Primary Cementing

Primary cementing is the cementing operation performed immediately after casing

has been run in the hole. This basic principle varies with the many materials used to
perform the many cementing operations. More and deeper wells are being drilled that
have extreme temperatures, both hot and cold, in new and more hostile
environments. This presents a constant challenge to successful primary cementing.
Meeting this challenge has led to an increasing number of ingenious and complex
materials, tools, equipment, and techniques.
Primary cementing uses several basic techniques. The most widely used procedure is
the single-stage primary cement job using a two-plug method. Cement is pumped
down the casing between two rubber plugs. The plugs are equipped with wiping fins
to help prevent contamination of the cement by drilling mud, and to help clean the
interior wall of the casing.
The use of other common techniques depends on well depth and completion
requirements. Two-, three-, and four-stage cementing procedures decrease the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column in the annulus, help protect weak zones
against excessive high pressures, and help prevent circulation loss. In addition to its
economic advantages (i.e., it is not necessary to cement the entire string back to the
surface), multiple-stage primary cementing is also important in wells where two or
more zones are separated by long intervals.

Terminology
Setting the casing at or near the bottom and perforating it for expected production is
common practice in the industry. Sometimes the casing is suspended and cemented
above the producing formation and the well is produced from open hole; this is called
an openhole completion. The final casing string is called the flow string or oil string.
The field terms long string and production string are used in some areas. The term
casing string denotes the total footage of casing run in the well at one time.
The phrase "waiting on cement," or WOC, has long been a misnomer in most
instances: the nonproductive and expensive time spent waiting has usually not been
necessary. In most cases, the cement has firmly set some time before operations are
resumed. In the early days of cementing, standards for curing concrete in the
construction industry were adapted as appropriate WOC time for oil wells. The first
wells were shut down for 28 days to allow the cement to set. Ten years later, oil field
operators were reducing the time to three weeks, and some were resuming
operations after only two weeks. Ten years after that, 10 days was considered
sufficient. Some 30 years after cement was first used, most operators accepted three
days as sufficient WOC time. Accelerators are currently added to cement, and make it
possible to resume operations within a few hours.
Important considerations in the determination of WOC time are:
how much strength the cementing composition must develop before drilling
can continue

the strength development characteristics of the commonly used cementing

compositions, as well as those of available materials that are not being used
to their best advantage
cement-curing temperatures that exist under wellbore conditions
By using curing pressures that closely simulate those found in oil or gas wells, it is
possible to have a better understanding of additive performances and more realistic
WOC time for cementing compositions.

Downhole Temperatures
Hole conditions and curing environments for cement slurries vary in temperature
from below freezing in permafrost zones to 700 F (371 C) in geothermal steam
wells. The capabilities and versatility of most API cements can be extended by using
additives. A blend of additives usually produces an optimum range of cement
qualities.
Temperature studies conducted along the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana in the
early 1950s formed the basis of API testing schedules and cement specifications. The
schedules are based on bottomhole temperatures: F = 80 F + [0.015 x depth in
feet]. The cooling effect of mud displacement lowers considerably the circulating
temperature of the hole during casing cementing. During squeeze cementing, there
is less cooling because there is less well fluid preceding the slurry. Thus, a cementing
composition can be pumpable longer during casing cementing than during squeeze
cementing at the same depth.
The bottomhole cementing temperature may be determined from logs and API
temperature data. Log temperatures taken approximately 24 hours after the last
circulation ended may be considered static for use in API Spec 10.

Slurry Volume
The amount of cement used in creating a slurry depends on the estimated total slurry
volume. If a caliper log is available, an allowance of 10% above the volume
calculated from the caliper information is generally acceptable. If volume from the bit
size of the drilled hole must be used, allow from 50% to more than 100% above the
volume calculated from the bit size. The excess-cement percentages of other wells in
the area of interest can be used as a guideline.
In some areas, regulatory requirements dictate how far the top of the cement must
be above the uppermost pay zone. Three hundred to five hundred feet of cement
above the top of the pay is typical for many locations. This volume is contingent upon
contact time the time it takes for cement to flow past a given point in the annulus.
The greater the contact time, the greater the chance of removing the drilling mud
from the annulus. Only a specific part of the contact time should be considered in
calculating slurry volume: when the cement is pumped at high velocity past the
highest point in the annulus where good zonal isolation is needed. Any time spent
displacing at a low rate just before bumping the top plug need not be included. Once
we have an estimate of total slurry volume,we can easily determine our bulk dry
cement requirements and water requirements along with the amounts of additives
needed, by going to service company cementing tables.

Suppose for example, that we have calculated a slurry volume of 1,000 ft. 3 of class 'G
' neat cement for a surface string of 10 3/4" casing in a 14 3/4"
hole. From the cementing tables (Halliburton, 1981) we know that 1 sack of class 'G '
cement yields 1.15 ft3 of slurry, and that this slurry requires 5.0n gal per sack of
cement. Our cement and water requirements, therefore, are 870 sacks and 4,350
gals., respectively.

Depth
The first practical instruments for investigating the effect of pressure on cement
thickening time were developed by R. F. Farris (1946). He indicated that the reduction
in thickening time caused by the increase in pressure from atmospheric to 5000 psi
averages about 35% for all cements. Pressure imposed on a cement slurry by the
hydrostatic load of well fluids also reduces the pumpability of cement. In deep wells,
hydrostatic pressure plus surface pressure during placement can exceed 20,000 psi
(137,900 kPa). Increased pressure seems to alter the forces of the contact surfaces of
the water and cement, which accelerates hydration.

Strength to Support Axial Loads

Laboratory Tests
High axial loads may be imposed on the casing string and/or surrounding cement by
landing and suspension methods and later operations. The cement strength required
to support such axial casing loads has been determined through shear-bond tests (
Figure 1 , Lab test setups to measure casing-cement bonding characteristics).

Figure 1

The axial load which breaks the cement bond was measured and the ability of the
cement to support axial casing loads was found to be proportional to the area of
contact between cement and the casing. Therefore, "support coefficient," "shear
bond," or "sliding resistance," as described by various investigators, is the load
required to break the bond divided by the surface area between cement and pipe.
Based on worst-case results, Bearden and Lane provided a relationship for
determining the support capability of a cement sheath, conservatively utilizing
results for mud-wetted and nondisplaced conditions. Modifying their relationship to
utilize compressive strength (assumed to be 10 times tensile strength), gives the
formula (in conventional oilfield units),
F = 0.969 ScdH (1)
where:
F = force or load to break cement bond, lb
Sc = compressive strength, psi
d = outside diameter of casing, in.

