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L1-Introduction
Tc =To + Th + Tt
L4-Casting
H=V{Cs (TmTo)+Hf +Cl (TpTm)}
where H = total heat required to raise the
temperature of the metal to pouring
temperature, J; = density, g/cm3; V = volume
of the metal being heated, cm3; Cs = weight
specific heat of the solid metal; Tm = melting
temperature; To = starting temperature; Hf =
heat of fusion, J/g; Cl = weight specific heat of
the liquid metal; and Tp= pouring temperature.
v =(2gh)0.5
where v = the velocity of the liquid metal at
the base of the sprue, cm/sec; g = 981cm/s2;
and h = height of sprue, cm.
Q=v1A1=v2A2
where Q = volumetric flow rate, cm3/sec; and
A = cross sectional area of the liquid, cm2.
TMF =V/Q
where TMF = mold filling time, sec; and V =
volume of the mold cavity, cm3.
TTS = Cm (V/A)n
Chvorinov's rule; TTS = total solidification
time, min; Cm = the mold constant; V = volume
of casting, cm3; A = surface area of casting,
cm2; and n = exponent usually = 2.
L5-Machining Operations
Turning:
v =DN
where v = cutting speed, mm/min;D = original
workpiece diameter (also shown to as Do),
mm; and N = spindle speed, rev/min (RPM).
Note: Often the unit of v is presented in
m/min.
Df = Do 2d
where Df = final diameter, mm;Do = original
diameter, mm; and d = depth of cut, mm.
fr = Nf
where fr = feed rate, mm/min; and f = feed,
mm/rev.
Tm = Do L / f v
where Tm = machining time, min; and L is the
workpiece length, mm.
RMR = v f d
where RMR = material removal rate, mm3/min.
Drilling:
v = D N
where v = cutting speed, mm/min;D = the drill
diameter, mm, and N = spindle speed, rev/min.
fr = Nf
where fr = feed rate, mm/min; and f = feed,
mm/rev.
Tm = (t+A) / fr
where Tm = machining (drilling) time, min; t =
work thickness, mm; A = an approach
allowance for drill point angle, mm; and fr =
feed rate, mm/min.
RMR = 0.25D2 fr
where RMR = material removal rate, mm3/min.
Milling:
v =DN
where v = cutting speed, mm/min;D = the
cutting tool diameter, mm; and N = spindle
speed, rev/min;
fr = N n t f
where fr = feed rate, mm/min; nt = number of
teeth on the cutter; and f = chip load,
mm/tooth.
RMR = w d fr
Yf = Kn
where Yf = flow stress defined as the stress
required to keep the material flowing, MPa, K
= the strength coefficient; and n = the strain
hardening exponent.
n
f = K / (1+n)
where f = average flow stress, MPa.
Rolling:
d = to tf
where d = thickness is reduced by an amount
called the draft, mm; to = starting thickness,
mm; and tf = final thickness, mm;
dmax = 2 R
where dmax = maximum draft, mm; =
coefficient of friction; and R = roll radius, mm;
to wo vo = tf wf vf
where vo = entering velocity and vf= exiting
velocity;
=ln(to/tf)
where = true strain;
F = f w L
= ln(ho/hf)
Ab = 2 (R + Kba t) /360
where Ab = bend allowance, mm; R = bend
radius, mm; MPa; and Kba = a factor to
estimate stretching; and = bend angle,
degrees.
The
following
values
are
recommended for Kba: if R < 2t, Kba = 0.33; &
if R 2t, Kba = 0.50.
F = [Kbf (TS) w t2] / D
where F = bending force, N; TS = tensile
strength of sheet metal, MPA; mm; and w =
width of part in the direction of bend axis,
mm; D = die opening, mm; and the values of
Kbf for edge-bending = 0.33 and for V-bending
= 1.33.
Drawing:
c = 1.1 t
where c = clearance between die and punch.
DR = Db / Dp
where DR = drawing ratio; Db = blank
diameter, mm; and Dp = punch diameter, mm.
r = (Db - Dp ) / Db
where r = reduction.
F = Dp t (TS) [(Db / Dp) - 0.7]
where F = drawing force, N; t = starting stock
thickness, mm; and TS = tensile strength of
sheet metal, MPa. The constant 0.7 is a
correction factor to account for friction.
Fh = 0.015 Y [ Db2 - (Dp+2.2t +2Rd)2]
where Fh = holding force, N; Y = sheet metal
yield strength, MPa; Rd =die corner radius,
mm.
L10-Welding and Joining
Welding:
PD = P/A
where PD = power density, W/mm2; P =
power entering the surface, W; and A =
surface, mm2.
Um = K Tm2
where Um = the unit energy for melting,
J/mm3; Tm = melting point of metal in Kelvin;
K = constant whose value is 3.33 (10-6) when
Kelvin scale is used.
Hw = f1 f2 H = Um V
where Hw = net heat available for welding, J;
f1= heat transfer factor; f2 = the melting factor;
and H = the total heat generated by the
welding process, J; and V = the volume of
metal melted, mm3.
RHw = Um RWV
where RHw = rate of heat energy delivered to
the operation for welding, J/sec = W; and RWV
= volume rate of the metal welded, mm3/sec.
RHw = f1 f2 RH = Um AW v
where RH = rate of input energy generated by
the welding power source, W; AW = weld
cross-sectional area, mm2; and v = the travel
velocity of the welding operation, mm/sec.
Arc time = (time arc is on) / (hours worked)
The resulting power balance in arc welding is
defined by:
RHw = f1 f2 I E = Um AW v
where E = voltage, V; I = current, A; and the
unit for RHw is W.
Mechanical Assembly:
= F /As