds.
Types

of Relationship
Binary Relationship
Recursive Relationship
Ternary Relationship

Q6.
Define the term "Data Dictionary". What is the need for a Data Dictionary?

Date Dictionary - Data dictionary is a main method for analyzing the data flows and data
stores of data-oriented systems. The data dictionary is a reference work of data about data
(metadata). It collects, coordinates, and confirms what a specific data term means to
different people in the organization

Usage of a Data Dictionary

In order to manage the details in large-scale systems.

Most systems are ongoing and dynamic and management of all the descriptive
details is difficult, therefore an accurate and consistent recording technique is
essential.

To communicate a common meaning for all of the elements in the system.

Simply making sure that for all elements, the meaning will remain consistent.

To document features of the system.

It is essential to document the circumstances under which data items occur. For
example, what is the frequency of this process? Who has access to this data store?
Documenting these features will produce a more complete and better understanding
of the system for the analyst.

To locate errors and omissions in the system.

The data dictionary may reveal information that is incomplete and/or inaccurate. It
may show stores that are never accessed and/or processes that should be subdivided, etc

Q8.
What do your understand by normalization. And also explain advantages and disadvantages of
normalizations.

Normalization is a technique of organizing the data in the database. Normalization is a

systematic approach of decomposing tables to eliminate data redundancy and undesirable
characteristics like Insertion, Update and Deletion. It is a multi-step process that puts data
into tabular form by removing duplicated data from the relation tables.
Normalization is used for mainly two purposes,

Eliminating redundant (useless) data.

Ensuring data dependencies make sense i.e data is logically stored.

Advantages of normalization
1. Smaller database: By eliminating duplicate data, you will be able to reduce the overall
size of the
database.
2. Better performance:
a. Narrow tables: Having more fine-tuned tables allows your tables to have less columns
and allows
you to fit more records per data page.
b. Fewer indexes per table mean faster maintenance tasks such as index rebuilds.
c. Only join tables that you need.

Disadvantages of normalization
1. More tables to join: By spreading out your data into more tables, you increase the need to
join tables.

2. Tables contain codes instead of real data: Repeated data is stored as codes rather than
meaningful
data. Therefore, there is always a need to go to the lookup table for the value.
3. Data model is difficult to query against: The data model is optimized for applications, not
for ad hoc
querying.