H = height of cement column, ft

For example, for one bonded foot of 7-in. casing, using 500-psi compressive strength
cement,
F = 0.969 x 500 x 7 x 1 = 3390 lb

Required Strength
The load to break the cement bond during hanging and drilling-out operations
normally does not exceed the weight of the casing string (such as surface pipe) plus
miscellaneous loads (such as weight on bit when drilling out the shoe joint).
Therefore, the load capacity noted above (3390 lb/ft [5045 kg/m] of cement column),
provided by the relatively low compressive strength of 500 psi (3450 kPa), should be
more than adequate to handle anticipated axial loads.
Cement composition normally can be formulated to rapidly develop adequate
strength for casing landing loads. This allows drilling operations to proceed with little
or no WOC time.
Also, low-strength filler cements, which are relatively inexpensive and of low density,
and are less likely to induce lost circulation when high cement columns are required,
may have adequate compressive strength to meet axial-load support requirements.

Needs for Zonal Isolation/Hydraulic Bonding

High Strength Needed
Although low-compressive-strength cement may be adequate to handle axial and
rotational casing loads, ultimate high strength may be required for zone isolation and
to support the borehole. Therefore, cement compositions should be selected that
provide both adequate immediate compressive strength for drilling operations and
adequate ultimate strength for production operations.
A comprehensive study of factors governing zone isolation under downhole
conditions would be very complex. Therefore, only qualitative judgments have been
attempted in studies to date, and these usually relate to the hydraulic bond that
indicates adhesion between casing and cement or between cement and formation.
The actual relationship between hydraulic bond measured in the laboratory and
downhole zone isolation has not been reported.

Bonding Tests
Various investigators have measured hydraulic bond. Test arrangements are shown in
Figure 1 (Lab test setups to measure casing-cement bonding characteristics).
Pressure is applied to the exterior surface of the casing, causing the casing to
become smaller in diameter and pull away from the cement, forming a microannulus
that permits leakage. Results of the setup in Figure 1 are shown in Table 1, below.

Type mud

Hydraulic
bond
(psi)

Surface finish

Wetting

Water

New mill-varnished

None

200-250

Varnish removed (chemical)

None

300-400

Varnish removed (sandblast)

None

500-700

150

Varnish removed (sandblast)

Fresh water

100

50

Varnish removed (sandblast)

Invert oil
emulsion

100

50

Varnish removed (sandblast)

Oil base

100

50

Resin-sand coat (new,

sandblast)

None

1,0002,000

450

Resin-sand coat (new,

sandblast)

Fresh water

100

55

Resin-sand coat (new,

sandblast)

Invert oil
emulsion

100

45

Resin-sand coat (new,

sandblast)

Oil base

100

45

Cement: API Class A

Water content: 5.2 gal/sk
Curing temperature: 80 F

Gas

Curing time: 24 hours

Casing size: 2 in. inside 4 in.
Table 1 : Hydraulic bond vs. casing surface and type of fluid wetting.

Surface condition

Surface coating

Hydraulic bond
(psi)

Dry

Mill varnish

< 20

Mud film

Mill varnish

< 20

Dry

Rusty

350-450

Mud film

Rusty

20-50

Dry

Acid-etched

250-400

Mud film

Acid-etched

40-50

Dry

Sandblasted

500-600

Mud film

Sandblasted

50-60

Dry

Epoxy-coated, 6-12
mesh sand

700-950

Mud film

Epoxy-coated, 6-12
mesh sand

500-600

Curing time: 24 hours

Curing temperature:
120 F

Table 2: Effect of mud film on bond strength.

Annular Devices Help
The pressure at which failure of the hydraulic bond occurred in the test can be
increased by:
preventing formation of the microannulus by controlling pressure differential
across the casing as the cement sets, and/or;
attaching seal rings of deformable rubber (similar to those available for field
installation) to the exterior of the casing.
However, zone isolation is routinely obtained in the field at greater differential
pressures than those causing failure in these hydraulic-bond tests. Therefore, such
tests are probably not completely representative of downhole conditions.

Mud wetting and Ruff Cote

Further tests were conducted to more directly measure adhesion between cement
and pipe. These tests showed an advantage to the resin-sand (Ruff Cote) exterior in
the mud-wetted condition, which was not apparent in the previously discussed test
(see Table 2, above). When resin-sand coatings are used downhole, however, their
effectiveness should be increased by removing mud from the casing surface with
preflushes ahead of the cement, and by cement scouring.
Casing with Ruff Cote should be well centralized to avoid the embedment of mudcake
or shale into its roughened surface. This may not be possible in irregular, doglegged,
or high-angle holes, or where mud is poorly conditioned.
One advantage of the resin-sand is that it inhibits formation of a microannulus under
certain pressure and temperature conditions. This appears to be verified by cement
bond logs.

Casing Support in the Borehole

The cement sheath can protect the casing against several types of downhole
damage, including:
deformation by perforating guns;
formation movement, salt flows, etc.;
bottom-joint loss on surface/intermediate strings during drilling.
However, added resistance to casing collapse for design purposes is questionable. In
fault-slippage zones, doglegs, and certain sand-control failures, the cement sheath
may contribute to problems.

Perforating - Expendable versus Carrier Guns

The cement sheath tends to minimize casing damage caused by expendable

perforating charges. Expendable guns of nominal charge for example, throughtubing guns may be used in cemented pipe with little or no danger of serious
casing damage. However, expendable charges may split casing collars that are
unsupported by cement, and expendable gun charges of over 20 g frequently
damage partially supported or unsupported casing.
Figure 2 (Cement sheath affects casing deformation by perforating with expendable
guns ) (top) shows lab tests on casing deformation with 20-g charges and three cases
representing no cement (top curve), 3/4-in.

Figure 2

(1.9-cm) sheath supported by thin steel (middle curve), and a strongly encased
sheath (lower curve). Compressive strength of the cement in the sheath had little
influence on results, as shown in the bottom figure.
Conventional hollow carrier, shaped-charge guns cause only slight casing
deformation and essentially no damage regardless of support, because most forces
from the exploding charges are contained by the carrier body.

