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Equations

L1-Introduction
Tc =To + Th + Tt

where Tc = cycle time of the unit operation, min/pc;


To = actual processing time in the operation,
min/pc; Th = work handling time, min/pc; and Th =
tool handling time, min/pc.
Tb = Tsu + Q Tc
where Tb = total time to complete the batch,
min/batch; Tsu = setup time, min/batch; and Q =
batch quantity, pc.
Tp = (Tsu/Q)+Tc
where Tp = average production time including setup
time, min/pc.
Rp = 60/Tp
where Rp = average hourly production rate, pc/hr.
Rc = 60/Tc
where Rc = hourly cycle rate, cycles/hr or pc/hr.
Cpc =Cm + (CL + Ceq) Tp + Ct
where Cpc = cost per piece, $/pc; Cm = starting
material cost, $/pc; CL = labor cost rate, $/min; Ceq
= equipment cost rate, $/min; and Ct = cost of
tooling, $/pc.
CL=RH /60)(1+ RLOH)
where CL = labor cost rate, $/min; RH = workers
wage rate, $/hr; and RLOH = labor overhead rate, %.
Ceq=Ic/60NH)(1+ ROH)
where Ceq = equipment cost rate, $/min; Ic = initial
cost of the equipment, $; N = anticipated number of
years of service; H = annual number of hours of
operation; hr/yr; and ROH = applicable overhead
rate for the equipment, %.
Qo =Qq
where Qo = starting quantity; Q = required quantity
of parts to be delivered, $; and q = scrap rate, %.

L4-Casting
H=V{Cs (TmTo)+Hf +Cl (TpTm)}
where H = total heat required to raise the
temperature of the metal to pouring
temperature, J; = density, g/cm3; V = volume
of the metal being heated, cm3; Cs = weight
specific heat of the solid metal; Tm = melting
temperature; To = starting temperature; Hf =
heat of fusion, J/g; Cl = weight specific heat of
the liquid metal; and Tp= pouring temperature.
v =(2gh)0.5
where v = the velocity of the liquid metal at
the base of the sprue, cm/sec; g = 981cm/s2;
and h = height of sprue, cm.
Q=v1A1=v2A2
where Q = volumetric flow rate, cm3/sec; and
A = cross sectional area of the liquid, cm2.
TMF =V/Q
where TMF = mold filling time, sec; and V =
volume of the mold cavity, cm3.

TTS = Cm (V/A)n
Chvorinov's rule; TTS = total solidification
time, min; Cm = the mold constant; V = volume
of casting, cm3; A = surface area of casting,
cm2; and n = exponent usually = 2.
L5-Machining Operations
Turning:

v =DN
where v = cutting speed, mm/min;D = original
workpiece diameter (also shown to as Do),
mm; and N = spindle speed, rev/min (RPM).
Note: Often the unit of v is presented in
m/min.
Df = Do 2d
where Df = final diameter, mm;Do = original
diameter, mm; and d = depth of cut, mm.
fr = Nf
where fr = feed rate, mm/min; and f = feed,
mm/rev.
Tm = Do L / f v
where Tm = machining time, min; and L is the
workpiece length, mm.
RMR = v f d
where RMR = material removal rate, mm3/min.
Drilling:

v = D N
where v = cutting speed, mm/min;D = the drill
diameter, mm, and N = spindle speed, rev/min.
fr = Nf
where fr = feed rate, mm/min; and f = feed,
mm/rev.
Tm = (t+A) / fr
where Tm = machining (drilling) time, min; t =
work thickness, mm; A = an approach
allowance for drill point angle, mm; and fr =
feed rate, mm/min.
RMR = 0.25D2 fr
where RMR = material removal rate, mm3/min.
Milling:

v =DN
where v = cutting speed, mm/min;D = the
cutting tool diameter, mm; and N = spindle
speed, rev/min;
fr = N n t f
where fr = feed rate, mm/min; nt = number of
teeth on the cutter; and f = chip load,
mm/tooth.
RMR = w d fr