Salt Flow

Casing damage can be caused by lateral loads resulting from flow of salt formations.
Salt may flow in various ways, and it may not be economically practical to design
casing for the most severe situations of nonuniform loading possible, such as the
flattening effect illustrated in Figure 3 (No cement or partial sheath results in
eccentric pipe loading )

Figure 3

and Figure 4 (With fault slippage, unconstrained pipe may minimize damage ).

Figure 4

However, when the annulus is completely filled with cement, casing is subject to a
nearly uniform loading approximately equal to the overburden pressure. Although the
modes of failure may differ, casing designs for withstanding salt pressure can be
computed on the same basis as those for withstanding fluid pressure.
Casing failure caused by formation movement along natural or induced fault planes
as opposed to salt flow is best handled by elimination of cement through the
affected interval and perhaps by opening the hole to enable fault slippage to occur
without loading the casing in shear ( Figure 3 and Figure 4 ).
Other downhole conditions, such as borehole doglegs and sand-control failures, also
may cause casing damage similar to the types described above. Knowledge of the
failure mechanism is essential to the selection of the failure-prevention method-i. e..,
cement sheath or no cement sheath.
Adequate cement strength and good cementing and operational practices may be
required to prevent parting or other failure in bottom joints of surface and
intermediate casing strings.
Visual inspection of a joint failure reveals whether the casing is unscrewed or broken.
Unscrewing occurs because of high-level torque impulses transmitted to the casing
by the bit as it hangs up while drilling cement and cementing equipment out of the
bottom joints. It can also be caused later by tool joint torque action on the lowermost
joints as drilling proceeds ahead.

The problem is usually prevented by welding or by using thread-locking compounds

on the connections of the lowermost two or three joints and controlling rotary speed.
Other prudent cementing practices include the following:
Apply standard good practices when cementing: e.g., maximize casing
movement; use high-rate displacement, centralization, and proper washes
and flushes.
Around the shoe, use quality cement with early high-compressive strength.
Use two plugs to prevent mud fill around the shoe joint, and do not
overdisplace even if a top plug is used.
Release pressure to avoid microannulus formation (if this is compatible with
landing methods).
Keep drill pipe out of the hole until the cement has adequate initial set.
Minimum strength for drillout is 500 psi (possibly 1000 psi [6895 kPa]).
A lowered casing design safety factor in collapse (perhaps 0.85 versus 1.125) is
sometimes considered for casing to be used below the cement top, on the
assumption that cement will provide additional support. This is not a valid practice.
According to Cheatham and McEver, cement in the annulus between salt and casing
is compressed by salt pressure, reducing stress transmitted to the casing. However,
this reduction is less than 5% for 8 5/8-in. casing in a 12-in. hole, or about 200 psi
(1380 kPa) for 6000 psi (41,370 kPa) acting on the cement. Furthermore, this load
reduction depends on uniform placement of cement, a condition not normally
achieved.
Other tests suggest that a cement sheath may provide greater collapse-resistance
support for lower-grade casing (H-40, J-55). However, minor radial or longitudinal
discontinuities in the cement sheath eliminate this support.

Stage-Cementing Equipment and Methods

Multiple-stage cementing consists of conventional placement of cement slurry around
the lower portion of a casing string followed by placement of successive upper stages
through ports in a stage or port collar. Although most stage cementing is done in two
stages, additional stages are possible.
Stage cementing may be appropriate:
when a thick interval requires cementing and a weak formation will not
support it
when two or more widely separated intervals must be cemented
in special cases (such as in arctic wells in permafrost) where cement is
placed near surface to help suspend casing

in deep, hot wells, to place faster-setting slurry above retarded compositions

in lower, hotter zones
Various tools allow flexibility and variety of application.
Stage collars are most commonly used. The stage collar contains ports that are
initially isolated by a sliding sleeve. The sleeve can be moved downward to open the
ports and moved up to close them with a special bomb or tripping plug. Figure 1
(application of stage tools - displaced type method )

Figure 1

and Figure 2 (application of stage tools: free fall plug method )shows two types of
collar-opening methods: displaced plugs and free-fall plugs.

Figure 2

Port collars can be opened or closed by mechanical action of an inner string, such as
drillpipe. Two types of port collars are shown schematically in Figure 3 (two types of
port collars opened and closed by pipe
movement ); these are actuated by inner-string rotation or vertical manipulation.

Figure 3

The tools shown in Figure 3 are applicable to specialized jobs such as the placement
of fluids behind pipe for corrosion protection or sand control, or cementing with
treating packers.
Petal-Basket Packer
Mechanical devices are frequently used below stage tools to prevent upper-stage
slurry from dropping through the mud. They may also be used below conventional
shoes where casing is landed above the open hole.
The most common support device is the metal petal basket attached around the
casing exterior. The basket allows vertical fluid movement but opens against the
borehole to prevent downward movement. Strength and sealing ability limit its use to
shallow depths.
A more rugged support device is the solid rubber or inflatable external casing packer.
Typically, this is placed below the cement-outlet port and inflated with mud or
cement prior to the opening of the cementing port
( Figure 4 , External packer supports cement column over a weak zone at shoe or for
stage cementing).

Figure 4

Types of Casing
Conductor
The conductor pipe ( Figure 1 , conductor pipe) is the first string set in the well. It
may be set by the rotary rig drilling the hole, or by a smaller rig (or rathole machine)
before the larger rotary rig is moved in.

Figure 1

This casing string serves as a conduit to raise circulating fluid high enough to return it
to the pit. Conductor casing also supports part of the well load where ground support
is inadequate or where the well is going to be drilled to a great depth.
The purposes of conductor casing are:
to prevent washing out under a rig
to provide elevation for the flowline
to provide support for part of the wellhead
A blowout preventer (BOP) is not usually attached to the conductor casing.
Some characteristics of conductor casing and its placement are as follows:
Casing is usually large: 20 to 30 in. in diameter.
The hole for the casing may be severely eroded.

Casing can be easily pumped out, and is usually tied down.

Setting depth can vary from as little as 20 ft to as much as a few hundred
feet.
The most common pipe and hole sizes are 16-in. pipe in a 20-in. hole, and
20-in. pipe in a 26-in. hole.
Recommended cements for use with conductor casing are:
accelerated neat
ready-mix concrete
thixotropic cement
LCM additives
Typical slurries for conductor-casing application include API Class A, C, G, or H with
2% calcium chloride as the accelerator. Lost-circulation additives such as sand,
gilsonite, and cellophane may be added without significant effect on the slurrythickening time or compressive strength. Where lost circulation is severe, a
thixotropic cement can be used.
The following is a brief summary of conductor-casing cementing practices:
The amount of cement used should be sufficient to provide returns to surface
The casing is often cemented through drillpipe with a sealing sleeve.
When cementing down casing, plugs may not be used; cement is simply
placed.
Large-diameter (30-, 26-, and 20-in.) casing plugs are wooden body plugs. If
bumped on baffle or float, care must be taken in pressuring up to prevent
bypassing the plug with displacement fluid.
The amount of excess cement is usually determined by experience in the
area of interest.
The following factors must be considered in the selection of the correct slurry
composition for a conductor casing:
The set cement must have a compressive strength high enough to support
an appreciable wellhead load; therefore, high-compressive-strength
completion cements are best.
Since the temperature at shallow depth is usually only 80 or 90 F (27 or 32
C), the cement should be accelerated for a shorter thickening time and earlier
compressive-strength development than is possible with neat cement. This
early strength saves rig time and ensures sufficient strength to support
continued drilling operations.

When the cement cannot be circulated back to surface, a top-out slurry is

usually pumped into the annulus through small tubing on top of the primary
cement.

Surface Casing
Surface casing ( Figure 1 , surface casing) is usually the second string of pipe set in
the well. However, when a conductor casing is not set because the well is on firm
ground or will not be drilled to great depth, the surface pipe is the first string set.

Figure 1

The purpose of surface casing is to

protect freshwater sands, particularly underground sources of drinking water
case unconsolidated formations
provide primary pressure control (BOP is usually nippled up on surface
casing)

support future casings

case-off potential lost-circulation zones
The casing head and other fittings used for completing the well are attached later.
Some characteristics of surface casing and its application are as follows:
Casing sizes normally range from 7 5/8 in. on shallow wells to 20 in. on deep,
multistring wells.
The hole in which it is set may be severely eroded.
Shallow strings can be easily pumped out.
Drilling muds are often viscous, with little water-loss control.
Casing may stick easily in unconsolidated formations.
Loss of circulation may be a problem.
Most areas require that cement be circulated.
A guide shoe (or float shoe), float collar, scratchers, and centralizers are
commonly used.
Casing may be set from a few hundred feet to several thousand feet; the
depth depends on the proposed total well depth, the competency of shallow
formations encountered, and state regulations regarding protection of
freshwater zones.
Recommended Cements
Shallow surface casing is cemented in the same manner as conductor casing.
Completion cements with accelerated thickening times and compressive strengths
are used. Top-out slurries are used on surface jobs when cement is not circulated
back to surface.
For deeper strings of surface casing, a lightweight lead cement is used, followed by
heavier-weight completion cement. Sometimes, when zones are penetrated by long
surface casings, a lightweight lead cement may help keep these formations from
breaking down under the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a long column of cement.
The bottom of the surface casing around the shoe is cemented with the high-strength
completion cement.
This creates a strong seal with the pipe and formation for solid support of the casing.
There is a cost advantage to using a high-yield completion slurry to cement the entire
string. When the well is shallow and a significant load is to be placed on the wellhead,

a densified filler slurry can be used to cement the entire casing. Omission of the tailin slurry is not economically advantageous.
Recommended cement types include:
The amount of cement used should be sufficient to provide returns to
surface. This is a regulatory requirement in many locations.
filler cements (with a high water content) followed by neat or high-strength
tail-in
accelerated cements
LCM additives
high-strength cements, which are often used on deep-well surface casing to
support future strings
The following is a brief summary of surface-casing cementing practices:
Large-diameter strings are often cemented through drillpipe with a sealing
sleeve.
Both bottom and top plugs should be used to prevent mud contamination.
The bottom joints and thread lock should be centralized to prevent backing
off during drilling.
Regulator rules usually require WOC of 8 hours, or 500 psi minimum
compressive strength.
During displacement with mud, a float collar placed two joints above the guide shoe
helps prevent mud from contaminating the cement around the shoe joint. Scratchers
and centralizers are the final consideration of casing equipment. Scratchers are
sometimes used to help clean the mud from the formation face. Centralizers center
the casing in the hole to help place the cement completely around the pipe.
A top and a bottom plug should be used to wipe the pipe clean ahead of the cement
when mud is the drilling fluid. If only a top plug is used, the mud wiped off the casing
builds up behind the cement and contaminates the cement around the shoe.

Intermediate Casing
The intermediate casing ( Figure 1 .,intermediate casing) is the first string of pipe set
after the surface casing.

Figure 1

It is sometimes called the protection casing. Intermediate casing strings extend from
the surface to a formation able to hold the mud weights expected at greater depth.
This depth can vary by several thousand feet in a single-stage job. When a second
intermediate string is set, the casing is run to just below the weak zone to a
competent formation and is cemented at that point.
The purpose of intermediate casing is to
separate the hole into workable increments for drilling
case-off lost-circulation zones, water flows, etc.
isolate salt sections
protect the open hole from increases in mud weight
prevent flow from high-pressure zones if mud weight must be reduced
control pressure; the BOP is always installed
support subsequent casings

Some characteristics of intermediate casing and its application are the

following:
Pipe and hole sizes are determined largely by the number of casing strings to
be run below the intermediate string.
Casing sizes range from 6 5/8 in. to 20 in. Most common are 9 5/8 in. 10 3/4
in., and 13 3/8 in.
Some sections particularly salt sections may erode severely.
Strings may be very heavy and set on bottom.
Both extremely weak zones and high-pressure zones are covered by
intermediate strings.
Cement volume is dictated by wellbore condition.
A guide shoe (or float shoe) and float collar are commonly used.
Cement volumes are usually largest in the well.
Intermediate casing is often cemented in stages.
Prolonged drilling may be done through this casing, and damage is common.
Completion may be made in intermediate casing.
Recommended Cements
Because of the large volume of cement required, and the types of formation to be
covered, both filler and composition cements are used to cement most intermediate
casing. Sometimes, as many as three different slurries are needed. Formationfracture gradients, lost-circulation zones, formation temperatures, possible future
producing zones, and well depth determine the number and types of slurries to use.
The slurry requirements for a single-stage cementing job are similar to those for a
long surface job. The filler slurry needs to be light enough not to break down the
weaker formations. The completion slurry needs to have enough strength to hold the
pipe and provide a good seal between the pipe and the formation.
The bottom of the pipe is cemented (usually at 100 to 3000 ft) in a single-stage
intermediate job because of cost considerations, or because the uncemented
sections of casing may be reclaimed from the well later and reused. In the latter
case, only a high-strength completion slurry with a retarder is needed. Retarders
ensure sufficient pumping time to get the slurries in place, and also impart some
friction-reducing properties to the slurry.
Unlike the conductor and surface casings, additives such as friction reducers, fluidloss additives, and retarders are required for intermediate slurries. Where the annulus