where RMR = material removal rate; w = width


of cut; and d = depth of cut.
Tm = (L+A) / fr
where Tm = machining time or the time in
which the cutter is engaged milling the
workpiece, min; L = workpiece length, mm;
and A = approach distance, mm.
A = [d(D-d)]0.5
where A = approach distance to reach full
cutter depth in slab milling, mm; D = cutting
tool diameter, min; and d = depth of cut.
A = 0.5[D-(D2-w2)0.5]
where A= approach distance to reach full
cutter depth in face milling, mm; D = cutting
tool diameter, min; and w = width of cut.
L6-Theory of Metal Machining
Orthogonal Machining:
RMR = v f d
where RMR = materials removal rate in turning,
mm3/min; v = cutting speed, mm/min; f = feed,
mm/rev; and d = depth of cup, mm.
r = to/tc
where r = chip ratio, to = chip thickness before
cut, mm; tc = chip thickness, mm.
tanrcos rsin
where = shear plane angle, = rake angle.
= tan( + cot
where= shear strain on the shear plane.
= F/N = tan
where = coefficient of friction between tool
and chip, = friction angle, F = friction force,
N; N = normal force to friction, N.
S = Fs / As
where S = shear strength = shear stress,
N/mm2; Fs = shear force, N; and As = area of
shear plane, mm2.
As = tow / sin
where As = area of shear plane, mm2; w =
width of cut, mm.
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
where F = friction force, N; Fc = cutting force,
N; Ft = thrust force, N.
N = Fc cos Ft sin
N = normal force to friction, N.
Fs = Fc cos Ft sin
where Fs = shear force, N.
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
where Fn = normal force to shear, N.
= 45+(/2)-(/2)
known as Merchant equation.

Machining Power and Energy:


Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power, N-m/min, v =
cutting speed, m/min.
Pg = Pc / E
where Pg = gross power of machine tool
motor, N-m/min, E = mechanical efficiency of
machine tool.
U = Pu = Pc / RMR = Fc / to w
where U = specific energy, N-m/mm3, Pu =
unit power; RMR = material removal rate,
mm3/sec; w = width of cut, mm.
T =(0.4U /C) (v to / K)0.333
where T = mean temperature rise at tool-chip
interface, C; C = volumetric specific heat of
the work material, J/mm3-C; K = thermal
diffusivity of work material, m2/sec.
T = K vm
where T = tool-chip interface temperature, C;
K and m depend on cutting conditions.
L7-Cutting Tool Technology
v Tn = C
known Taylors tool life equation where v =
cutting speed, m/min; T = tool life, min; C is a
constant value; and n depend on tool material.
L8-Bulk Deformation Processes
Metal Forming:

Yf = Kn
where Yf = flow stress defined as the stress
required to keep the material flowing, MPa, K
= the strength coefficient; and n = the strain
hardening exponent.

n
f = K / (1+n)
where f = average flow stress, MPa.

Rolling:
d = to tf
where d = thickness is reduced by an amount
called the draft, mm; to = starting thickness,
mm; and tf = final thickness, mm;
dmax = 2 R
where dmax = maximum draft, mm; =
coefficient of friction; and R = roll radius, mm;
to wo vo = tf wf vf
where vo = entering velocity and vf= exiting
velocity;
=ln(to/tf)
where = true strain;
F = f w L

where F = rolling force, N; w = the width of


the work being rolled, mm; and L = as given
below;
L = [R (to - tf )]1/2
where L = contact length between the rolls and
the work, mm;
T = 0.5 F L
where T = torque for each roll, N.m or N.mm
depending on the unit of L;
P = 2NFL
where P = power, J/sec or W; N = rotational
speed, rev/min;
Forging:

= ln(ho/hf)

where = true strain;


F = Kf Yf A
where F = force, N; Kf = forging shape factor;
Yf = flow stress, MPa; A = cross sectional area
of the work; mm2.
Kf = 1+ (0.4D / h)
where = coefficient of friction; D = diameter
or other parameter representing contact length
with die surface, mm; h = workpart height,
mm.
L9-Sheet Metal Forming
Shearing (Cutting):
c = Ac t
where c = clearance, mm; Ac = clearance
allowance; and t = stock thickness, mm. The
clearance allowance is determined according
to type of metal.
F=StL
where F = cutting force, N; S = shear strength
of the sheet metal, MPa; and L = length of the
cut edge, mm.
Bending:

Ab = 2 (R + Kba t) /360
where Ab = bend allowance, mm; R = bend
radius, mm; MPa; and Kba = a factor to
estimate stretching; and = bend angle,
degrees.
The
following
values
are
recommended for Kba: if R < 2t, Kba = 0.33; &
if R 2t, Kba = 0.50.
F = [Kbf (TS) w t2] / D
where F = bending force, N; TS = tensile
strength of sheet metal, MPA; mm; and w =
width of part in the direction of bend axis,
mm; D = die opening, mm; and the values of
Kbf for edge-bending = 0.33 and for V-bending
= 1.33.