is small, friction reducers lower pump pressures and reduce the chance of losing
fluids in a lost-circulation zone. Fluid-loss additives prevent slurry loss into lostcirculation zones and dehydration in the annulus caused by permeable zones, and
also give better bonding results.
The following is a brief summary of intermediate-casing cementing practices:
Both bottom and top plugs should be used to minimize contamination of the
cement.
Stage tools are used occasionally in cementing long strings of pipe where
there is risk of breaking down a weak formation.
The number of slurries required may be determined by possible production,
weak zones, and wellbore temperatures.
Scratchers, centralizers, and flushes can be important in the successful
completion of an intermediate-casing cementing job.

Production Casing
The production casing ( Figure 1 , production casing) is the last full string of pipe set
in the well, and extends to the surface.

Figure 1

Production tubing, downhole pumps, and other equipment needed for the production
of oil and gas are housed in this casing. The production-casing cement must give a
pressure-tight seal between the formations and the production casing. It is essential
to isolate the reservoir from fluids both within the producing zone itself and from
other zones penetrated by the wellbore. These fluids (e.g., oil, water, gas) can create
emulsions, scale deposits, paraffin deposits, severe corrosion, and a decline in
production. Besides primary producing operations, remedial workover jobs such as
squeezes or chemical treatments are also run through the production string.
The purpose of production casing is to
complete the well for production
effect zonal isolation
protect pay zones from unwanted fluids
provide pressure control
cover worn or damaged intermediate casing
Since the production casing may extend from total depth to surface, the setting
depth can vary from a few thousand feet to as much as 14,000 ft (4270 m). Below
14,000 ft, liners may be set to reduce cost and because less pipe weight is needed.
The size of the casing depends on the number of strings of production tubing to be
run into the well and the size of production equipment used.
The following are some characteristics of production casing and its application:
Common casing sizes are 4 1/2 in., 5 1/2 in., and 7 in.
Drilling mud is usually in good condition.
The cement job is usually not circulated, but cemented back to intermediate
casing depth.
A good cement job is vital to a successful completion.
To achieve a pressure-tight seal and protect the reservoir, special consideration must
be given to the production-casing cement properties. As with intermediate casing and
long surface pipe, both filler and completion cement are usually employed. The filler
cement needs good fluid-loss control. It must have enough compressive strength to
protect upper, potentially productive zones which might be completed in the future.
The completion slurry needs to have good fluid control and sufficient compressive
strength to hold the weight of the pipe and to bond the formation to the pipe. The
setting times of both slurries should be minimized to help prevent cement
contamination from formation fluids and formation contamination by cement filtrate.

Recommended types of cement are

filler cements with high-strength tail-in
low-water-ratio cements (for all potential pay zones)
densified cements (for high competency and pressure control)
fluid-loss control additives
Summary of Production Casing
Batch mixing or continuous batch mixing is recommended for all large or critical jobs.
Since the production string affects the success of the well more than any other
casing, a good job may mean the difference between success and failure of the well.
Efficient removal of the mud is essential. Spacers or flushes may be used to remove
mud and to water-wet the pipe and formation face for good cement bonding. Usually
casing reciprocation or rotation is used. A float shoe and float collar, centralizers,
scratchers, and pipe movement should be used.

Liner Cementing
A liner is a string of casing that does not extend up to the wellhead. It is used to
case-off the open hole below an existing casing string.
Several types of liners may be categorized by their function:
Drilling liners permit deeper drilling operations by isolating lost circulation or
highly pressured intervals and controlling sloughing or plastic formation. In
lieu of full-length casing, the drilling liner improves drilling hydraulics, i.e., the
greater cross section above the liner top enables the use of larger drillpipe
and/or reduces annular pressure drop.
Production liners provide isolation and support functions when casing has
been landed above the producing interval.
A tie-back stub liner extends from the top of a liner to a point uphole, inside
another string of casing or liner. The stub liner is used to cover damaged or
worn casing above an existing liner, and to provide added protection against
corrosion and/or pressure.
Tie-back casing extends a liner to the wellhead. It is used primarily for the
same purposes as the tie-back liner. Running such a string at the end of a
drilling operation ensures that the completion will be run in unworn casing.
Figure 1 (Example of deep-well tubulars, liner/tieback application ) shows the tubular
program of a modern deep well using two liners and tie-back casing.

Figure 1

Cementing Procedures
Cementing procedure is illustrated in Figure 2 ,

Figure 2

Figure 3 ,

Figure 3

Figure 4 , and Figure 5 (Typical liner cement procedure).

Figure 4

With the liner hung in the casing but still attached to the drillpipe, slurry is pumped
into the drillpipe without a bottom wiper plug.

Figure 5

The cement is followed by a drillpipe wiper plug that latches into a liner wiper plug,
positioned below the liner hanger. The combination plug then wipes the liner clean
and finally latches into a landing collar to complete slurry placement.
The following are important details in cementing procedure:
With the liner in position, mud is circulated to ensure that the liner and the
float equipment are free of any foreign material, and to condition the mud. A
clean mud system is important so that materials will not fall out on top of the
liner-running assembly during the cement job.
The cement can be batch-mixed, circulated through a holding tank or ribbon
blender, and/or double-pumped to obtain the desired cement-slurry
properties.
Cement slurry should be pumped in turbulent flow, or as fast as possible,
refer to the heading titled "Fluid Flow Properties and Mud Displacement". Such
flow minimizes excess cement-volume requirements. Most operators prefer to
limit excess cement volume, which, of course, is pumped into the
drillpipecasing annulus. It is usually desirable to pump some type of spacer
fluid (buffer) ahead of the cement.
If no bottom plug is used, the drillpipe and liner plugs wipe mud film off the
ID of the drillpipe and liner. This mud collects below the plugs and can
contaminate cement in the bottom of the liner. Spacing between landing collar

and float shoe should be adequate to keep contaminated cement out of the
liner-openhole annulus.
With cement in place, it is standard procedure to pull the liner-setting
assembly out of the liner hanger. With the tailpipe of the liner-setting
assembly above the liner top, excess cement can be reversed out. However,
reverse circulation places an extra pressure on the annulus that must be
controlled to prevent formation breakdown. A liner packer keeps reversecirculation pressures off the formation.
One method is to pull the drillpipe all the way out of the hole and leave
cement inside the casing to be drilled out. WOC time depends on cement
composition and hole conditions.

Liner-Cementing Equipment
A liner is usually run on drillpipe that extends from the liner-setting tool to surface.
Special tools perform various running, setting, and cementing operations ( Figure 1 ,
Typical equipment used to install and cement liners).

Figure 1

Shoes/Collars
A float shoe placed at the bottom of the liner contains a check valve designed to
prevent backflow of the cement. A float collar can be run above the shoe to provide a
back-up check valve. Automatic fill-up-type float equipment may be selected, but it is
rarely run on liners.
A landing collar is usually run one joint above the float collar or two or more joints
above the float shoe to provide space for mud-contaminated cement inside the liner.
The collar's function is to latch and seal the liner wiper plug. It prevents the liner
wiper plug from moving uphole if a check valve fails, and prevents it from rotating,
which aids drillout.
Liner wiper plugs can be attached to the end of the tailpipe or slick joint with a shearpin arrangement. The selection of the proper shear rating is very important in the
prevention of premature shearing and release of the liner wiper plug.
The liner wiper plug can also be latched to the tailpipe to prevent premature
shearing. Release of this type can only be effected by engagement of the drillpipe
water plug.
Hangers and Setting Tools
The liner hanger is installed at the top of the liner. Hangers are usually classified by
the method used to wedge slips against the casing wall; two such classifications are
mechanical and hydraulic.
The presence of slips between liner and casing reduces the bypass area for
circulating. This reduced area can create high-pressure loss during circulation and
cementing. Hangers are available with multiple split slips that increase bypass area
and provide increased slip-contact area.
The liner-setting tool, a rental item furnished by the liner service company, provides
the connection between drillpipe and liner. Swab cups attached to tailpipe, or a
packoff bushing and slick joint, are inserted into the liner to provide a seal between
setting tool and liner.
Once the liner is hung, the setting tool can be released and picked up a short
distance to confirm, by indicator weight loss, that the setting tool has separated. A
new retrievable packoff bushing eliminates bushing drillout.
Liner packers can be installed at the top of liners to seal between liner and casing,
after cement placement. Seal elements may be rubber or lead, or a combination of
the two. They may be run as an integral part of the liner hanger and set by
manipulation of the liner-running tool. However, this type of packer should be
considered only if clearance is such that the hole can be circulated at desired rates
without increasing back-pressure excessively.

Special packers can be set in conjunction with a tie-back sleeve after cementing and
cleanout operations have been completed. These packers seal both in the tie-back
sleeve and against the suspending casing.
External casing packers have been used on liners to isolate between zones in open
hole. They are inflated following cement displacement before the cements set up to
provide more effective zone isolation.
Setting on Bottom
Except in unusual cases where buckling is not expected or can be prevented through
centralization, liners to be cemented should be suspended from slips set in existing
casing, or the drilling liner. However, equipment is available for the special
application in which liners are cemented and set on bottom.
A special float shoe can be run on the bottom of the liner with an extra internal lefthand thread. First the liner is run into the well and hung from surface slips. Then the
cementing string is run and engaged into the thread at the shoe. The liner is run to
bottom on the cementing string, and the cement job is completed. The inner string is
disconnected from the shoe by rotating to the right.

Typical Problems in Deep, Hot Wells

Liner cementing is a major problem in deep wells for the following reasons:
Tight Holes. As seen in Table 1 (below), liner-to-borehole clearances can be
very small. This is a highly undesirable situation that frequently results from
poor planning, misguided economics in selecting well tubular/bit programs, or
unforeseen downhole conditions.
Small clearances require flush joint liners that approach drill-collar size. Key
seats and collar-worn grooves cause differential sticking and prevent effective
mud removal by cement
Liners, in.

Hole, in.

Casing, in.

Cement
sheath
thickness,
in.

9 5/8

10 5/8

11 3/4

1/2

7 3/4

9 1/2

10 3/4

7/8

7 5/8

9 1/2

10 3/4

15/16

7 3/4

8 1/2

9 5/8

3/8

7 5/8

8 1/2

9 5/8

13/16

5 1/2

6 1/2

7 5/8

1/2

6 1/2

7 5/8

3/4

6 1/8

9/16

4 1/2

6 1/8

13/16

3 1/2

4 3/4

5/8

Table 1: Typical liner/casing and hole size combination.

Long Intervals, Mud Cake. In West Texas, liner lengths may be 2500 to
11,000 ft (762 to 3350 m); they average 8000 ft (2440 m). High temperature
and prolonged exposure causes mud to gel excessively.
Shale instability in long geopressured sections causes hole irregularities. Mud
is difficult to remove from enlarged sections.
Temperature Differential Top to Bottom. As shown in Figure 1 (Long West
Texas drilling liner has high temperature differential over its length), static
geothermal temperature may vary as much as 1200 F over the length of a
long liner.

Figure 1

Cement composition and setup time must be compatible with this gradient.
Yet, circulating temperatures may be radically different, actually causing
maximum temperatures to occur perhaps 2000 ft (610 m) uphole for nearly an
hour after circulating.

Gas Cutting, Liner Top Leakage. Premature cement setup uphole by high
temperature or filtrate leakoff to long permeable zones can reduce hydrostatic
pressure and allow gas to permeate the partially cured column. The resulting
channels are too small to effectively squeeze cement, but they continue to
channel gas to liner tops. Two compositions that minimize problems are (1)
fluid-loss additive spotted across upper zones and (2) retarder that keeps
slurry fluid, then sets up rapidly, rather than thickening gradually. Special
compressible cement that maintains its volume during setting to prevent gas
leakage and thixotropic cementing compositions are also available.