Drawing:
c = 1.1 t
where c = clearance between die and punch.
DR = Db / Dp
where DR = drawing ratio; Db = blank
diameter, mm; and Dp = punch diameter, mm.
r = (Db - Dp ) / Db
where r = reduction.
F = Dp t (TS) [(Db / Dp) - 0.7]
where F = drawing force, N; t = starting stock
thickness, mm; and TS = tensile strength of
sheet metal, MPa. The constant 0.7 is a
correction factor to account for friction.
Fh = 0.015 Y [ Db2 - (Dp+2.2t +2Rd)2]
where Fh = holding force, N; Y = sheet metal
yield strength, MPa; Rd =die corner radius,
mm.
L10-Welding and Joining
Welding:
PD = P/A
where PD = power density, W/mm2; P =
power entering the surface, W; and A =
surface, mm2.
Um = K Tm2
where Um = the unit energy for melting,
J/mm3; Tm = melting point of metal in Kelvin;
K = constant whose value is 3.33 (10-6) when
Kelvin scale is used.
Hw = f1 f2 H = Um V
where Hw = net heat available for welding, J;
f1= heat transfer factor; f2 = the melting factor;
and H = the total heat generated by the
welding process, J; and V = the volume of
metal melted, mm3.
RHw = Um RWV
where RHw = rate of heat energy delivered to
the operation for welding, J/sec = W; and RWV
= volume rate of the metal welded, mm3/sec.
RHw = f1 f2 RH = Um AW v
where RH = rate of input energy generated by
the welding power source, W; AW = weld
cross-sectional area, mm2; and v = the travel
velocity of the welding operation, mm/sec.
Arc time = (time arc is on) / (hours worked)
The resulting power balance in arc welding is
defined by:
RHw = f1 f2 I E = Um AW v
where E = voltage, V; I = current, A; and the
unit for RHw is W.
Mechanical Assembly:
= F /As

where = stress, MPa; F = load, N; and As =


tensile stress area, mm2;
As = (/4) (D 0.9382 p )2
where D = nominal size,of the bolt or screw,
mm; and p = thread pitch, mm;
T = Ct D F
where T = torque, N-mm; Ct = torques
coefficient (0.15 to 0.25); D = nominal bolt
diameter; mm; and F = specified preload
tension force, N.
L11-Quality Control
PC = 3
where PC = process capability; = process
mean which is set at the nominal value of the
product
characteristics
when
bilateral
tolerancing is used; and = standard deviation.
PCI = T / 6
where PC = process capability index;
T=tolerance range; and 6 = natural tolerance
limits.
The above equation represents the relationship
between standard deviation of the assembly
dimension and the standard deviations of the
component dimensions.

where Ta=tolerance of the assembly


dimension;
Ti=tolerance
of
individual
component dimensions; and n=number of
components.
For constructing charts:
LCL = A2
and UCL = + A2
For constructing charts:
LCL = D3
and LCL = D4
L(x) = k(x - N)2
known as Taguchi loss function where L(x) is
the loss function; k is the constant of
proportionality; x is the quality characteristic
of interest; and N is its nominal value.

Chapter 23 Economic Machining


Ri = f2 / 32NR
where Ri = theoretical arithmetic average
surface roughness; f = feed; and NR = nose
radius.
Ra = rai Ri
where Ra = estimated value of actual
roughness; and rai = ratio of actual to ideal
surface finish.
Tc = Th + Tm + (Tt/np)
where Tc = production cycle time per piece,
min; Tm = machining time, min; Th = part
handling time, min; Tt = tool changing time,
min; and np = number of parts cut in one tool
life, T, when np=T/Tm
vmax = C/{[(1/n)-1]Tt}n
where vmax= cutting speed for maximum
production rate, m/min; and C and n as defined
in Taylors tool life equation.
Tmax = [(1/n)-1]Tt
where Tmax= tool life for maximum production
rate, min.
Ct = (Pt/nc) + TgCg
where Ct = cost per cutting edge (per tool life),
$/cutting edge ($/tool life); Pt = price of insert
(cutting tool); nc = number of cutting edges
(number of tool lives per tool); Tg= time for
grinding, min; and Cg= grinders rate, $/min.
For carbide insets Tg = Cg= 0.
Cc = CoTh + CoTm + (CoTt/np) + (Ct np)
where Cc= the total cost per unit production,
$/unit; and Co= cost rate for operator and
machine, $/min.
vmin = C{(n/1-n)[Co/(CoTt+ Ct)]}n
where vmin = cutting speed for minimum cost
per piece, m/min.
Tmin =(1/n-1)[(CoTt+ Ct)/Co]
where Tmin is the tool life for minimum cost per
piece.

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