Special Primary Cementing Methods

Inner-String Cementing
Cementing large-diameter casing requires some special considerations. Such casing
is subject to being pumped out of the hole. This occurs when pump or hydrostatic
pressure acting on the cementing-head area and on the bottom of the hole through
the shoe opening provides an upward force exceeding the buoyed weight of the
casing. Pressure increase on bumping a plug is, of course, offset, and does not
contribute to the problem.
Large casing can also be floated out of the hole if the weight of the casing and the
mud in the pipe do not exceed the buoyancy provided by the annular column of
cement. The possibility of casing collapse must also be considered. Heavy mud may
be required to prevent these occurrences.
Inner-string or stab-in cementing is now a fairly common practice for large-diameter
casing. The string is cemented through drillpipe stuck into a special sealing sleeve in
the shoe ( Figure 1 , stab-in cementing technique for large-diameter casing).

Figure 1

Small-diameter plugs can be used. The drillpipe can be raised from the seal and the
excess cement reversed back.
In geothermal wells where no voids can be tolerated outside the casing because of
later heating and boiling problems, slurry can be continuously pumped until good
circulation to surface is established. Conventional methods, conversely, pump a
calculated volume that is difficult to determine in surface holes without the use of
caliper logs.
Various adaptations are possible using cup packers, etc. with stab-in methods. Port
collars can be opened or closed, and external packers can be inflated to permit stage
cementing of long, large-diameter pipe.

External Cement-Filled Packer

Extra-long (20- or 40-ft) elastomer-sheath covered inflatable packers can be run as
part of the casing string. One packer (or more) is landed across the productive zone
to be perforated and the primary job is completed conventionally.

When initial slurry displacement is complete and the top plug is bumped, increased
pressure opens shear-pin controlled valves in the packers and additional cement is
pumped into the packer elements to expand them tightly against the borehole wall.
Inflation cement is pumped down the casing between the first top wiper plug and a
second top wiper plug.
After curing, the cement-filled packer and the casing joint mandrel on which it is run
are perforated by conventional methods. Inflation cement transport and the
completed production system are illustrated in Figure 1 (Inflatable external cementfilled packers during running and after perforating ).

Figure 1

Two cement-filled packers can be used effectively to straddle a productive interval for
zone isolation.
External cement-filled packers offer several advantages in primary cementing:
Complete mud channel removal is ensured by the application of high internal
pressure to the end-reinforced element, to squeeze mud from the rubberformation interface.

A quality pipe/cement bond is ensured by the use of uncontaminated

cement, mud-free pipe, and pressure setting. Interzonal flow and the need for
squeezing may be eliminated.
Producing zones are supported by the pressure-set cement and will not
dilate or flow when fluid inflow causes a pressure differential.
Without conventional slurry circulation first, cement may be placed solely in
the packers, and thus not contact water-sensitive zones.
System limitations include the following:
Long elastomer-covered packers are durable in properly conditioned holes
but are inherently sensitive to restricted-clearance holes and problem holes
with casing burrs, broken centralizer pieces, nontapered liner shoulders, etc.
Reliable supply and pumping methods are required to prevent long delays or
job interruptions that may complicate inflation-procedure control after
protective knock-off plugs are removed by the bottom wiper plug.
ECD completions may prove less flexible for long-term production
adjustments than conventionally cemented wells.

Factors That Affect Primary Cementing

Hole Conditions
Sloughing
In many cases, this is the reason for setting an intermediate casing. Sloughing can
create several cementing problems: bridging the annulus, sticking the casing, and
increasing the annular hydrostatic pressure.
Drill pipe Drag
The cause and location of the drag could be very significant. Drag may indicate the
need for centralized casing or fluid-loss control cements.
Low-Pressure Zone
One of the most persistent problems is an incompetent formation that will not
support effective columns of cements. This most commonly occurs in intervals
covered by surface and intermediate casing.
Mud Condition
A well-conditioned mud greatly increases the mud-removal capability of flushes and
cement slurries.
Fluid Movement

Zone isolation fails any time fluid movement is allowed to occur in a cement slurry
before it is completely set. If the cement moves during the hardening process, it will
not set properly.
Formation Movement
The most common formation movement occurs with salt intrusions.

Mud-Contamination Effects
The possibility of mixing cement and mud always exists during pumping and
displacement. Such contamination can result in
accelerated or retarded thickening times
reduced compressive strength
reduced bond strength
increased filtrate loss (higher than in either mud or cement)
severe thickening (with oil-base mud)
Table 1 (below) shows typical mud additives and their effects on cement.
Inorganic chemicals have an erratic effect on oilwell cements, but generally tend to
accelerate thickening times. Organic chemicals generally retard, and may completely
inhibit thickening in some instances.
Severe thickening occurs with oil muds in cement mixing because these muds are
thickened by water-wet solids that are readily available in the high-solids-content
cement. The problem is most serious when mud and cement slurry densities are high.
Also, oil-emulsion muds often contain calcium chloride in the water phase, which can
accelerate setting.

Additive

Purpose

Effect on cement

Barium sulfate (BsSo4)

Weighing agent

Increases density
Reduces strength

Caustic (NaOH, Na2Co3, etc.

pH adjustment

Acceleration

Calcium compounds

Conditioning

Acceleration

CaO, Ca(OH)2, CaCl2,

CaSO4 and 2H2O

pH control

Hydrocarbons (diesel oil,

Fluid-loss control,

lease crude oil)

lubrication

Decreases density

Sealants (scrap, cellulose,

rubber, etc.)

Seal against leakage to

formation

Retardation

Thinners, (tannins,
lignosulfonates,quebracho,
lignins, etc

Disperse mud solids

Retardation

Emulsifiers lingnosulfonates,
alkyl ethylene oxide adducts
hydrocarbon sulfonates)

Form oil-in-water or
water-in-oil muds

Retardation

Bactericides (substituted
phenols, formaldehyde, etc.)

Protect organic additives

against bacterial
decomposition

Retardation

Fluid -loss control additives,

CMC,starch, guar,
Ployacrylamides
Lignosulfonate

Reduce fluid loss from

mud to formation

Retardation

Table 1: Effects of mud additives on cement.

Mud-Contamination Prevention
To prevent mud/slurry problems, it is best to minimize contact. The bottom wiper plug
prevents contamination in the casing, and a spacer fluid reduces cement/mud
contact in the annulus.
Two bottom plugs may be required one preceding, and one behind the spacer fluid
to prevent mud/cement contact if contamination is likely to create serious
problems, and the spacer fluid does not by itself strip the mud film from the casing
bore.
A single bottom plug, ahead of the cement, removes the film and accumulated mud
ahead of the plug and behind the spacer fluid. This accumulated mud can then
contaminate the cement ( Figure 1.

Figure 1.

, The lack of bottom wiper cases mud accumulation below top plug).
A variety of spacer or preflush fluids are available, including water, brine, solutions of
acid phosphates, diesel oil (weighted or unweighted), oil-base fluids, and emulsions
(oil in water, water in oil).
Compatibility of both spacer and mud, and spacer and cement should be verified on
every cement job. Selection of the amount and type of spacer depends on the type of
mud and on potential reaction problems between the cement and the mud.
A water flush, normally in turbulent flow, may aid mud-displacement efficiency. Salt
water has less tendency to cause shales to swell or slough. However, fresh water, salt
water, or fluids containing dispersing surfactant should not immediately precede a
high-density cement slurry; this can cause thinning and weight material settling

Casing
The following are general rules for casing preparation and application:
Tally all pipe; count, number, and rabbit (gauge) all casing joints on the pipe
rack.
Check all casing threads for cleanliness and damage. Additionally, check the
threads on all crossover equipment for proper thread type and cleanliness.

Identify all joints by weight and thread type, and place them in proper order
for running into the hole.
Landing joints should be spaced out so the cementing head can be installed
from the stabbing board or rig floor after the casing is landed.

Floating Equipment
The floating equipment (float collars and float or guide shoes) must be on location
and in good working condition. Check operational features if differential floating
equipment is used. Measure and prepare stage and floating cementing equipment
separately. Use thread-locking compound or tack weld (if necessary) on all field
makeup connections between the floating equipment, plus one or two joints above.

Running Casing
The following are general rules for running casing:
Use of a movable stabbing board can minimize downtime.
A safety valve is advised for long production casing strings or suitable
pressure rating.
Control running speed of casing to prevent fracturing and lost circulation.

Circulating Time
The importance of circulation before cementing is recognized by all operators, but
there are considerable differences of opinion regarding optimum circulating time.
Many believe that because the number of variables affecting the success or failure of
a cement job is so great, it does not seem possible to correlate the degree of success
with the amount of time spent in precementing circulation.
The following are circulation guidelines:
Condition the drilling mud with good rates up to anticipated cementing rates.
High circulation rates remove gel led mud that develops during static periods
because of temperature and fluid loss.
Begin pipe movement and mud conditioning immediately after the casing is
on bottom.
Apply scratching technique when wall cake and cuttings in the mud returns
have either virtually stopped or declined rapidly in volume.
The casing moves at the start of circulation and continues throughout the
circulation period. With reciprocating scratchers, the pipe is commonly moved
through a 20-ft stroke, with a 2-min interval for the cycle. If rotating scratchers

are used, the pipe is rotated as slowly as possible, usually between 10 and 20
rpm.

Cementing Composition, Volume, and Slurry Weight

In primary cementing, the cement slurry should have a viscosity that will give the
most efficient mud displacement and still permit a good bond between the formation
and the pipe. The following are some cementing guidelines.
Determine the maximum allowable downhole density to prevent fracturing.
The density of cement should be at least 1 lb/gal (preferably 2 or 3 lb/gal)
heavier than the drilling mud.
Design fluid loss using differential pressure of 1000 psi. To prevent gas
channeling, design on 20 cc/30 min or less.
Design cement slurry to be displaced in turbulent flow for a minimum of 10
to 20 min contact time at the top of the pay zone, if possible.
For slurries to be placed across salt formations, use saturated sodium
chloride.
Use 35% silica at static temperatures above 230 F (110 C).
Control free water to 1% or less for normal slurries. To prevent gas
channeling, control free water to zero.
Determine cement-slurry thickening time at bottomhole cementing
temperature and pressure. Minimum thickening time should be job time plus
one hour of thickening time to a consistency of 50 Bc. (Bearden Units of slurry
consistency are dimensionless units formerly called "poises.") Minimum
thickening time is the time required to mix the slurry, and pump it down the
hole and up the annulus behind the pipe.

Important Tips
Use top and bottom wiper plugs, and inspect the plugs before loading. The bottom
(hollow) plug is loaded first, then the top (solid) plug. Do not slit the diaphragm of the
bottom plug with a knife before loading.
Use a two-plug cementing head:
Displace the top plug out of the cementing head without shutting down
operations. Do not open the cementing head to drop the top plug or a vacuum
will be created and the well will take in air.
Pump preflush or spacer ahead of the bottom plug. If you use two bottom
plugs, put the first bottom plug in first, then the preflush or spacer, and then
place the second bottom plug just before the cement.

Before mixing, check calibration of all density devices with fresh water for
proper calibration.
Hook up bulk tanks to the cement mixer. The rate of delivery of cement to
mixer should be sufficient to maintain pump rate in the annulus at the design
rate.
Batch mix all cement slurries by using a ribbon or batch blender. This
operation is extremely important for good control of slurry properties.
A bottom plug is not recommended for use with slurry containing large amounts of
lost-circulation material or with badly rusted or scaled casing. Such material may
collect on the ruptured diaphragm, bridge the casing, and thus prevent total
displacement.

Personnel
The supervisor and the person on the pump throttle should understand the
importance of the pumping rate to the success of a job. They both need to know:
why variations in cement density should be held to close limits
control parameters, so they will not be easily satisfied with less control
how to change over from pumping to displacement in 15 seconds, rather
than 2 minutes
Maintain a log of operations that includes time, density measurements, mixing rate
and displacement rate, wellhead pressure, operation in progress, volume of fluid
pumped, etc. Record pump speed (strokes per minute) and total strokes. Insist on a
properly operating pressure-recording chart from the operator.
Make sure that all service personnel involved are given ample notice of
commencement of casing operations, so they can be available and rigged up before
this time.
For the following items, prepare and record data on the appropriate company casing
cementing report as required:
Determine the elapsed time and volume or strokes required for the cement
slurry to leave the casing shoe after the start of displacement; to reach the
pressure equalization point after the start of displacement; and to displace the
top plug to bump float. Note that when a stage-cementing collar is used, the
above calculations should be made for both phases of the cementing
operation.
Determine the theoretical weight of the casing in 1000-ft intervals. When
differential fillup equipment is used, use all available literature regarding
percent fillup and record the weight at 1000-ft (305-m) intervals during casing
descent.

Determine the number of barrels or pump strokes needed to displace the

pipe after the casing is landed and to circulate one full hole volume, and the
number of barrels of mud required to displace the cement.
Estimate the rate of cement mixing and displacement, plus annular
velocities.